year one

anal tone

should exhibit good tone

what is haemolysis?

the rupture or destruction of red blood cells.

Do you think pericarditis can be treated? If so, how (remember the pericardium may contain many litres of pus)?

A rumenotomy to remove foreign body Pericarditis - this has followed from penetration of a piece of wire from the reticulum Diagnosed on clinical examination and sometimes ultrasound Antibiotic therapy will not resolve the pericardial infection although temporary reduction of oedema occurs after a single corticosteroid injection such as dexamethasone and antibiotic therapy.

ventricular tachycardia

A run of 3 or more VPCs Rhythm usually regular during tachycardia The rate low but over intrinsic rate of the ventricles >40bpm in the dog >60bpm in the cat May be sustained or non-sustained

isovolumetric contraction systole

All 4 valves shut Ventricular pressures not exceeding the pulmonary artery and aorta ventricular pressure exceeds atrial pressure causing the AV valves to snap shut. First heart sound S1 From closure of the AV valves Ventricular pressure rises shown on graph

explain the difference between afferent neurons, interneurons and efferent neurons.

Afferent - towards the central nervous systemEfferent - away from the central nervous systemInterneurons - connect or associate one point in the CNS with another but never leave the CNS - used to transfer information between neurones

Bromide

Competes with Cl- in Cl channel Very old and long half life but takes a while to get to steady state Toxicity : gastric irritation, sedation, ataxia

diagnosis of canine lungworm

Complete blood count Knotts test Thoracic radiographs Electrocardiogram Arteriogram Indirect fluorescent antibody ELISA Tracheal wash Not very specific as increased eosinophils can mean lots of things

Haematopoiesis

Continuous process of replenishment Formation of blood cellular components Red blood cells = erythropoiesis White blood cells Platelets process occurs in red bone marrow and spleen

how are dsDNA viruses produced

Double stranded DNA Transcription of DNA viruses by cellular RNA polymerase, encode their own DNA polymerase so can control replication independent of cellular DNA replication. Assembly of virus buds from the nucleus. E.g. herpesviruses, adenoviruses

How can dysrhythmias be identified and treated?

Dysrhythmias are common in patients with heart disease. These will require characterisation with an ECG. Specific antidysrhythmic therapy may be required e.g. beta blocker, calcium channel blocker, digoxin- few areveterinary licensed.

myocardial hypertrophy

Eccentric hypertrophy Occurs with volume loading Eg valve incompetence/dilated CMO Concentric hypertrophy Occurs with pressure load - hypertension or narrowing of aortic or pulmonary valve Increase in the thickness of heart wall

main innervation supply distal limb

Equine forelimb palmar aspect the median artery = main supply to distal forelimb which continues as medial palmar artery - no dorsal in horse forelimb Equine hindlimb plantar aspect the cranial tibial artery is the main supply to distal hindlimb continuing as dorsal metatarsal artery

venus return

Deoxygenated blood is returned to the heart. Diastolic cardiac volume is important to cardiac output. Important controlling factors: sympathetic nervous system, blood volume, muscle (respiratory) pump

identify the key factors in the epidemiology of Dictyocaulus viviparus (bovine lungworm) and Angiostrongylus vasorum (canine lungworm).

Dictyocaulus viviparus (bovine lungworm) Latter half of first grazing season Affects cattle on permanent pastures They have to malt twice to become infective from L1 TO L3 Causes parasitic pneumonia Alveoli damage

Why is nucleic acid synthesis a good target?

Differences in the organization and replication of bacterial DNA and RNA to eukaryotes Quinolones Novobiocin Act on an enzyme which separates the two DNA strands - interfering with replication process Rifampin - interferes with DNA-dependent RNA polymerase activity = prevents RNA synthesis bacteriostatic

indicator media

Different bacteria have different nutritional capabilities or enzymes These differences can be used to make indicator media where once bacteria gives a colour reaction that others will not Allows differentiation of what is growing based on how they look on the media

pulse pressure

Different to blood pressure Difference in pressure that we see at the end of systole and at the diastole Influenced by arterial compliance (primarily in the aorta), stroke volume, ejection rate, consistent high pulse pressure will 'age' the heart quicker

gram stain

Differential stain Stain one stain, de stains ground negative not ground positive Gram positive stay lighter pink colour

Describe the function of the distal limb skeleton

Distal limb consists of metacarpal or metatarsal bone and proximal middle and distal phalanges it is distal to carpus and tarsus

division of nasal cavity

Divided by scrolls of turbinate bone from nasal conchae Evolved in mammals and birds as they developed endothermy The hard palate evolved at the same time which allows suckling Increases surface area Balance between airflow resistance, defence mechanisms, warming and moistening function and olfaction

dilator muscles comparison in species

Dog Cat - two more vertical bands of muscles Horse/ruminants - horizontal oval Extra structures - black masses suspended from pupil = corpora nigra and granula indica

eucoleus aerophilius clinical signs and diagnosis

Dogs cats foxes hedgehogs etc Inhabits trachea, bronchi and bronchioles normally asymptomatic but can have slight cough animal ingests an infective egg or earthworm (paratenic host) that contains an infective larva in its tissue then this goes to the lungs Diagnosis = faecal flotation of tracheal wash of eggs with characteristic bipolar plugs and a rough netted surface

the nasopharynx

Dorsal to soft palate Soft tissue continuous with palatine bone Extends from the choanae to the intrapharyngeal opening Choanae - opening of nasal cavity into nasopharynx

How does congestive heart failure develop?

