World History Exam 1
England - Rule of Elizabeth I
"Good Queen Bess" - parents: Henry VIII & Anne Boleyn a. became queen at age 25 - generally worked well with Parliament - was pragmatic b. brought religious peace via the Elizabethan Settlement - but not enough reform for Puritans c. enduring pressure, she never married (close c. 3 times) - thus upon her death left no direct heir
France - Rule of Henry IV
the Bourbon dynasty included: Henry IV, Louis XIII, Louis XIV a. Henry ended the French Wars of Religion (ran from 1562-98) by signing the Edict of Nantes b. edict allowed RC to remain the state church but granted religious toleration/freedom for Huguenots
rise of Brandenburg-Prussia
(Brandenburg is the nucleus of the Prussian kingdom) highly important - after gaining Great Power status, it became the nucleus of a modern, united Germany
FR Navy Defeated at Trafalgar by GB Admiral Nelson
(mortally hit) - he crossed the "T" a. Napoleon's aim to invade GB was thwarted - combined SP/FR navy beaten at Trafalgar (off SP coast) b. Nelson secured GB naval supremacy for c. next 100 years - "England expects that every man will do his duty" c. unable to invade GB, Napoleon will try to bring down the "nation of shopkeepers" economically d. the Continental System would bar countries under FR control from buying GB goods - it failed due to smuggling & continental damage (EU dependent upon GB imports) - some Europeans disregarded it
India
(specifically Bengal: located in E. India/Bangladesh) FR again battled GB - Britain is victorious 2. it decided the fate of India by establishing British dominance in Bengal & the Carnatic (SE India)
Encyclopedia
- 18th century encyclopedia associated with Denis Diderot & Jean d' Alembert
Europe - Charles abdicates - [note: he is Charles I. (1st of Spain) & Charles V. (5th of HRE)]
- he was unsuccessful in the German religious wars - ultimately, the Habsburg Empire was divided: a. Austrian Habsburgs - his brother Ferdinand I - received the HRE crown & E. Habsburg lands b. Spanish Habsburgs - his son Philip II - received the rest of the empire (SP, NL, New World)
Aftermath & unintended consequences:
1. "victory" now required additional British troops to guard the North American territories it gained 2. Great Britain had protected the colonists from the FR & was still protecting them from the Indians 3. the war drained the British treasury c. after the war: British population would number c. 8 million - American colonists c. 2 million d. Englishmen paid on average perhaps one-third (33%) of their income in taxes e. many American colonists normally rendered no more than 5% of their income in taxes f. taxes to replenish the treasury would incite Am. colonists to rebel & eventually create the US
Louis the XIV "absolute" mistakes
1. Financial - by the late 17th century, taxes rose intolerably (paid largely by peasants) large war expenses & the excessive cost of Versailles (upkeep a $ burden) emptied the treasury 2. Social - for the great majority of French people, Absolutism meant a decline in living standards moreover, a significant increase in mortality rates - could be termed the misery of the 95% 3. Political - revocation of Edict of Nantes in 1685 - religious orthodoxy strictly imposed c. 300K Protestants left FR (to ENG, NL, Switz., N. Am.) - and with them went valuable skills-
The 1763 Peace of Paris ended the Seven Years'/French & Indian Wars - main results/consequences:
1. Prussia: gained international prestige - considered a major European power - it beat AT & FR 2. France: a. largely expelled from: N. America, FR Canada, territories E. of the MS River (except New Orleans) 3. Britain: a. secured colonies of the N. AM. eastern seaboard; much of Canada; sections of India
Louis the XIV emergence of Absolutism in EU
1. all power concentrated in the hands of the ruler - no constitution or legislature 2. in theory, there were no limits on the ruler's power - "responsible to God alone 5. in reality: Absolutism was more of a trend - not always a fully accomplished fact
Louis the XIV was the epitome of Absolutism - supposedly said: "I am the state"
1. became known as the "Sun" King - the sun was a symbol of power, Louis chose it as his symbol
Church (1st Estate) - French Catholic Church possessed power & privileges
1. comprised c. 1% of the population - attitude differences between upper clergy & parish priests 2. owned c. 10% of the land - which brought in an immense revenue - but paid no direct taxes
Nobles (2nd Estate) - these individuals (nobility) held the highest positions in the army & government
