World Politics Final

Myanmar and Rohingya

1 million in Myanmar (out of 3.5 million worldwide), 1/3 of population of Rakhine state. Differ from Buddhist majority, Bamar ethnicity in terms of religion and language. Labeled Rohingya to grant collective identity and voice since 1950s. Repressed by majority Buddhist central and local government, not recognized as an official ethnic group, existence denied, seen as illegal migrants from Bangladesh. Excluded in law since 1948, but stateless since 1982 citizenship law. White cards grants temporary residency since 90s, but identified as Bengali in 2014 census and voting rights revoked in 2015 constitutional referendum.

UN General Assembly

193 members today, annual meetings and special sessions, blocs/coalitions, serves as a forum for debate (one state, one vote), develop international law, coordinate/supervise subsidiary bodies, budget, recommendations to states, non-binding resolutions on UN Charter. Limits: No implementation and no one pays their dues, often too much on the agenda and vague resolutions.

North Korea history

1945: Soviet occupied N and US occupied S; 1948: Kim Il-Sung heads newly independent Democratic People's Republic of Korea; 1950-1953: Korean War; 1960s-1970s: economic growth and peace overtures with S; 1985: North Korea joins NPT and the UN in 1991; 1994: Kim Jong-Il succeeds his father and agrees to freezing nuclear program in return for heavy fuel oil and ability to keep two nuclear reactors for peaceful uses. 1998: NK fires its first long-range missile. 2000: tensions partly dissipate after first Inter-Korean Summit. 2002: GW Bush places NK in the "axis of evil". 2006: First underground nuclear test followed by UN sanctions. 2011: Kim Jong-un succeeds Kim-Jong-il. 2013: Third test, more UN sanctions, and China export ban. 2015: Nuclear plant reopened and US sanctions. 2017: Two long-range missile tests (can reach US), and a "perfect H-bomb", more sanctions, including by China. 2018: thawing of tensions, N and S Korea Olympic team, Trump and Kim summit from promises of denuclearization, no more tests, tensions over sanctions. 2019: Second summit in Vietnam, reports of NK cheating

GATT and WTO

1947, part of Bretton Woods, alternative to ITO to reduce tariffs over time and avoid Great Depression and War. Went from 23 members and 35% tariffs to 164 members of WTO and tariff levels at 6% in 1986. Little structure or enforcement but provides forum for countries to discuss trade during rounds. 1986 Uruguay round sets up WTO that has a powerful dispute resolution mechanism (enforcement) and covers key issues like services, agriculture, textiles, and intellectual property.

Trends of migration

258 million immigrants (UN, 2017). US largest destination, India and Mexico largest origins (UN, 2017). 3.4% of global population (UN, 2017). Middle East/North Africa sends workers, now refugees. Africa sends refugees and now workers. Central/South America sends workers and some refugees in past (to US), lots of movement within region and immigration.

Somalia: Limitation of Peacekeeping

After independence in 1960, dictatorship government led by Muhammad Siad Barre 1969-1991. After Barre was ousted, state collapsed, warlords fighting over territory and resources and starving people. UNOSOM I (1992)→small UN peacekeeping force, deployed to balance among them is limited and unsuccessful. UNITAF (1992-1993)→US takes over from US, Black Hawk disaster/US soldiers killed, quick withdrawal. UNOSOM II→humanitarian mission by UN, state collapsed regardless. Al-Shabaab settles into political vacuum.

Al Qaeda

Al Qaeda emerged in 1980s as militant Sunni-Islam group, with formal organization in Afghanistan and Pakistan. After the Gulf War (1990-1991) and the stationing of US troops in Saudi Arabia, Al Qaeda launched attacks on Khobar Towers, US embassies in Africa, USS Cole, and 9/11 with the goal of removing Western infidels. Goals and strategies→global caliphate in long term, local embeddedness, less about territory more about the changing balance of power, anti-US more than against other Muslim sects. With US attacks and Bin Laden death in 2011, dispersal of power, affiliates around the world.

China as an economic, military, and political hegemon (Lind)

Argues that China is a rising hegemon in the East Asia and the US no longer preponderant, investment, trade, and enmeshing others economically are China's primary instruments of getting more power regionally. China preaches non-intervention yet dominates free-trade agreements, markets for exports, regional financial institutions, investment through Belt and Road initiative. By fostering dependence on Chinese markets, trade, state-led FDI, China can use economic pressure to bend others to its will (ex. South Korea, Mongolia, Philippines). Territorial push in South China Sea, proposal for Asian security infrastructure (minus the US). Growing cultural reach→state-dominated media, investments lead to censorship in film or publishing, educational programs with a Chinese twist, infiltration of foreign educational institutions.