Eventually the patient decompensates. Compensation and fluid retention results in congestive heart failure and disease progression. Clinical signs develop with time- months-years Patient compensates for disease initially Gets progressively worse Clinical signs vary

ectropion

Eversion or outward turning of the eyelid Opposite of entropion Saggy eyelids Often doesn't need treatment Diamond eye - mixture of both entropion and ectropion

what are neural tube defects?

Failure of neural tube closeAnencephaly = failure in cranial regionSpina bifida = failure anywhere else

Maternal antibody transfer test

Failure of passive transfer of maternal antibodies is the most common predisposing cause of neonatal infection. Foals which fail to obtain sufficient colostrum are susceptible to infection. Serum IgG levels of less than 400 mg/dl indicate significant failure of passive transfer of colostrum; ideally the serum IgG level should exceed 800 mg/dl.

Note the lack of blood supply on the dorsal aspect compared to the cow limb. What is the clinical significance of this structure in the cow?

In the cow, the axial palmer digital artery bleeds profusely when the digit is amputated so it must be ligated properly to avoid this.

alveolar duct

Has alveoli which open on all sides Has no walls as such Calibre of the alveolar duct is substantially greater than that of the respiratory bronchiole Openings to the alveoli are guarded by rings of smooth muscle

Describe the positioning of dogs and cats for dorsoventral thoracic radiographs

Heart. Caudal edge of scapulae, caudal to back of ribcage. Keep back end square- twists the image of the thorax. Place in sternal recumbency.

Pulmonary Hypertension and D. immitis / narrowing of pulmonary artery

It is not caused by blockage but by hypertrophy of medial layer - thickening of wall of blood vessel Caused by disruption of intima leading to platelet influx and production of platelet derived growth factor PDGF Increases proliferation of medial smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts Thickening and hypertrophy of blood vessels

Identify potential problems of regional anaesthesia in the horse and ruminant

In the horse make sure we aspirate to make sure we are not in a blood vessel - pull the syringe back to ensure no blood comes out A ruminant has an additional blood supply along the dorsal aspect compared to a horse not - In the cow, the axial palmer digital artery bleeds profusely when the digit is amputated so it must be ligated properly to avoid this. In cows there is also a dorsal common digital artery in bovine forelimb and dorsal metatarsal arteries in hindlimb

increased vascularity

Increased vascularity: over-circulation results in lung fieldsmore radiopaque- left to rightshunts, fluid overload.

Ascaris suum in pigs

Ingest eggs containing secondary larvae stage Which will hatch In small intestine Blood stream to liver and lung Breaks into alveoli-causing respiratory manifestations Cause irritation in lungs Coughed up larvae Swallow larvae again Larvae become mature and live in the small intestine

Haemosiderin

It is intracellular complex of ferritin, denatured ferritin and other material Iron within deposits of hemosiderin is very poorly available to supply iron when needed Large deposits may lead to organ damage

leucopenia lowered levels of components

Neutropenia Lymphopenia Monocytopenia Eosinopenia

leucocytosis increase in components

Neutrophilia - increase in neutrophils Lymphocytosis - increase total white blood cells Monocytosis Eosinophilia Basophilia

Post-G SNS Nerve fibre Neurotransmitter Designation Receptor

Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine) Adrenergic α and/or β

function of retinal pigment epithelium

Nutrition Recycling used photopigments Forming part of blood-retinal barrier Phagocytic role in retinal inflammation Storing vitamin A Role in retinal inflammation Melanin pigment absorb stray light and scavenge free radicals

Iliopsoas - Iliacus

O: Cranioventral ilium I: Lesser trochanter A: Flex hip N: Femoral nerve and lumbar spinal nerves

Long digital extensor

O: Extensor fossa femur I: DP 2, 3, 4, 5 A: Flex tarsus and extend digits N: Fibular nerve

Cranial tibial

O: Extensor groove of tibia and cranial tibial border I: Metatarsals 2 and 3 A: Flex tarsocrural joint and rotate paw laterally N: Fibular nerve

Pectineus

O: Iliopubic eminence and pubic tubercle I: Distal medial femur A: Adduct limb N: Obturator nerve

Middle gluteal

O: Ilium I: Greater trochanter A: Extend and abduct hip. Rotate medially at hip N: Cranial gluteal nerve

Semitendinosus

O: Ischiatic tuberosity I: Distal tibia and tuber calcanei A: Extend hip, flex stifle, extend hock N: Sciatic nerve

Biceps Femoris

O: Ischiatic tuberosity I: Proximal tibia and tuber calcanei A: Extend hip, stifle and hock. Flex stifle N: Sciatic nerve

Fibularis longus

O: Lateral condyle tibia, proximal fibula, lateral epicondyle femur I: 4th tarsal bone and metatarsals A: Flex tarsus and rotate paw medially N: Fibular nerve

Popliteus

O: Lateral epicondyle femur I: Proximal tibia A: Rotate leg medially N: Tibial nerve

Gemelli

O: Lateral ischium I: Trochanteric fossa of femur A: Rotate laterally at hip N: Sciatic nerve

Peroneus longus

O: Lateral tibia and fibula I: Plantar aspect tarsus A: Flex hock N: Fibular nerve