1. comprised c. 2% of the population - all nobles were not equal, gradations of dignity 2. owned c. 25-33% of the land - collected manorial dues from peasants 3. they were exempt from most taxes - or used their influence to evade taxes
John Locke - English political philosopher
1. he argued that the authority of rulers has a human origin (consent of the people) & is limited 3. believed that at birth the mind is blank - a clean slate or tabula rasa a. people were not, as Christianity taught, inherently sinful - no original sin or defective nature b. a person's environment was the decisive force in shaping that person's character & intelligence
The underlying causes (the effects within any particular estate could differ):
1. poor administration - no single law code - the administration of justice was: slow, arbitrary, unfair 2. inefficient & unjust tax system - tax revenues came chiefly from peasants 3. the financial crisis could have been solved if the clergy, nobility, & bourgeoisie paid their fair share 6. philosophic ideas about the rights of man - the experience of the American Revolution
Adam Smith - An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
1. the centerpiece of Smith's massive 1776 study was the doctrine of laissez faire (to let do) 2. leave the market to its own devices - maintained that govts. should let the economy run on its own 3. applied: the value of labor is in turn determined by market forces - by supply and demand 4. his thoughts represent the essence of capitalism and a challenge to the mercantilist approach
Enlightenment outlook on life:
1. what Christians saw as the effects of sin in a fallen world, Enlightenment thinkers saw as the corruption of naturally good people by history, poor education, & faulty institutions 2. Enlightenment thinkers believed in progress - optimistic about the future because of their faith in the perfectibility of humanity - people using reason could correct faulty institutions, create utopia 3. Enlightenment based its optimism on the illusion that humans are good - history shows otherwise
Louis the XIV emergence of Mercantilism
17th century economic belief - aspects & elements: 1. mercantilism (policy elements) embraced by Jean Colbert - FR Finance Minister for Louis XIV 2. the nation is viewed as the economic player, not individuals - a goal: increase national wealth 3. state regulation of industry & commerce is necessary 4. mercantilists believed in a finite amount of world wealth - a nation grows rich at another's expense 5. "Bullionism" a basic principle - increase precious metals (bullion) within a country 6. achieved through: a "favorable balance of trade" (def: value of exports exceeds value of imports) 7. Mercantilism encouraged Colonialism (colonization): in general: the colony furnishes raw materials & the "mother" country produces finished goods
Napoleonic warfare
1812 at its height c. 44 million subjects ruled directly or via proxy
Russia - Rule of Ivan IV, "The Terrible"
1st Russian Czar (emperor) - mentally unstable a. sought to impose a czarist autocracy (unlimited authority) - curbed the power of the Boyars (nobles)
aspects of Prussian life - Prussia was ambitious and the most militaristic state in Europe
2. Prussian bureaucracy was entirely military (at the heart of the state stood the military elite)
Voltaire - often called the "Father of the Enlightenment"
2. his writings constituted an attack on several aspects of 18th century French society (anti-clerical)
Montesquieu - a critic of royal absolutism, but not an advocate of democracy
2. proposed a balanced system of government, with an executive branch offset by a legislature (separation of powers) whose members were drawn from the landed & educated elements of society
Jean Jacques Rousseau - "Man is born free; & everywhere he is in chains"
3. government is a necessary evil - the best thing a society can do is govern by its general will (def: that which is best for the community, which expresses its common interests) - those in a society who disagree with the general will should be forced to submit to it for their own good
the Scientific Revolution c. 1550-1700 - aspects & ramifications:
3. it assisted in the acceptance of naturalism as a worldview - naturalism excludes consideration of the supernatural or spiritual - only takes into account natural elements/forces - one level of reality
Formation of the National Assembly
3rd Estate invited clergy & nobility to join them in a common assembly - if refused, 3rd Estate would carry on without them - becomes the National Assembly a. 6/20 - locked out of their meeting place (error?) they convened in a nearby tennis court b. took an oath (aka "Tennis Court Oath") not to disband until FR had a new constitution - were resolute