Terrorism: Strategies

Attrition→show resolve and ongoing cost to target governments, hit and run tactics by the weak (ex. Hamas). Intimidation→threaten to kill civilians or visible figures if population or government do not comply with requests or do not give loyalty to terrorists (ex. ISIS control in caliphate, public beheadings, car bombs). Provocation→drive/urge a target to engage in massive retaliation to show its true colors (9/11, ETA). Spoiling→create mistrust between moderates in own group and other party in a peace agreement (ex. Hamas, Mahmoud Abbas in Oslo Accords). Outbidding→show you are a zealot, not a sellout, to get popular loyalty (ex. Hamas vs. Fatah)

International law sources

Bilateral or multilateral agreements (ex. 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties) often binding/hard law; customs (sovereignty, prohibition of slavery, diplomatic immunity); soft law/norms→non-binding standards of behaviors (ex. UN Declarations). Regimes→linked norms in a specific area (ex. liberal trade, human rights, nuclear non-proliferation)

International law

Body of rules which binds states and other agents in world politics and their relations with one another

EU's challenges

Brexit carries real costs, but also expose flawed logic of European integration. EU is no longer about intergovernmentalism and helping states to be stable and rich, more about supranationalism and letting EU technocrats to decide for states but removing states' mechanisms to adjust economically or address political grievances. Euro and German focus on tight fiscal policies remove national adjustment mechanisms and lead to protracted crisis and social protest. Impositions on migration lead to political backlash, yet no common system or real burden-sharing.

Terrorism: Types and Waves

Classical: First wave 19th and 20th centuries, relatively low-level violence like assassinations to redress grievances against repressive state, limited targets and clear political aims, direct violence, revolution (ex. Franz Ferdinand assassination, French Revolution). Colonial: Second wave 1921-present, remove colonizer/occupier, clearer political aims, direct and wider violence, within national boundaries, insurgency/nationalism (ex. National Liberation Front in Algeria). Modern: Third wave 1960s to 9/11, Islamic terrorism rises as ideology conceived in Egyptian prison, brotherhood's political activism in 1980s, grows with foreign invasions in 1980s-90s and finally realized in 1990s-2000, indiscriminate/mass violence, transnationalism and globalization of ideology/violence (ex. Al Qaeda). Postmodern: Fourth wave 9/11-now. Sacred apocalyptic terrorism and quest for utopia on earth, dispersal of power, local embeddedness, virtual networks, return of lone wolf terrorism, non-Islamic terrorism on the rise (ex. Al Qaeda offshoots, white supremacist groups).

Disadvantages of nuclear weapons (Sagan)

Cold War deterrence is done and gone, came close to complete destruction even then (Cuban Missile Crisis). Nuclear states still fight one another, at least conventionally. Terrorists with nukes are harder to deter (can't negotiate). New nuclear powers are unstable and can give nukes to terrorists. US should disarm to encourage nonproliferation but keep renuclearization option as deterrent for cheating.

Dependency theory

Colonization since 16th c. divided world into rich core and poor periphery. As colonies supplied raw materials to core and core exported manufactured goods, relationship stuck→LDCs are stuck producing primary products and never had incentive to develop industry. Primary products' prices are unstable, thus public spending can change and lead to unrest or poverty. Primary products' prices are dropping in re prices of manufactured goods so terms of trade unfair and dealing for LDCs. Powerful MNCs undermine development further.

export-led industrialization

Comparative advantage and modernization. Develop industries that can export goods to compete in specific niches of the world economy. These industries are protected at home. Generates hard currency and a positive trade balance. Can also lead to lack of diversification and inability to keep trade surplus with dropping commodity prices. Still, more common (ex. South Korea, Taiwan).

Terrorism: Drivers

Concrete or historical grievances towards own government/state→historical oppression of a minority and the desire for self-determination (Chechens in Russia, ETA in Spain); everyday oppression by an autocratic government and lack of rights and dignity (Latin American 1960s); lack of political voice/exclusion from politics; violations of international law during civil war (Rwanda/Rwandan Patriotic Front). Guilt by association→Madrid bombings for Spain involvement in Iraq War, hatred for foreign intervention or hegemony (Al Qaeda and the US in the Middle East). Relative deprivation→economic dislocation and inequality within a state (also cause of the Arab Spring). Financial gain→kidnappings for ransom. Racism→ex. Aryan Brotherhood. Individual drivers→solidarity and retribution, isolation.

New World Order: Cooperation

Cooperation of great powers during the Gulf War (coalition of 35 nations against Iraq in response to their invasion of Kuwait 1990-1991). European integration and the formation of the EU, 1993. UN Collective security and international intervention in Yugoslavia, Somalia, and Afghanistan. NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in the name of humanitarian intervention/the ethnic cleansing of the Albanian population. UNOSOM for humanitarian/peacekeeping intervention in Somalia, address conflict and famine exacerbated by warlords. US intervention in Afghanistan with help of the UN and international community. Security Council authorized the US to overthrow the Taliban government

IMF

Created in 1945, 189 members, original goals→exchange rate stability and lender of last resort/fixing balance of payment problems (trade deficits). current goals→analysis of global economic trends and individual state surveillance to prevent crisis, policy and technical advice, conditional lending, and property reduction. issues→oil shocks and lending to poor in 70s to structural adjustment of profligate borrowers in LDCs in 80s. Eastern European economic restructuring in 90s, Asian financial crisis in late 90s, global financial crisis of 2007-8.