Iliopsoas - Psoas major

O: Lumbar vertebrae I: Lesser trochanter A: Flex hip N: Femoral nerve and lumbar spinal nerves

Gracilis

O: Pelvic symphsis I: cranial tibia and tuber calcanei A: Adduct limb, extend hip, flex stifle, extend hock N: Obturator nerve

Superficial gluteal

O: Sacrum and first caudal vertebra. Cranial dorsal iliac spine I: Third trochanter A: Extend hip and abduct limb N: Caudal gluteal nerve

Peroneus brevis

O: Tibia and fibula I: 5th MT bone A: Flex hock N: Fibular nerve

Tensor fasciae latae

O: Tuber coxae and ilium I: Lateral femoral fascia A: Tense lateral femoral fascia, flex hip, extend stifle N: Cranial gluteal nerve

External obturator

O: Ventral pubis and ischium I: Trochanteric fossa A: Rotate medially at hip N: Obturator nerve

Identify the areas of the distal limb desensitised by common regional anaesthesia

Palmar region - the distal limb excluding the coronary band and the Abaxial region - does the whole digit including the band

ocular immune privilege

Protected from excess inflammation and the immune system Mechanisms for this: Limits access to the eye from blood ocular barriers Absence of lymphatics pathways : limiting access to lymphatic tissues Aqueous humour composition : ascorbic acid and other anti oxidants Immunomodulatory ligands on intraocular cells (esp. pigmented epithelial cells) Indigenous, tolerance-promoting antigen-presenting cells Create a stable environment

function of conjunctiva

Protects ocular surface allowing free movmenet of ocular structures Contributes to tear film Most exposed mucous membrane in the body CALT is contained in everted lymph node - stroma = conjunctival - associated lymphoid tissue Many lymphocytes present which form active follicles when stimulated by antigens

heat-shock proteins

Proteins that help maintain integrity of other proteins that would normally be denatured in extreme heat. Form hormone - receptor complex which causes conformational change Crosses through nuclear membrane releasing receptor Hormone eg testosterone acts at nucleus causes transcription making more hormone

functions of ciliary body

Provides accommodation - allows us to focus on close up and far away things Distance - ciliary body relaxed contracts lens

Identify other professionals supporting musculoskeletal care of birds

RSPB AND RSPCA, local councils

Purkinje fibres

Rapid conduction tissue Ensures simultaneous contraction of ventricles From apex to base is how depolarisation spread Electrically excitable cells Similar to cardiac myocyte action potential Retains spontaneous activity as a result of sodium leakage

tapetal hyper reflectivity

More reflection and abnormal reflection Dilated pupils No signal going up optic nerve

myotatic reflexes biceps

Reflex contraction of the biceps muscles Causes reflex flexion of elbow, increased tension in tendon of insertion, movement of skin over muscle belly

cardiac valves

Right AV = often called tricuspid Three cusps but most species only have two cusps Left AV - often called mitral 2 cusps Attached by chordae tendinea - papillary muscles

Explain the concepts of organisation of the spinal cord pathways in tracts

Similar fibres and axons are arranged in tracts Tract is just a bundles of nerves that are organised together in functional bundle / tracts We can map out a no of different tracts that relay the same information Be aware of organisation somatotopic organization? organisation within the tracts

diagnostic tests (logical process)

Start point Clinical signs Visual/imaging Endoscopy Radiography Ultrasonography Sampling Haematology Bronchoalveolar lavage Tracheal aspiration Swab Microbiology on samples Cytology - demonstration of immune cells Culture or visual - bacteria/fungi Demonstration of viral antigens

what are the vagosympathetic trunk components?

Sympathetic fibres running cranially to head/neck Parasympathetic fibres running cranially from receptors and viscera to head Parasympathetic fibres running caudally to heart and viscera Fibres from CN XI that will form the recurrent laryngeal nerve to laryngeal muscles - hitchhiking form recurrent laryngeal nerve

what happens during ventricular systole

The ventricles contract, pushing blood through the semi-lunar valves into the pulmonary artery or aorta

What happens during ventricular diastole?

The ventricles relax, allowing them to fill with blood at the same time as the atria contracting

Describe the components (epidermal-dermal and endochondral) of the chelonian shell and its relationship to the axial skeleton

The vertebral column forms the under the surface of the carapace it is made up of dermal and endochondral bone - metabolically active with blood and nerve supply, turtle shell attached to axial skeleton it is formed of scutes which are the epidermis

function of the thymus

Thymic education and central tolerance of T-cells T cells must be prevented from reacting to 'self' antigen - would lead to immune system overreacting

dorsal supply of distal hindlimb

Two nerves supply - so you have to block dorsal aspect as well Nerve supply to dorsal aspect of hindlimb different to the forelimb as in the forelimb the radial nerve terminates at carpus and dorsal supply comes from medial and ulnar nerves - can be blocked on palmar aspect In hindlimb the fibular nerve supplies dorsal aspect and must be blocked on here

reciprocal apparatus

Two tendinous cords cause united movement of the stifle and hock The tendons are Peroneus tertius (front) Superficial digital flexor (back) Anytime we're going to extend the stifle pully structure acts on tarsus

what do we need to know from the life cycle?

Type of life cycle (direct or indirect) Definitive host Intermediate host (if any) Infective stage Route of infection Unique morphological features Unique epidemiological features Clinical signs, pathogenesis, control!!!!!

what are viruses composed of ?