Great Awakening
American revivalist movement - a response to the growing formalism of early 18th century American Christianity - in 1719, revivals began in New Jersey, however, the preaching of Jonathan Edwards & the resultant conversions of the 1730s gave it widespread recognition (influenced John/Charles Wesley) - 1739-1741, George Whitefield's mission won many converts from Penn. to Maine
Charles Haddon Spurgeon
Baptist minister - 1854 moved to New Park Street Chapel, London - crowds were so great that the Metropolitan Tabernacle was built (1861), he ministered there until his death - printed sermons enabled him to reach a wider audience - Spurgeon was firmly Calvinistic in doctrine
The roughly 26 million people who comprised 18th century French society were divided into three orders called Estates - these were legally defined groupings - essentially a class system prevailed
Church (1st Estate) Nobles (2nd Estate) Commoners (3rd Estate)
Thomas Hobbes
English philosopher, author of Leviathan (1651) - left to their own devices people will create miserable lives for themselves & others because they are naturally selfish, greedy, & shortsighted - their lives will be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, & short" - to solve this problem, people give their power to an absolute authority (the Leviathan) who keeps order and makes peaceful living possible - he justified obedience to moral rules on a purely secular basis
The seven years war
Essentially a/the first "world war" - fought in three locations: North America, Europe & India
Philosophes
FR word for "philosophers" - traditionally the philosopher was seen as detached/disengaged, mostly dealing with theological issues - in the 18th century the definition changed (essentially a new breed of thinker) as "philosophes" became engaged & agitated for change - they desired to master everything worth knowing - sought to be well-rounded, not narrow specialists
North America
France battled Britain for supremacy - aka the French & Indian War (1754-1763) 4. 1756 - global: GB saw N. Am. as an area to damage FR interests & divert FR resources from EU
War of 1812
GB v. US - friction: GB policy in Nap. Wars (impressment, merchant ships intercepted) - end of Napoleonic Wars freed GB forces - GB imposed a naval blockade & captured Washington, D.C. - war-weariness brought talks - war ends 1815 - A. Jackson's victory at New Orleans after treaty signed
Albert Einstein
German/Jewish mathematician & physicist - immigrated to the US 2 - 1905 special theory of relativity revolutionized physics through its equivalence of mass & energy (E = mc ) - misunderstandings of his work prompted the idea that everything, including morals & truth, is relative
FR Govt. Abolishes Monarchy, it is now a Republic
King Louis on trial will be guillotined for conspiring against the liberty of the FR people - foreign invaders defeated at Valmy
1543 - Europe - Nicolaus Copernicus published:
On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres a. marks a transition from the medieval (premodern) to the scientific (modern) view of the universe b. the medieval understanding of the natural world & its physical properties rested on a blend of thought 3. the position of the earth as center of the universe (geocentrism) was widely believed 4. problem: the geocentric model of the universe was very difficult to explain mathematically
October Days
Parisian men, housewives, & the "fish women" walk (c. 12 mi) to Versailles a. frustrated by bread shortages, they are joined by c. 20K Paris guards (citizen militia) the mob attacks V b. fearful of further violence Louis approves the Aug. Decrees/the Declaration - monarchy taken to Paris Internal divisions were reflected in the seating location of Assembly members: Left - radicals (more change) Center - moderates Right - conservatives seeking limited monarchy
Russia-Rule of the _______ family
Romanov
Introduction - FR Revolution:
Roughly a 10-year event, split into 3 phases: Moderate (1789-91), Radical (1791-94), Conservative (1794-99) The reigning monarchs are: King Louis XVI (16th) & Queen Marie Antoinette FR Revolutionary slogan would become: liberty, equality, and fraternity
__________ _________ Seizes Power in a Coup - the Directory is toppled
The French Revolution (1789-1799) is formally over - aspects: a. FR Revolution spawned: total war, nationalism, terror as govt. policy, & a revolutionary mentality b. revolutionary mentality: extremism that justified mass murder in the name of a higher good
Copernicus
a Polish astronomer (1473-1543) - asserted a sun-centered (heliocentric) view 1. order of the planets made more sense (mathematically) by placing the sun at the center (universe)