Possible responses to terrorism

Deal with corruption and state weakness in Iraq to cut off funds (ISIS). Targeted precision strikes (avoid collateral damage and further radicalization) based on intelligence gathering and sharing to destroy cells. Pick your battles→retaliation on some issues (for credibility) but concessions where interests are weak. Defend state and WMDs→walls, prevent WMD proliferation, gun control. Educate the public to prevent panic. Protect public to prevent intimidation, better law-enforcement, security with intervention. Separate lone wolfs and organizations (attack cells with drone strikes). Use social media/the internet against lone wolfs to identify plots or people of interest, counter and debunk radical ideology, carry out cyberattacks on terror sites. Engage and help Muslim communities (reduces panic/fear and group tension).

Environmental and resource issues

Deforestation and desertification with development, settlement, and conflict (Rwanda). Pollution and industrialization (plastic bans). Ozone depletion. Climate change with greenhouse gas emission (China and coal). Water scarcity or bad quality with population growth and rising water consumption as countries develop; damming water sources; climate change, desertification, pollution (Gaza, Jordan, Africa). Food scarcity or bad quality of food with water scarcity, ineffective food distribution networks, environmental degradation or conflict (food deprivation as a weapon→Somalia, Mali, Syria)

Modernization theory

EDCs followed a path to industrialization in 18th c. that LDCs are following right now. As LDCs drop traditional ways and adopt modern, flexible societies, they will develop a middle class, rights and democracy, cultural tolerance, secularism, entrepreneurship and growth. Urbanization might lead to overcrowding and slums (happened in Britain). Modernization might lead to demographic transitions, youth bulges, and eventually graying, shrinking work forces but will also lift all boats

End of history vs. Clash of Civilizations

End of history (Fukuyama): inevitability of liberal democracy, peace, capitalism, human rights, spread of western values, results after the end of the Cold War. Clash of civilizations (Huntington): fragmentation more pronounced than cooperation and globalization of liberalism (9/11, challenge of democracy by cyberwarfare/terrorism), future conflict is cultural rather than political/economic in nature; cultures cannot change and ethnic conflict is inevitable (West vs. Islam is the largest divide)

North Korea policy options

Engage but also separate China and NK, shame China and businesses that violate sanctions, reaffirm alliances in that region, should not engage in military solutions like preemptive or preventative war, if attack conventionally to destroy nukes, retaliation is likely and missile defense systems not foolproof to stop US from being hit, fatalities will be huge if war commences. US should highlight the high costs of war to Kim, and convince him that the US will not launch preemptive strike or preventative war or try regime change. Keep SK safe with nuclear umbrella to prevent it from escalating tensions on its own. Do not provoke, do not reward an unreliable partner too early→meeting Kim gives him credibility and nuclear recognition. Do not remove sanctions or underestimate threat. Keep maximum pressure sanctions by global coalition and with legitimacy granted by UN, focus on non-proliferation for all international community, enhance alliances with SK and Japan and reaffirm collective defense to deter Chinese meddling. Clear diplomatic and military plan in place→sanctions stay until NK agrees to zero nukes and starts dismantling them and allows inspections.

New World Order: Conflict

Ethnic conflicts and genocide in Yugoslavia, Somalia, and Rwanda + lack of effective international intervention. 9/11 and the rise of transnational terrorism/asymmetric warfare, US hit at home as well as many other countries and US allies. Great recession adds economic strife along with war spending. Arab Spring 2010 →effects of Tunisian revolution, spread to Libya, Egypt, Yemen, Syria, and Bahrain, either regime toppled or there was major uprisings (riots, civil wars).

Nuclear weapons and strategy

Fission (atomic bomb) or fusion and fission (hydrogen bomb). Usually plutonium or uranium enrichment, immediate and long-term devastation. Mounted on short or medium range missiles as well as long range ICBMs, SLBMs or MIRVs. Missile defenses like US Strategic Defense Initiative are only partially effective. Nuclear deterrence as main strategy/foreign policy, prevention and preemption.

Types of exchange rates

Fixed: Gold standard and the Bretton Woods system, currencies do not respond to the market but set rates against each other, leads to predictability, stability, and more trade but could also lead to painful and ultimately harmful domestic adjustment policies to keep currency at its set rate. Floating: Flexible exchange rates, reflect true health of the economy and can act as safety valves (change value to accommodate bust or boom), also unstable, unpredictable, and open to speculation.

Human and social development and MDGs

From aid to counter effects from colonialism and economic reform and liberalization with WM/IMF loans to a new approach focused on more aid, but also holistic view of development and local ownership of poverty-reduction projects. Poverty not due to culture, bad governance, or bad economics, but due to geography, climate, diseases, and economic isolation. Therefore, must deal with social and human issues first and then economic growth and democracy will follow (ex. HIV/AIDS).