They are composed of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat

mycoplasmas analysis with gram positive bacteria?

They lack a cell wall so they do not stain as gram positive They have reduced genomes and have got rid of a lot of their genes except for a limited number of essential components and pinch other metabolites from host environment

anatomy of choroid

Thin and vascular Three vessel layers Function of choroid Supplies blood to the retina Part of blood-ocular barrier Includes the tapetum : reflecting light back to retina to improve vision in dim light

what is the outflow from the CNS does the sympathetic ns have?

Thoracolumbar outflow The neurons begin at the thoracic and lumbar portions of the spinal cord

Central Vestibular Lesion

Same as peripheral vestibular dysfunction but also cerebellar dysfunction (e.g., intention tremor), proprioceptive deficits, mentation changes, vertical nystagmus, and cranial nerve deficits other than VII, VIII and Horner's syndrome Nystagmus tends to be positional with central lesions as well. However, positional nystagmus also occurs with chronic peripheral vestibular disorders.

Give the two names of neuroglia in the peripheral nervous system and explain their function

Schwann cells - provide myelination to peripheral neurons Satellite cells - are for repair (Adult stem cells)

Sympathetic Mechanism on the Heart - to increase the heart rate

Second messenger - cAMP B1 receptor Calcium channels open more and for longer and therefore more Ca2+ Increased contraction force Calcium channels open earlier so reach threshold potential and reset quicker More likely to produce a beat and heart rate increases

Identify the four features of Tetralogy of Fallot

Ventricular septal defect (VSD) Pulmonary valve stenosis A misplaced aorta A thickened right ventricular hypertrophy

Pneumothorax definition

accumulation of air in the pleural space

what can heart disease be?

acquired or congenital acquired occurs later in life and is more common

where are lymph nodes located

at various points along lymph vessels, act as elaborate filters Cattle and dogs have fewer, larger nodes whilst pigs and horses have lots of smaller nodes

amygdala

almond shaped groups of neurones located deep within the medial temporal lobes within the brainPart of limbic systemDamaged amygdala can cause people not to show anxiety nuclei of amygdala

Characteristics that confirm S. pneumonia

alpha haemolysis non-motile cocci that form chains facultative aerobe gram positive

ischaemia

an inadequate blood supply to an organ/part of body

Ethrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR)

an increase in ESR is a non specific change in many diseases that is probably due to changes in the plasma that encourage agglutination - the larger aggregates that sediment more rapidly

what increases afterload

an increase in stroke volume it is influenced by pressure of blood in circulation and is affected by vasomotor tone and primairily arteriolar tone low afterload may occur after loss of blood Means we can increase the stroke volume Due to less resistance increased afterload due to increased resistance within vascular system Stroke volume compromised and reduced

what is an inflammatory response

an innate immune reaction that ensures immune cells and other substances are brought to the infected area What does the inflammatory response do? destroys foreign organismsremoves injured tissue or cell remnantsprovides favourable conditions for healing

Poikilotherm

an organism that cannot regulate its body temperature except by behavioural means such as basking or burrowing

Homeotherm

an organism that maintains its body temperature at a constant level, usually above that of the environment, by its metabolic activity

signs of vestibular disturbance

animal not walking in straight linecircles to certain sidehead tilt

what do paraventricular and supraoptical nuceli both synthesize?

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)/vasopressin and oxytocine

what happens to haemoglobin in higher concentrations of oxygen

colour brighter and redder

variable in CSF = colour normal finding change due to bacterial infection?

colourless Will change to cloudy if there is a elevated cell count Pink or red discolouration is commonly due to iatrogenic blood contamination

what are the hemispheres of the telencephalon connected by?

commissures corpus callosum is the biggest connection between two hempishpheres

mucous membrane colour

estimation of oxygen content from mucous membranes colour Cyanosis - blue/cyan colour = serious problem Indicated deoxygenated haemoglobin Measuring oxygen content - pH, HCO3, PaCO2, PaO2

urachus fetal role and remanant

fibrous remnant of the allantois, a canal that drains the urinary bladder of the fetus that joins and runs within the umbilical cord

what are the journeys for general and special sensory information

general and special sensory information = relays through appropriate groups of thalamic nuclei general = through ventral group special = geniculate nuclei impulses then pass via the internal capsules and visual and auditory radiations to reach appropriate cortical sensory areas

define what the term osteochondrosis means and recognise that it is a developmental disease

group of developmental skeletal disorder of unknown origin that primarily occurs in horse dog and pig focal failures of endochondral ossification that occur in well defined predilection sites in young animals developmental disease means only occurs in developmental period

what does endoderm form?

gut, liver, lungs

what does surface ECG record and how ?

recorded with one pair of electrodes either self adhesive pads or crocodile clips Bipolar leads Positive and negative electrodes They are called limb leads One - RF and LF - positive Two - RF and LH - positive Three - LF and LH - positive Earth lead on hindlimb

location and function of DDFT?

runs deep to SDFT passes through manica flexoria inserts on flexor tuberosity of distal phalanx of each functional digit flexes distal digit

latent infection

infectious agent disappears and lays dormant but can be reactivated

parasympathetic action on atrioventricular node

lengthens AV delay decreasing AV conduction and lengthens AV node refractory period = not depolarised as quickly and can make refractory periods increase

topography of hypothalamus and function

lies below the thalamus forms ventral part of diencephalon exposed on ventral or basal surface of brain involved in appetite, eating and metabolism hypothalamus maintaining homeostasis

what are the organs involved in regulation of external acid-base balance?