Nationalism
a conscious bond shared by people who feel attached to a particular land & possess a common language, culture, & history (marked by shared glories/sufferings) - the nation gives meaning to the individual's life & actions - Nationalism became a dominant force in 19th century European life
Spain - Rule of Philip II
a zeal for R. Catholicism framed personal conduct/foreign policies a. 1568 - revolt of the Netherlands began (lasted until 1609) - Spain will lose its industrial heartland
The English Civil War
a. Charles I recalled Parliament - it demanded rights - he dissolved it & attempted (1642) to arrest leaders b. this led to the outbreak of civil war between forces of the King (Cavaliers) & Parliament (Roundheads) c. 1646 - the first civil war ends - Charles escapes to Scotland - he then forges a deal with the Scots ... d. Charles agrees to accept Presbyterianism in England - in turn, the Scots would support him in war e. 1648 - the second civil war begins - the Scots attack but the king's forces/supporters are defeated f. victorious force: Oliver Cromwell (Puritan leader of Parliamentary forces) & the New Model Army g. Charles is captured, brought to trial, eventually executed in Whitehall on 1-30-1649 - "Regicide"
the Restoration - Charles II now King (ruled 1660-85, son of Charles I)
a. Charles had lived in exile in FR (at court of Louis XIV) - was invited back to restore the English throne
Europe - Methodology related to the Scientific Revolution - two approaches:
a. Francis Bacon - inductive reasoning b. Rene Descartes - deductive reasoning
a Coup Deposes the Girondins - factions in the National Convention (Jacobins v. Girondins):
a. Jacobins - more willing to listen to the economic & political demands of the sans-culottes b. Girondins - generally represented the people of the countryside c. around 80K armed sans-culottes surrounded the National Convention (FR govt.) & demanded the arrest of the Girondin delegates - the Jacobins gained control of the government - CPS reorganized in July
May 1789 - Meeting of the Estates General - King Louis' reform attempts are blocked by his nobles
a. Louis forced to call the Estates General (representative assembly) to resolve the financial crisis b. meeting at Versailles, a disagreement over procedure/vote (separate v. combined sessions) led to a split
Rule of Frederick II, "The Great " & the Emergence of almighty Prussia
a. Prussia - a context: 1. an entity within the Holy Roman Empire - it developed an absolutist monarchy 2. 1608 - Hohenzollern dynasty gained control over Prussia & other areas via inheritance/aggression
France - Cardinal Richelieu became Chief Minister (until 1642) under Louis XIII (ruled 1610-43)
a. RC Cardinal, Armand Jean du Plessis de Richelieu was the architect of French Absolutism b. Richelieu's principle: "Raison d'etat" or "Reason of State" - which supersedes any moral violations
the Sans-Culottes (without culottes, wore pants) essentially: working class or petty bourgeoisie
a. dating back to 1789, they played a significant role in the storming of the Bastille & the October Days b. in 1789 the upper bourgeoisie had demanded equality with the nobility c. by 1792 the sans-culottes wanted equality with the upper bourgeoisie
Reign of Terror Begins - CPS effectively a temporary dictatorship (suspend their constitution)
a. dominating the CPS was Maximilien Robespierre (aka the Incorruptible) b. he believed the CPS had ascertained the needs of the FR people - genuine interpreter of the general will d. those who impeded implementation: not opponents, but sinners to be liquidated for the general good e. under the Terror c. 40K people died (guillotine a regular event) - Marie Antoinette guillotined 10/93 f. 1793-94 effort made to replace traditional Christianity with a civic religion: Cult of the Supreme Being
Europe - the Thirty Years' War rages
a. series of conflicts (4 phases) fought largely in Germany over religious, dynastic, & territorial concerns b. pitted German Protestant princes & allies (FR, SE, DK, Eng. NL) vs. German RC princes. SP, HRE
the Terror Ends with the Execution of Robespierre
a. with victory for the republic seemingly assured, the need/enthusiasm for the Terror abated b. Robespierre's political position weakened - he is out-maneuvered, arrested, guillotined c. Jacobin terror over - Jacobin republic dismantled - FR leadership to the property-owning bourgeoisie
Cottage Industry
aka the "Domestic System" - rural people desired extra income, urban entrepreneurs would furnish raw materials & basic tools then return later to collect finished products - textiles were the first & main cottage industry - this system helped fuel trade; set the stage (later) for the Industrial Revolution