The World Bank

Goals: poverty reduction and equitable economic growth through support for worlds poorest countries, help for fragile states (post-conflict reconstruction), assistance for middle-income countries, global partnership for sustainable development, integration of Arab world, learning and knowledge, provides low-interest loans. Projects: large infrastructure in 50s-60s, basic services (health, education) in 70s, private sector and sustainable development from 90s on.

Consequences of migration

Home states→remittances vs. brain drain. Host states→benefits like filling economic and demographic gaps, perceived cost of "taking native jobs", diluting national culture and identity, and bringing crime and threats to national security, Ex. from Europe: rise of right wing populist parties around Continent, Brexit, Ex. from US: Patriot Act, travel bans, DACA. Costs are often exaggerated while benefits are underestimated

Peacekeeping Intervention Types

Humanitarian relief: Humanitarian supply delivery while conflict ongoing, complex and coercive (Kosovo, UNOSOM I in Somalia 1992/1993). Collapsed state reconstruction: peacemaking, multitask, complex and coercive (UNOSOM II in Somalia 1993/1995). Peace enforcement: UN Chapter VII; UN armed force dictate terms of end of conflict, coercive but not complex, Iraq started as this.

International organizations

IGOs: members are states, international membership, scope, and presence, vary in size, geographic concentration, and purpose, security vs. economic organizations, roles include info gathering, standard setting, decision-making, rule creation, and service provision, subjects of international law. INGOs: members are individuals, associations, etc., not-for-profit and for-profit (MNCs), often national chapters linked across borders,

IOs and functionalism

IOs born due to basic or functional needs of people and states, promote cooperation, with social and economic interdependence leading to political cooperation and peace. Habits of cooperation/common values develop within IOs and spillover across other realms, experts renounce national identities and link across borders, states do not sabotage the process

Promises of IOs

IOs reduce transactions costs between states, create predictability/transparency, and lead to reciprocity/reputation of states. They shape bargaining processes as well as rules, standards, beliefs, behavior, and interests. Can affect agenda and policies. Need IOs to address globalization, uneven development, alienation, migration, ethnic conflict, failed states. IOs also address weakened sovereignty of states and provide an alternate authority

import subsitution industrialization

In line with dependency theory, practiced in Latin America in 1960s. Moving away from industries that export to EDCs and developing ones that produce domestically what LDCs would normally import from EDCs. Tariffs and subsidies used to develop these. Domestic production before international economic relations. Growth initially, but to proceed to second phase need serious capital from outside so usually stalls, while at the same time losing cash from dwindling exports (ex. Brazil or Chile)

Pressures for nonproliferation

India and Pakistan→both received harsh sanctions after nuclear weapons tests in 1998. Iraq→development of WMDs leads to 1981 bombing of nuclear reactor by Israel, destruction of WMD stockpiles by UN after Persian Gulf War of 1991 and inspections until 2003; 2003 US invasion of Iraq. Syria→was bombed by Israel in 2007 to avoid production of nuclear weapons. Iran→pursuit of nuclear facilities in 1970s revived in 1990s secretly and in 2002 Iran as part of axis of evil, abandons weaponization pursuits with sanctions.

When Does Terrorism Work? (Kydd and Walter)

Interests→if target has no vital interest in issue, dealing with terror not worth the trouble (ex. US marine barrack attack in Lebanon, led to withdrawal of forces). Regime type of target→democracies are more constrained in retaliating, but less cost tolerant (Bush and 9/11, overreaction argument); public demands revenge, free media vs. authoritarian states. Weak government/political vacuum→to keep people fearful as state cannot protect them/go after the terrorists, provides a base for the attacks (Burkina Faso). Geography/territory→rough terrain and insurgency in Afghanistan, Philippine's jungle. How own camp looks→moderate factions appear strong and thus untrustworthy, fragmentation in own camp leading terrorists to try and set themselves apart.

ISIS

Islamic State of Iraq and Syria, formed in 1999, follows a fundamentalist, Salafi doctrine of Sunni Islam. New leader al-Baghdadi in 2010 grows movement with the US out of Iraq, Iraqi instability, and Syrian civil war. Breaks from Al Qaeda in 2014, announces a caliphate and claims 30,000 soldiers from 86 countries in 2016. 8 branches with 37 "provinces" around the world. Wants actual territory, caliphate, state-like. Sees violence as the only path, no compromise, attrition with the West. Ideological purity and war on other Muslim sects, glossy social media campaigns. Now has control of only 2% of the territory it started with.

Is the UN effective?

Issue that superpower have disproportionate role and have veto power. No enforcement mechanism, outdated membership in SC. However, its the only IO that can counter international aggression legitimately, only IO that represents small states, effective in its limited goals. Question of whether it can change to reflect the changing world in terms of states' power and new issues to tackle

JFS

Jabhat Fateh al-Sham most successful al Qaeda affiliate, embedding itself in Syria, has practicality, less extremism, local and nationalistic goals, feigns moderation like Nazis in WWII and provides services to attract local Syrian support and infiltrate rebel and insurgent organizations.