lungs and the kidneys

location and function of long digital extensor - hindlimb?

main digital extensor for hind splits into branches for each functional digit inserts on extensor process of distal phalanx

ossicles of middle ear

malleus, incus, stapes they act as levers to transmit the sound wave vibration

left semilunar in aorta

often called aortic valve

right semilunar in pulmonary artery

often called pulmonic valve

commensalism

only one organism benefits from this association without causing any harm to the second organism eg fish which live within the tentacles of sea anemone

anastomosis

organs rely on blood flow if the flow stops the organ becomes necrotic to avoid this organs can receive a collateral supply of blood : anastomosis

Neocortex

outermost layer of cortex Dominant part of cerebral cortex in mammals Planning of movement, perception, learning and memory

where can you take swabs in dogs and cats?

nasal swab, oropharyngeal swab, tonsillar swab Can be used when investigating a chronic tonsillitis, chronic nasal discharge or other suspected infectious agent In cats and some dogs it is hard to obtain tonsillar swab from conscious animal

metabolic alkalosis

pH has increased and increase in bicarb (Increase in HCO3-) Some types /causes of vomiting due to loss of acid as HCl Can occur due to diuretics : H+ ions loss from the kidney

neocerebellum - 3

part of hemisphereinput coming via pons

what is the lymphatic system?

part of the circulatory system network of capillaries, vessels, Mechanism for removing excess interstitial (tissue) fluid Transportation of fats Immune defence

what is simple pseudostratified epithelium?

secretion and movement of particles along tubular organs found in trachea, bronchi, epididymis

nuclear sclerosis vs cataract

nuclear sclerosis Nucleus becomes denser and harder (sclerotic) with age d/t continual production of new lens fibres Greyish blue haze No classification system Minimum effects on vision - reduced accommodation (presbyopia) No effects on ocular health Surgery not required cataract Any opacity of lens or its capsule - variable pathogenesis Very variable appearance Complicated classification - age of onset, aetiology, extent, position Variable effects on vision May cause lens-induced uveitis May need surgical removal

stroke

occurring when blood flow to an area of the brain is cut off.

three categories of anticholinesterases?

short actingmedium durationirreversible

sympathetic action on atrioventricular node

shortens AV delay which increases AV conduction and shortens AV node refractory period = more rapid depolarisation

tail function

should be good tail tone and function with no reduction in tail carriage

complement protein

substance that is produced by a predecessor protein or in response to the presence of foreign material in the body and that triggers or participates in a complement reaction

reservoir host

temporary hosts used in the absence of natural host eg human trypanosomes reservoir in cattle and antelope

Expiratory reserve volume (ERT)

the additional volume of air that can still be exhaled after a normal exhalation, for instead in a forced breath out.

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRT)

the additional volume of air that can still be inhaled after a normal inhalation.

what is PCR used for?

to amplify DNA DNA is heated with primers to denature the DNA strands. On cooling, they anneal and the primer sticks to the template if the gene is present. DNA polymerase fills the gap, adding nucleotides to the 3' end and extending the primers.

ventilation

total ventilation is the tidal volume x respiratory frequency

exogenous pathogens

transferred from other sources

Total lung capacity (TLC)

the maximum volume of air that the lungs can hold accommodate after maximum inspiration, so it is the total of the vital capacity and the residual volume.

what will the neural plate form?

the neural tube - neurulation (edges fold around and meet in the middle)

how do most DNA viruses replicate in?

the nucleus

palpebral fissure

the opening between the eyelids

what two pathways exist for a compound to transverse the epithelial sheet from the intestine?

the paracellular pathway = between the cells the transcellular pathway = straight through the cell

deadspace ventilation

the portion of VE that is not available for gas exchange DEAD SPACE VOLUME X FREQUENCY OF BREATHING

spiral septum

septum between aorta and pulmonary artery grows on downwards clockwise spiral then vessels enlarge truncus expands and two channels are separate - pulmonary trunk and aorta

eosinophil

circulates in blood protective role against parasites

corpus callosum function

corpus callosum is the biggest is major connection between the two hemispheres it is a large C-shaped nerve fibre bundle found under the cerebral cortex

what does histamine do?

dilates blood vessels and permability of vessels and activates endothelium leading to warmth redness, local oedema (swelling) and attraction of other inflammatory cells to site of release clinical signs of histamine release? irritation of nerve endings leading to itching or pain

what is rate of diffusion inversely proportional to

distance over which diffusion occurs and thickness of membrane

what is the role of the lacrimal puncta

drains tears

Why does plasma lactate levels increase in septic shock

due to decreased perfusion of tissues and a shift towards anaerobic metabolism.