United Kingdom
area of Great Britain (see above) with the inclusion of Ireland in 1801 - Ireland was later divided (partitioned) into two entities during the 20th century
Peace of Westphalia (treaties) Ends the Thirty Years' War - altered European history:
b. France replaced Spain as Europe's greatest power (Habsburg domination prevented) e. Holy Roman Empire effectively over - c. 300 principalities that comprised it basically autonomous g. German areas were devastated: c. 5 million died, homes were lost, food shortages left people starving
Louis XIV rules in his own right without a Chief Minister
b. Mazarin defeated the nobles in the Fronde (French civil wars 1648-1652) - young Louis remembers c. Richelieu & Mazarin had consolidated power in the king's hands at the expense of the nobility d. with the most effective system of Absolutism - France was the example for Europe
Imperial Age of Spanish Habsburgs over - a position of dominance in EU affairs to FR
b. Summary: living off its colonies led to economic stagnation & the absence of technological innovation
Netherlands - Dutch East India Company founded - from Java, would control Indian Ocean trade
b. Terminology: 1. the Netherlands is also known as Holland - the people are termed (the) "Dutch" 2. Belgium, the Netherlands, & Luxembourg, are together called: the "Low Countries" (aka Benelux)
New World - Height of the Atlantic Slave Trade
b. an element of global trade was the development of the Atlantic slave trade which involved: 1. the capture, enslavement, purchase, & shipment of Africans to labor on cash crop plantations 2. location: the New World (mainly West Indies) - majority of slaves exported from W. & C. Africa d. European powers all vied (competed) for control of the slave trade - GB gained dominance in the 1700s e. 1807 - GB outlawed the slave trade (Wm. Wilberforce) - 1833 abolished slavery in most of their empire f. African rulers actively participated in the slave trade, either purchasing, kidnapping, or seizing in wars the great majority of other Africans ultimately obtained by Europeans (created/perpetuated the market) g. voyage across the Atlantic was termed the "Middle Passage" (lasted up to 10 weeks or more)
England - Rule of James I (ruled Scotland as James VI) - began the Stuart family line
b. did consent to a new Scripture translation - the Authorized Version, or King James Bible (pub. 1611) c. granted charters for the establishment of colonies in North America (notably Jamestown, 1607)
Rule of Charles I - son of James I - Charles viewed kings as little gods on earth
b. dissolved Parliament numerous times & ruled without it for 11 years (1629-1640) - forced loans e. c. 1637-40 - Charles attempted to impose the Anglican liturgy on Scotland - the Scots rebelled f. Scots invaded England, took Newcastle, demand "ransom" - Charles recalls Parliament to raise revenue
Commoners (3rd Estate) - everyone else - about 97% of the population - comprised of 3 groups:
bourgeoisie, urban laborers, peasants - peasants numbered c. 21 million, thus c. 81% of the total pop. 18
The Enlightenment period (aka the "age of reason")
broad term for the 18th century international philosophical movement that stressed human reason & criticized monarchial/clerical absolutism a. it began in England (late 17th century) - reached its full expression in France during the 18th century b. central proponents: the Philosophes (can be FR term for scholarly intellectuals) - clustered in EU cities c. in this age, human reason became the "best" method for learning truth (not revelation) d. God's full sovereignty was rejected - miracles violate natural law, thus dismissed as superstition
The Glorious Revolution (aka the bloodless revolution)
c. 7 prominent statesmen formed a conspiracy & invited James' son-in-law William of Orange to invade d. William (head of the NL) & his Protestant wife Mary (James' daughter) accepted the invitation e. 1688 (Nov.) - a force landed - James II had little support (officers deserted him) - he fled to France f. Parliament grants William III (ruled 1689-1702) & Mary II (ruled 1689-94) the crown (conditions) g. Termed "Glorious" - it marked the death of absolutism (in England) and saw one monarch replace another without large-scale bloodshed (if one omits the Irish situation in letter h. below) 1. Wm. & Mary acknowledged the supremacy of Parliament via their acceptance of a Bill of Rights 2. Monarch cannot unilaterally make/suspend laws - Parliament: frequent sessions, power of the purse
Europe- Defeat of the Spanish Armada