Explaining the World Order: US Power

Kagan→US is not in decline, it is still a somewhat unipolar world despite declining US economy or erosion of soft power. US still has the largest economy and military in the world. US was never able to control other states and actors fully and never wielded perfectly effective soft power (so didn't have any to lose in the first place). Kupchan→Rising multipolarity and emerging powers are beginning to side with China and not the US (real new Cold War). Powers are rising at the expense of the US, even if the US helped them develop/stabilize (EU and Japan), the US is overextending and meeting new types of resistance, globalization has only increased the US decline.

Economic power

Land (territory, natural resources, raw materials), labor (population size and ability), and capital (trade and industry). GNI (goods and services produced in a given period, including by individuals and companies abroad) vs. GDP (same minus wealth from abroad, goods and services produced within the country). Per capita income (wealth divided by the population). Technology→R&D, internet and information, newest source of tension (ex. China 5G network).

Explaining the New World Order (Barber)

McWorld: Market imperative turns us into homogenous consumers, conform or lose out, resource imperative suggests we need to trade and be exposed to the world (autarky disastrous), information technology imperative creates access and opens societies but also includes cyberwarfare, no privacy, and terrorist recruitment. Jihad: rejection of modern nation-states and nationalism, narrow-outlook, tribalism. Struggle or fight against the "enemies" of Islam. Neither perspective is particularly democratic

Terrorism: Preconditions

Modernization: technological innovations used by terrorists (planes, 9/11, social media used for recruitment by ISIS). Urbanization: makes targets easier to strike and audiences easier to reach, (urban guerrilla warfare in Latin America in 1960s,). Normalized conflict and violence: terror not as surprising in Israel/Palestine dynamic or in the US with rising hate crimes/speech. Political vacuum or space: in liberal democracies, harder to react to terror as you must balance freedom with security, in weak states loss of national identity and legitimacy, bad governance, tensions exploited by terrorists. Globalization: allows for the spread of terrorist ideology (Marxism, Salafism in MENA, and non-Islamic right-wing ideology in the West)

Human rights institutions and actors

NGOs (Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch), UN Charters balance human rights and states' rights (Commission on Human Rights, UN Human Rights Council). War-specific bodies: Ad hoc tribunals for Former Yugoslavia (1991-5) and Rwanda (1994). ICC permanent replacement for tribunals, able to prosecute high-power individuals accused of the most serious crimes

Nonproliferation and disarmament institutions

NPT 1968: assure non-nuclear states of no nuclear attacks in exchange for staying non-nuclear. Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 1996: all testing banned *never ratified. US-USSR/Russian Treaties: SALT (1969-); SALT II (1979, *unratified); START (1994-2009, *expired); START II (1993, *never ratified); SORT (2002), New START (2011), IAEA (1957) set up to help with peaceful nuclear uses and monitor for violations of treaties. Nuclear-weapons-free zones in Latin America, Africa, and Central Asia

Peacekeeping: Changes since 1990

Need for more forceful intervention, civil wars, ethnic conflict, state collapse, and human rights violations occur as US and USSR withdraw from their respective spheres of influence (ex. ethnic conflict in former Yugoslavia, Somalia's collapse). Possibility for more coercive and complex intervention via the UN Security Council. Optimism with some successes→Gulf War, Iran-Iraq War, USSR withdrawal from Afghanistan

Bretton Woods

Negotiated in July 1944 lasted until the 1970s, established a new international monetary system. Under the agreement other currencies were pegged to the value of the US dollar, which, in turn was pegged to the price of gold. Created the IMF (monitor exchange rates, lend currency reserves to countries that needed it to support their currencies and settle their debts) and the World Bank Group (provide assistance to countries that had been physically and financially devoted by WWII). Principle goals were to create an efficient foreign exchange system, prevent competitive devaluations of currencies, and promote international economic growth.

Nuclear states

Nine nuclear states (US, Russia, UK, France, China, India, Pakistan, North Korea, Israel). S Africa only country that got and then dismantled nuclear weapons, former soviet republics returned nukes back to Russia.

Limitations of international law

No global executive, legislature, or judiciary therefore reliant on negotiation and reciprocity (and enforcement by the powerful). Significant non-state actors not bound by it (MNCs, NGOs, or terrorists). Powerful can bend international law to justify actions (2003 US invasion of Iraq)

Traditional peacekeeping: Principles

Non-intervention and consent of the parties involved, neutrality/impartiality, use of minimum force, must be a UN mandate, generally deployed after the end of an inter-state conflict, Chapter VI and 1/2 of UN Charter, offered a creative solution to dealing with conflict on the periphery during the Cold War

International cooperation on migration

North wants workers but not the costs, South wants remittances. Little burden sharing among host countries. Still cooperation at the UN level (ex. 2003 Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers). More cooperation on refugees than economic migrants with Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (1951), defining states' legal obligations and the UNHCR processing and aiding refugees, coordinating state efforts and pushing for resettlement and lasting solutions. State interests continue to be primary