S wave in ECG

end of ventricular depolarisation happens endocardium to epicardium gives S wave from small part

Osteochondrosis :

failure of endochondral ossification

list disease conditions which affect ovine foot

foot rot and scald

properties of specific nuclei

have well defined sensory and motor functions have highly organised point to point connection with sensory and motor regions of cerebral cortex

competitive ELISA

if antigen is small and has only one epitope (binding site for antibody). The sample antigen competes with labelled antigen for antibody binding site, ie cortisol

what leads to pressure or even oedema in either pulmonary or peripheral

if more blood enters the left or right ventricle as they are matched normally cardiac output is related to the left ventircle

respiratory effect in anxiety

important function Deep accelerated breathing helps prepare for flight or fight as tissues of human body need more oxygen Availability of glucose is increased Increase in sweating

where do most RNA viruses replicate?

in cytoplasm

difference in species in distal limbs

in horse interosseous is entirely tendinous but in dog and cat it is muscular different ray patterns as abaxial digits lose contact with the ground in faster animals that are adapted for speed reducing muscle mass different numbers of metacarpal bones interossei III and IV fused in cow - separate and insert on corresponding digits in cows there is also a dorsal common digital artery in forelimb and dorsal metatarsal arteries in hindlimb stump of axial palmar artery bleeds profusely and must be ligated

what allows the development of immunoassays?

specific antibody in infected animal - anti-virus antibody in blood samples from infected animal - virus in the assay detection of pathogen with a specific antibody - virus in biological sample from infected animal - anti-virus antibody in the assay

non invasive measurement of measuring the arterial blood pressure

sphygomomanometry - inflation of a cuff oscillometric -at is restrained and has a blood pressure cuff around its leg, the width of the cuff is actually quite important it should be about 50% of the circumference of the leg that is being measured. Calculates systolic and diastolic pressure and heart rate doppler - probe that is placed on clipped area of where we can feel pulse (paw/tail) we get a whooshing sound out of microphone

exercise physiology of sprint, standard and long distance

sprint relies totally of anaerobic process in muscles breaking down ADP standard switches to anaerobic glycolysis for 15-30 seconds after dominant aerobic processes for first 30 seconds of race causes acidosis aerobic after 30 second anaerobic interval again fading at the end caused by metabolic acidosis

where are TLRs embedded

in lipid bilayers : - outer cell mebrane - vesicle membrane

perineal reflex

stimulation of perineal region should elicit winking/constriction of anal sphincter

what happens in the lung when altitude increased

increased pressure pushes fluid from vessels into alveoli - we get fluid flooding the alveoli impacting on the ability of oxygen to reach alveoli so impacts gas exchange bacterial growth risk for animals with fluid being pushed out increased

eucoleus (capillaria) boehmi

infects mucosa of nasal cavity/passages and the fronal and paranasal sinuses dogs and foxes

what is uveitis

inflammation of the uvea

what are all effect fibres from the cerebellar cortex (Purkinje cells)

inhibitory

four types of stratified epithelium?

stratified squamous, stratified cuboidal, stratified columnar, transitional epithelium

where is it found and what are the properties of fibrocartilage

intervertebral disks and certain ligaments and tendinous attachments to bone No true perichondrium , alternative layers of fibrous and cartilaginous tissue

baroreceptors

involved in regulation of homeostasis they are located in the internal carotid arteries and in the wall of the aortic arch

exophthalmos definition - Globe size (normal/ enlarged/ reduced) Globe position (normal/ protruding/ sunken) Appearance of eye itself (normal/ abnormal)

is a bulging of the eye anteriorly out of the orbit Normal Protusion Normal

hydrophthalmos definition - Globe size (normal/ enlarged/ reduced) Globe position (normal/ protruding/ sunken) Appearance of eye itself (normal/ abnormal)

is primary congenital glaucoma This form of congenital glaucoma is usually bilateral Normal Normal abnormal

fixed acids

An acid which cannot leave solution and must be eliminated via the kidney, e.g. phosphoric acid.

List different considerations when selecting, prescribing and dispensing different drugs

Correct indication (correct problem) with no contra-indications - safe and effective Efficacy Route of administration Legalisation Status of animal - young old pregnant Short or long term therapy Cost Owner education Farm animal

Full Agonist vs Partial Agonist drug concentration

Full agonist increase responses as we increase concentration Partial agonists same shape but less effect

draining lymph nodes of head and respiratory tract

Head: Parotid Mandibular Retropharyngeal Thorax: Tracheobronchial deep in chest view radiographically meat hygiene inspection

Describe how to safely and effectively apply an equine foot bandage

Heal to toe direction and around the circumference for full coverage of foot followed by a cohesive layer Ensure no elasticated bandage contacts skin Make duct tape square and apply to foot

corium/dermis

Highly vascular dense connective tissue Papillae produce hollow horn tubules Grows like normal dermis/epidermis Start of lamellae next to the papillae

histograms

Interpretating histogram - unimodal data with obvious median, mean and mode value of six Multi modal data on the right

Semimembranosus

O: Ischiatic tuberosity I: Distal, caudal, medial femur and proximal, medial tibia A: Extend hip and flex or extend stifle N: Sciatic nerve

oxidase test

Oxidase test identifies bacteria that produce cytochrome oxidate An enzyme of the bacterial electron transport chain used by bacteria growing aerobically Colour comes from reduction of test compound

myotatic reflexes patellar

Percuss the straight patellar tendon Reflex extension of the stifle

what are the functions of the cerebral spinal fluid?