c. SP's Philip II could regard military action as a holy crusade against the "heretical"/"illegitimate" queen d. c. 130 Spanish ships leave Lisbon (May 1588) for Flanders (region) to escort an invading force (c. 20K) g. Elizabeth's words at Tilbury marked a high point of her rule - she presided over the Armada's defeat h. in the journey around Scotland/IRL - the Armada is wrecked (bad weather) - c. 60 ships returned to SP
Galileo Galilei - Italian astronomer (1564-1642) teachings are condemned by the RCC
c. advocated heliocentrism (advanced in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, 1632) d. was basically silenced by the Inquisition (1633) & put under house arrest e. the Inquisition condemned the Copernican system & forbade Galileo from teaching it as fact f. later, in 1992, the Roman Catholic Church acknowledged that Galileo was correct
Rule of George I - descended from James I & was the nearest Protestant heir
c. result: crown fell to George from the German House of Hanover (great-grandson of James I.) d. King George I spoke poor English (maybe none) & was unconcerned with domestic affairs e. in the absence of the Hanoverian kings, First Lord of the Treasury, Robert Walpole, presided over the developing institution of the cabinet - Walpole is thus regarded as the first "Prime Minister"
England - after the abolition of the monarchy, the Commonwealth of England established
c. the nation turned back to monarchy - Cromwell's rule aka the Interregnum (time between kings)
The War of Spanish Succession - cost FR territory/prestige - created a huge debt
c. this conflict served as the 1st demonstration of the "balance of power" concept in Europe f. "Balance of power"- international equilibrium in which no nation or group would become too strong & threaten the others - balance of power politics became the guiding principle of modern diplomacy
Great Britain
comprised of England, Scotland, & Wales - established in the 1707 Act of Union
Bourgeoisie
consisted of various merchants, bankers, master craftsmen, doctors, lawyers, intellectuals, & government officials below the top ranks - also have divisions under the larger term a. although the bourgeoisie had wealth (owned c. 20% of the land) - they lacked social prestige b. the highest and most desirable positions in the land were reserved for the nobility c. FR had a social system that valued birth more than "talent" (Bourgeoisie resent this - grievances)
Louis the XIV Versailles
displayed the wealth, power, decadence of the king
Rule of Peter the Great
f. conquered land from Sweden (in Northern War) - c. 1703, St. Petersburg will be built from scratch 1. the city was to be a "window on the sea" facing west - Russia was somewhat landlocked 2. Peter moved the Russian capital there from Moscow - thousands of serfs died building the city g. Peter implemented changes to "Westernize" Russia:
Peasants
farmers, etc. - some were prosperous (if they had enough land), most lived in poverty a. owned c. 30-40% of the land - but the typical holding was just large enough to eke out a living
Europe
in 1756 Prussia signed a treaty with Britain to protect British rule in Hanover - then: 4. the European matchup pitted: FR, AT, RUS vs. PR, GB 7. 1763 - all were ready for peace - result: little territorial change - the status quo was restored
Isaac Newton publishes Principia - English physicist
in Principia - the universe is like a machine, all parts working together harmoniously - mechanistic b. Newton was a scientific genius & deeply religious thinker - his theology clearly heretical at points 1. Optics - determined the nature of light - scientists later described light as waves 2. Physics - his three laws of motion resulted in the formulation of the law of universal gravitation 3. for Newton: the universe was a uniformity of cause-and-effect natural law, but, the universe was an open system - God could, and did, intervene in His creation - thus: miracles are possible
Emergence of the Dutch Republic
in the 1600s the Dutch/Netherlands/Holland could be considered "cutting edge" in some respects: 1. commercial success came with dominance of the cargo trade - other nations shipped via the Dutch 2. the Fluyt (narrow deck, wide hull) was a high-volume, low maintenance vessel - profitable 3. the first: modern banks - insurance companies - stock markets - capitalist agricultural system 4. had an open culture & toleration - allowed them to become the leading printing center in Europe 5. a modern republic (system of govt. where elected rep. govern for the citizenry who hold power) d. Dutch established a global trading network - the Dutch trading empire - locations & commodities: 1. East India - East Indies - Indonesia (aka "spice islands"): spices 2. West India - West Indies - Caribbean area: sugar, tobacco, slaves h. 1600s (through much of it) - the Dutch enjoyed the highest quality of life in Europe - a "Golden Age" 1. their success was situated between the decline of Spain & the rise to power of France & England