Advantages of nuclear weapons (Waltz)

Nuclear Zero is absurd and idealistic, the world is at peace with nuclear deterrence. No nuclear powers go to war with each other due to nuclear weapons (ex. India and Pakistan). Removing nuclear weapons makes WWIII more likely. Nukes makes countries like Iraq or North Korea feel more secure in view of realistic US threat. Countries will cheat on any agreement

Peacekeeping Limitations (Betts)

Often fails to produce lasting peace or democracy, no clear mandate, faulty theory/premises (problem of festering conflicts and rearmament), can result in more casualties and false security, more conflict and competition over resources, practical issues such as funds, troops, coordination, training, free-riding, clashing norms (humanitarian intervention vs. sovereignty), no intervention when not in powerful states' interests (ex. Rwanda)

Why/where are the Rohingya fleeing?

Poverty (78%) and institutional discrimination in marriage, families, employment, and so on. Clashes in 2017 between army and ARSA lead to burning villages, killings, rapes, and land mines. 700,000 fleeing in a few months, quickest migration crisis ever. Ethnic cleansing, destroying of villages. Flee to overcrowded, disease ridden camps in Bangladesh; Malaysia where they have no rights or status; flee to Thailand where they are smuggled to Malaysia or Indonesia, risk of enslavement or trafficking.

FDI

Private, by multinational corporations, long-term investment, tangible goods, factories, office buildings, greenfield investment→setting up business abroad from scratch, more costs for multinational corporations (taxes and jobs). Merger and acquisitions, acquiring businesses that are already there. Pros→brings in capital and transfer of knowledge and skills, efficiency and wealth generation, brings credibility/approval of market to a country, leads to positive economic changes to court FDI or accommodate it, states still have final say. Cons→race to the bottom with lower labor and environment regulations to attract FDI/lower taxes, corruption, local businesses displaced, powerful multinational corporations dwarf and reduce sovereignty of small states, nationalism.

Criticisms of IOs

Puppets of the powerful with no real power, only a reflection of the balance of power, do not represent the interests of small states, NGOs, citizenry, and thus not truly legitimate. Democratic deficit/lack of accountability, states might forego benefits of IOs due to concern about self-interest, relative gains, or due to tough bargaining. Overall ineffective, show liberalism's weak empirical record.

Trade barriers

Put in place to protect infant or defense industries with pressure from domestic lobbies or industries. Pure economic nationalism. Tariffs→tax on imports to make domestic products less expensive (ex. Great Depression). Non-tariff barriers to trade→Quotas, Voluntary export restraint (ex. Japanese cars in the US in 1980s), consumer protections, environmental and labor regulations (what NAFTA relaxed and is criticized about), subsides to own industries (they can produce below market levels and thus be competitive at home at abroad ex. French agriculture), or dumping (selling below market price abroad).

Trade and perspectives

Realism→geopolitics by economic means, relative power and cheating play key role, must protect key domestic industries. Hegemonic stability→hegemons set and enforce free trade rules, but trade declines with hegemon declining itself. Constructivism→embedded liberalism and balancing free-trade with socio-economic welfare. Marxism→trade terms help industrialized core exploit the periphery. Liberalism→self-interest good for all, despite protectionism, the domestic costs of ineffective industries, and the need for oversight, can eliminate barriers to trade through reciprocity, IOs, and international law.

Principles of Free Trade in GATT and WTO

Reciprocity: swapping tariff concessions. Non-discrimination (most favored nation): if reduce tariff for another state, do it for every other state. Predictability and stability: publish trade regulations. Freer trade.

A new development paradigm

Reducing corruption matters, development needs to be sustainable (ecological imperative), technology (like cell phones) can help development, microfinance as one solution for bottom-up as opposed to top-down development.

Involuntary migrants

Refugees and IDPs, refugees recognized to have fear of persecution based on race, religion, nationality, social group, and political opinion. Many escape home country due to human rights violations (civil war, crimes against humanity, ethnic cleansing), some flee natural or man-made disasters, asylum seekers try to be recognized as refugees. IDPs move within countries. Fine and blurred line between economic migrants and refugees, but while states have no obligations to economic migrants, they have moral and legal obligations to refugees. Most refugees are in the global south (ex. Turkey)

Terrorism: Goals

Regime change→to governments by terrorists (ex. Shining Path in Peru). Territorial change→take territory from state, join another state, or set one's own state (ex. Tamil Tigers in Sri Lanka, ISIS). Policy change→broad (Al Qaeda and US). Social control→change individual behavior (KKK, white supremacism today). Keep status quo→protestant groups in Northern Ireland. Multiple goals→Al Qaeda

United Nations

Replace and improve the League of Nations, goals are to prevent war and ensure socio-economic cooperation. Open to all and equality of members. Principles in UN Charter: peaceful settlement of disputes, collective security system, sovereign equality and non-intervention, address tension of states' rights and human rights. Made up of GA, SC, Secretariat and SG, ECOSOC, ICJ. Roles→peacekeeping and security, human rights and humanitarian assistance, social and economic development

R2P (Evan and Sabnoun)

Responsibility to protect, UN norm since 2005/2009, Define sovereignty as a responsibility, not simply a state's right or a license to commit atrocities. If a state is unwilling or unable to protect those within its territory, the international community should step in and engage in military actions if: there is genocide/ethnic cleansing; multilateralism and regional support (prevents purely ulterior motivation); last resort; proportional means rather than desire for regime change; anticipated success (do not do more harm than good); and right authority (UN SC, or GA or state coalitions but only if UN fails to act). Increase political will by using rational or self-interested arguments.