Protection - of the brain as there is a selective barrier between the blood and the CSF Support - gives buoyancy to brain for mechanical damage Nutrition - CSF goes into tissues of the brain and takes in nutrition

Identify the main features of the bones and joints of the distal limb

Strong Synovial joints Collateral ligaments present Angled to ground Should be parallel

What occurs to the valves at the end of ventricular systole?

all valves close again

what is virus isolation in cultured cells testing for?

detection and measure of infection virus

Define the main divisions of the enteric nervous system?

enteric control GIT

myelencephalon

hind brain medulla oblongata

three variables that define anaemia?

total haemoglobin, PCV or haematocrit and RBC count

indirect ELISA

used to detect a specific antibody in sample

labatory diagnosis of viral infections

isolation of the live virus and replicate it nucleic acid detection using molecular techniques electron microscopy immunological techniques haemagglutination diagnostic serology

what is iron assembly and release - viral budding?

- envelope of many enveloped viruses originate from host membranes acquired during virion assembly and egress (leave)

paleocerebellum -2

limb movement and coordination

endo-parasite

lives internally inside the host eg worms, protozoa

recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN)

CN XI branch (the hitchhikers)- leaves at vagal trunk of thoraxRight RLN hooks around right subclavian arteryLeft RLN hooks around aortic arch

heart muscle disease

Cardiomyopathy Develops later in life Unknown cause Usually develop heart failure

coronary sinus

Empty into the right atrium Deoxygenated blood back from heart itself

gram negative

Has a membrane, cell wall, another membrane This membrane has lipid polysaccharides on the outside That bacteria is unique for this component

How is excess interstitial fluid removed

In capillary beds fluid and dissolved gasses are passing out of circulatory capillaries into the tissues

How is speed optimised?

Increase stride length and increase stride rate

Cranial nerve X - Vagus

Less important doesn't factor in exam

M-mode left ventricle

Looked at how these structures move over time through each cardiac cycle

what do you need?

Low frequency (Depth) ultrasound probe 2.5MHz Concurrent ECG attached to the skin Phased array (sector) Dedicated machine Capable of imaging to 30 cm at least Patience Stocks

dirofilaria immitis life cycle canine heartworm

Mature parasite sexually reproduces in heart and vertebrae Offspring they produce is microfilariae

Bundle of His

Penetrates annulus fibrosis Has two branches Only electrical pathway between atria and ventricles

carbon dioxide transport

Physically dissolved in blood - 10% Carboxyhaemoglobin on proteins Bicarbonate ions in plasma

bacteria / septicemia

Presence of viable bacteria in blood stream

angiography - selective RV

RV insert catheter into jugular vein

malt and galt

Secondary lymphoid tissues Peyer's patches - lymphoid tissue specifically located in the wall of the intestine

Cranial nerve VII - facial nerve

Some degree of facial paralysis - largely motor fibres

Cranial nerve I - olfactory nerve test

ability to scent owner observation normally

endogenous pathogens

already on the animal

define sign stimulus

the description of simple key features of an organism that bring about a particular response

white line

the junction of the "sole" and the "wall" and an inherent area of weakness

closing capacity

the minimum volume of air needed to keep the alveoli open

tracheal wash why do we do it

with the cat under GA, a sterile ET tube is placed and then washed with 2-3 ml aliquots of sterile saline. Any secretions are collected and submitted for C+S and cytological examination. Possible findings as for BAL.

RBC morphology haemoglobin content HIGH MCHC NORMAL LOW MCHC

hyper chromic normochromic hypochromic

permissive host

not usually used by parasite but still favours life cycle completion eg liver fluke

inflammation in the CNS

'-itis' Infectious vs non-infectious Not every inflamed brain is due to an incoming infectious agent attacking the brain Increasing no. of autoimmune diseases Bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, parasites, prions, auto immune (NME, GME, NLE, SRMA)

how is the interferon response activate in innate immunity?

(type I interferons are cytokines that play a crucial role in host defence against viral infection) - induction involves activation of PRRs (pattern recognition receptors) - binding of PAMPs leads to activation of interferons

how do viruses hijack host cell machinery to suppress host gene expression?

- to enhance replication, translation and produce progeny virus particles - viral polymerase RNA virus captures host RNA polymerase II to initiate transcription - expresses end-ribonuclease PA-X that takes over RNA splicing to selectively target host RNA for destruction

variable in CSF = RBC count normal finding change due to bacterial infection?

0 sign of bleeding - may also due to spinal tap needle hitting a blood vessel

two parts of vascular tree

1- The systemic circulation 2- the pulmonary circulation

SIRs, sepsis and infection

1. A localised infection turns systemic i.e mastitis 1 in 100 cases sepsis occurs as consequence of mastitis in dairy cattle 2. Mucosal barrier breakdown Sepsis as complication due to commensal bacteria after breakdown of barrier ie ischemic intestine Can happen due to: Neonates Some colic cases in horses (twisted gut) Long surgery (human)

anatomy of retina

10 layers retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) outer most layer which lies in front of tapetum and neurosensory layers comprises the 9 other layers

monocytes histology

15-20 micrometres Irregular shaped nucleus Lacy reticulated chromatin Blue - grey cytoplasm

Questions to ask at arrival for neuro exam

Acute or chronic - has it started recently Trauma Any animals in the flock with similar problems Often worth looking at the field/feed/flock - inspect environment

selective indicator medium

A combination of selective and indicator media

radiograph of dog with A.vasorum how should it be treated

fenbadazole, moxidectin, milbemycin

transport medium

A medium designed to protect the organisms in you sample on the way to the lab.

Heart disease where is it common? what does it involve?