Louis the XIV historical principle
individual freedoms will be sacrificed for security, order, & prosperity - classic historical examples: the situation during/after the FR Revolution (Napoleon) & Nazi Germany
Deists
individuals whose god was the great architect/clock maker that created the universe and then withdrew from it, leaving humans to act within it, guided only by the light of reason - the god of the deists was not the personal, infinite, triune God of the Bible acting in history - deists essentially established their own religion with "rational" ethics as its core
Congress of Vienna
international peace conference (1814-15) to settled EU affairs after Napoleon's defeat - attempted (as far as it was possible) to restore Europe to the conditions pre-1789 (before FR revolution) - leading figure: Klemens von Metternich of Austria (organized a coalition that earlier beat Napoleon)
Textiles
material made from thread or yarn that is woven, matted, or knotted
Urban Laborers
journeymen, small-scale factory workers, day laborers, etc. - like the peasants, they were affected by rising prices & food shortages (1785-89: cost of living up 62%; wages up 22%)
Dwight Lyman Moody
know for evangelistic work in connection with his Sunday School (CHI) - worked mainly outside denominational boundaries - 1873 toured Britain, received an enthusiastic response - Moody & his organist/song leader Ira D. Sankey, became internationally famous
James Hudson Taylor
medical man who felt called to be a missionary - 1853 left for China - 1860 returned to England - 1865 founded the China Inland Mission - went back to China, conforming as far as he could to Chinese habits of life - carried missionary work into the heart of the country
Spain - Spanish facing decline
monarchy virtually bankrupt - new world silver flow declining
Salons
mostly found in Paris, often run by women - evening receptions for discussion - a gathering where men/women could educate themselves & openly discuss ideas - some had an international correspondence
Riots in Paris
popular/reform-minded Finance Minister Jacques Necker's suggestion of a limited, constitutional monarchy is rejected - on July 11 he was dismissed - led to riots b. taking guns from Les Invalides & wanting gunpowder - 7/14 a Paris mob stormed the Bastille (prison)
Committee of Public Safety Created
onlystrongleadershipcansavetherepublic - serving as a cabinet for the government, the committee (9 then 12) will impose the govt.'s authority in FR
Peasant Uprisings
peasants burn manor houses - feared retribution by the nobility
The immediate cause:
practical bankruptcy of the state - not enough revenue to cover expenses
Napoleon Invades Russia
pushed all the way to Moscow; his forces victims of deception - Napoleon's supply lines were stretched too far - Moscow was virtually evacuated & burning (09/12)
August Decrees
seeking to restore calm, nobles surrendered special privileges c. NA adopts: the Declaration of the Rights of Man & of the Citizen (indiv. dignity - popular sovereignty)
Czar
title used to designate the rulers/emperors of Russia from c. the 16th century until the Russian Revolution (1917) - czars ruled as absolute monarchs until the early 20th century - the term "czar" may be generally applied to a powerful leader or a government administrator with wide-ranging powers
Louis Flees
under disguise, the King & Queen attempted to escape (FR pockets of support) - they were recognized & captured at Varennes - hostility toward the king increased (viewed as a traitor) 20
Holy Roman Empire
union of various territories created in the 10th century when Otto I tried to revive Charlemagne's empire - consisted mostly of German-speaking principalities and, at times, 100s of states - Holy Roman Emperors depended on their powerful nobles (very independent) because the office of Emperor was elective - these nobles/areas belonged to the HRE, but regarded themselves as autonomous
American Revolution
uprising by which 13 of GB's N. American colonies won political independence - until early 1778, the conflict was a civil war within the British Empire - afterward, an international war - FR, SP, & NL assisted the colonies - sea power proved vital in determining the course of the war - sea power ultimately enabled the French to help bring about the final British surrender at Yorktown