US eroding human rights

Rhetoric and actions at home undermine rights of women (reproduction, equality), immigrants (deportation, separations), minorities (police brutality, white supremacism). Praising autocrats abroad encourages them to quash dissent and ramp up abuses (Egypt, Saudi Arabia). Pulling out of key multilateral institutions that protect human rights (UNHRC). Ramped up defense, arms sales to "bad states", drone strikes with many casualties undermine US as beacon of justice

Human rights

Rights inherent to all human beings, universal and inalienable, interdependent and indivisible, equal and nondiscriminatory, entail obligations. Theoretically based on religion, natural law, natural rights, legal positivism, Marxism

European Union

Role: Prevent war between European states and ensure economic prosperity by entangling former enemies economically (embedded liberalism, coal and steel industries together, freedom of movement of labor, goods, capital, and services). From intergovernmentalism to supranationalism in 80s-90s (EU born 1992) with Single European Act and a common currency. Political and security integration with common foreign and security policy and democratic reforms of EC institutions since 1970s/1990s. Massive expansion to all of the continent in 2000s, functionalism and federalism at its finest.

United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

Role: economic and social issues, coordinate subsidiaries activities and consult with NGOs. Makes up 70% of UN resources. Nine functional and five regional commissions, and 19 specialized agencies. Issues: development, women, population, statistics, forests. Limitations: complex coordination problems.

International Court of Justice

Role: judicial arm of UN, settling disputes among states. Members: 15 judges from major world legal systems elected by GA and SC. Rules: majority decisions, non compulsory, voluntary compliance (Optional Clause and Nicaragua, 1984). Issues: decolonization, territorial disputes, global commons, nuclear tests, hostage taking, environment, genocide. Limitations: only states can bring cases, binding decision only in a specific case, no legal precedent, slow. Promise: small states heavily represented, apolitical

UN Security Council

Roles: maintain peace and security on behalf of UN members. 5 permanent members and 10 non-permanent members from 5 geographic blocs in the GA. Meets in crisis. Limits: not representative of changing world and power of states, dependence on powerful states, no resources of its own despite huge legal power.

The UN Secretary General and Secretariat

Secretariat operation: implement socio-economic programs, info-gathering, documents, translations, meets, series of functional field offices. Roles of SG: UN administration, diplomacy, moral compass, chief UN administrator and manager, brings issues of peace and security to SC, uses Charter for political goals, global diplomat/intermediary (neutrality). Limitations: task duplication/inefficient, implausibility of the SG being neutral.

Syria and R2P

Slaughter: Intervene→forget about sovereignty as we know it, the conflict is spilling into neighboring countries and creating a safe haven for terror groups (ISIS has exploited the political vacuum). Reiff: Do not intervene→misguided liberals attacking the Bush doctrine and neoconservatives yet they are more interventionist themselves; we should learn from the lessons of Afghanistan and Iraq; it is a complex situation of where to intervene, might open the door to Islamic extremism and shift the regional balance further. Bellin & Krause: Remove outside help for the regime→learn from history and stay out of the conflict (costly), rebels in Syria do not have will/resolve, visionary with alternative future plan, and ingrained popular support, therefore unlikely to win against "organized" state. Do NOT support the rebels, leads to more violence not less. Do persuade Russia to stop supporting Assad by giving it what it wants. Persuade Assad to step down by offering asylum/amnesty. Ford: Help those who have already fled→Assad has some popular support as well as foreign support (Iran troops, Russian airpower/money), while the rebels are split with no popular support and waning foreign aid. With ISIS gone Assad can focus on suppressing the Kurds and retaking oil fields, the US should NOT intervene for its allies (Kurds, SDF, or Israel) as no one else will, US aid to rebuild economy will be wasted on corruption, giving aid to refugees in Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan, and Turkey is the only limited thing that the US can do now to relieve humanitarian disaster and prevent extremism.

"New" Cold War

Smaller scale, weaker Russia, not about ideology, not global, no bipolarity. System: the woes of multipolarity and how to cope, (the US has resources but is less willing to lead, Russia wants great power status but no means to achieve it). Domestic: differing visions of how to get goals with Russian security running against US quest for wealth and liberalism. Nationalism→US has to be the villain to unify against in times of economic decline and domestic protest. Both US and Russia demonize each other to distract from problems at home. Individual: Putin's belief system as former KGB, Trumps stubbornness and unwillingness to change views

Globalization

Spiegel→Increased general connectivity and interdependence globally; increased mobility of goods, services, labor, technology, and capital throughout the world. Increased "globalism" →Change in one area rapidly brings about change in other seemingly unconnected areas. Many issues are interconnected and overlapping at the same time, and there are connections over long distances. Ordinary people/new actors can bring about change (i.e. through social media)

Fragmentation

Spiegel→breaking apart, embracing regional, national, and local authority and ethnic divisions. Chia→Tribalism, innate human instinct; in-group favoritism, especially strong if market-dominant minority (has overwhelming political, economic, or cultural dominance in a country), identity and not ideology prevail in Vietnam, Afghanistan, and Iraq and prevent effective international response. US torn by tribalism. Hu and Spence→backlash to globalization, income inequality in the West and rising populism and nativism. Failure of IOs like the IMF to rein in globalization and inadequacy/threat of Chinese alternatives, the dark side of the internet

Washington Consensus and SAPs

Two international policy stances on development. Washington Consensus created to promote fiscal responsibility, lower taxes and deregulation, liberalization of trade, interest rates, currencies, FDI, privatization, property rights. Washington Consensus exemplified in SAPs by World Bank and IMF that not only led to contagion of financial crises from Mexico to Asia to Russia in 1990s but also to radical turn to the left in Latin America after state sold out to private companies on the cheap and public spending and the environment degraded, (ex. Venezuela).

Rwanda: Limitations of Peacekeeping

UNAMIR in 1993, limited resources and mandate, obstructed by the Hutus. Claims of genocide rejected to not lose neutrality. April 1994 President assassinated, kill lists of moderates and Tutsis over radio, Belgians targeted too. UN still treats situation as a civil war and not a genocide. UNAMIR II→270 to keep cease-fire, 5,500 requested but only 354 supplied. US denies genocide is happening or that they knew about it. French step in unilaterally with UN blessing to save the neck of Hutu government. UN's largest failure, undermined the organization.

Terrorism

Use of violence against civilians by non state actors for political goals (violence to send a "costly" message, signal resolve/will) (Kydd & Walter). Tactic and movement, use of fear, shock, and unlawful force to intimidate governments and societies and achieve a political, religious, or ideological outcome. Asymmetric warfare (weak against strong), mostly by non state actors, sanctified goals, propaganda by deed, utopia through death (Spiegel)

War crimes

Violations of laws that govern war and purposeful killings of civilians, using rape as a weapon, child soldiers (occurs during wartime)

The environment and conflict

With population growth, overconsumption, and changing resource distribution within societies, we get ethno-religious conflict, deprivation, migration or explosion, state weakness and collapse. Bangladesh→population growth reduces cropland, migration, to India and ethno-religious conflict over land. Mauritania→with population growth and resource overutilization around Senegal River, dam projects to preserve water but rising land prices leads elites to defund black Africans of land and citizenship, expulsion to Senegal, and ethnic conflict and cattle raids across the border. Philippines→with unequal land distribution, mass migration of poor and landless to cities or uplands, environmental degradation, and economically deprived rebel against state in 70s and 80s. Middle East→Israeli rising water consumption and aquifers in occupied territory, Arab-Jewish water allowance gaps, challenging state, same in Jordan now with Syrian refugees, state weakness and political vacuum

Environmental cooperation

World Commission on Environment and Development (1983): idea of sustainable development. UN Convention on Climate Change (1992), Kyoto Protocol (1997). Rio Earth Summit (1992), huge scope and NGO involvement; Agenda 21, conventions on biodiversity, desertification, climate change (Kyoto basis). 2015 Paris Climate Agreements going strong without US.

Voluntary economic migrants

World inequality makes people want to move from places with few economic opportunities to places with many (usually global S to N), lower-skilled from LDC looking for better employment opportunities and higher wages and demand for them in EDCs with mostly high-skilled workers. There is demand in jobs that natives don't want. Globalization makes it easier and less costly to migrate. Leaving home to diversify income of family where there are no social protections against poverty and natural disasters.

Ethnic Cleansing

clearing a territory of a group by any means (Muslim Bosnians in former Yugoslavia, Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar)

Genocide

denial of right to existence to an entire human group (Holocaust/Jews, Rwanda/Tutsis)

Crimes against humanity

grave crimes like murder, enslavement, rape, starvation, disappearance of large groups of people

Money, currency, exchange rates

money→medium of exchange, unit of account for contracts, store of value. currency→political money, created and sanctioned by governments. exchange rates→price of one currency in terms of another, demand and supply apply as in any price

Microfinance

small loans to many people who are under poverty line simply because they have no reliable source of credit as too poor to be creditworthy, local ownership, credit but also empowerment by teaching women (main borrowers) how to manage fertility, family, hygiene, etc. Starts in Bangladesh and spread all over world, lifts people out of extreme poverty. Problems: male-dominated, still for profit, still does not reach the poorest of the poor