A syndrome in which the heart fails to deliver blood effectively to meet the requirements of metabolising tissues Is common in small animal and equine practice It normally involves valve degeneration and the valve becoming incompetent or diseases of the heart muscle, resulting the heart not contracting well or not filling well Does not always result in heart failure

neuropharmacology

About drug-induced changes in the functioning of cells in nervous system

Post-G PSNS Nerve fibre Neurotransmitter Designation Receptor

Acetylcholine Cholinergic Muscarinic Ach R

Pre-G PSNS Nerve fibre Neurotransmitter Designation Receptor

Acetylcholine Cholinergic Nicotinic Ach R

Pre-G SNS Nerve fibre Neurotransmitter Designation Receptor

Acetylcholine Cholinergic Nicotinic Ach R

Describe a test used to assess haemostasis

Activated coagulation time- 2ml blood in ACT tube containing contact activator, warm (37°C). Check for clot formation every 5-10 seconds. Record time that clot forms. Check reference range for the tube type. Simple in-practice test, less sensitive than aPTT.

parasympathetic Mechanism on the Heart - to decrease the contraction

Actively opposes Beta1 receptors - reduce cAMP This slows the heart Reduce automaticity which slow conduction at AV node Decreased contraction Over riding vagal tone - over stimulated parasympathetic system causing heart rate to be too low

What are the two types of heart failure and what is the pathophysiology?

Acute- rare- vascular disease and acute myocardium more common in humans. Chronic- most common- usually degenerative conditions. Whatever the cause is, cardiac output falls and is detected as a fall in blood pressure. Degenerative valve disease- regurgitation means less forward flow into aorta. Dilated cardiomyopathy- forward flow falls due to poor contractility. Restrictive/hypertrophic cardiomyopathy- forward flow falls because heart cannot fill.

List the 4 steps involved in bacteria infection and disease

Adhesion Invasion - intra/extracellular survival Subversion of host defence Replication - either leading to long term survival in the host or spreading to further hosts

Mucosal associated lymphoid tissues (MALT)

Aggregation of lymphocytes under ciliated epithelium

Bronchus associated lymphoid tissues (BALT)

Aggregations of lymphocytes beneath non-ciliated epithelium Strategically located at bifurcations of bronchi (turbulence and deposition of particles) to sample deposits

importance of C3

All three pathways converge on C3 Made by macrophages in the liver Highest concentration of serum complement proteins C3 breaks down into C3a and C3b C3b Can bind microbe surfaces via carbs Can bind factor H on host cells taking C3b out of circulation C3a Acts as an anaphylatoxin or a chemoattractant - attracts leukocytes to area of infection

What occurs to the valves at the end of ventricular diastole?

All valves are closed until pressure in the ventricles exceeds pressure in the aorta/pulmonary artery.

Isovolumetric Relaxation diastole

All valves closed Second heart sound - S2 Ventricles empty so pressure falls Drops below pulmonary artery and aorta Pulmonic valve and aortic valve shut Causing second heart sound

In a sandwich ELSIA, what would happen if the blocking step was omitted?

All wells, including the negative control wells, would show uniform overdevelopment

hypoventilation

Alveolar oxygen pressure (PaO2) decreases while PaCO2 rises The patient breathes less so carbon dioxide is blown less and it starts to accumulate leading to hypercapnia Increase in the carbon dioxide (hypercapnia) leaves less space for oxygen in the alveoli so the hypoxia increases Hyperventilation means we get rid of our carbon dioxide very quickly and we can end up hypercapnic

alveolar dead space

Alveoli incapable of gas exchange (in a healthy animal that is quite negligible)

Define cardiac output. What two major factors determine the magnitude of cardiac output?

Amount of blood pumped in 1 minute measure in ml/min Affected by heart rate and stroke volume

volatile acid

An acid which can leave solution and enter the atmosphere, e.g. carbonic acid - in the lung, broken down into CO2 and H2O.

blood agar

An enriched media it has to be cooled prior to adding sterile blood so it does not lyse When grown on blood agar some lyse (brake open) or damage blood cells to access iron

State the indications and contra-indications of performing nerve blocks in the horse

Analgesia of these nerves can selectively eliminate or "block" portions of the limb from sending sensations of pain to the brain. A horse with a lameness is considered to have "blocked sound" when the lameness that was seen originally is eliminated by local anesthesia. Using this principle, veterinarians are able to identify the specific location on the limb responsible for the horse's pain and subsequent lameness. Therapies can be directed to exact locations and lamenesses can be resolved.

short axis view of the left atrium

Angle up more dorsally Mercedes sign 3 cusps of aortic valve

what happens in the response to haemorrhage what are the indirect endocrine effects

Anti-diuretic hormone - ADH released from the pituitary in response to reduced blood volume Causing vasoconstriction and retention of circulating volume through the kidneys Angiotensin II Increases blood vessel tone Erythropoietin (EPO) Stimulates erythropoiesis Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) Released from cardiac myocytes in response to diastolic stretch Increases water excretion Blocks aldosterone, ADH and adrenaline release

immunological techniques

Antibodies Serotyping - Salmonella E.coli LPS Flagellum Staining with specific fluorescent antibody

Reduced Ejection systole

Aortic and pulmonary valves open - AV valve remains closed Decline in ventricular ejection

Define arrhythmia and dysrhythmia

Arrhythmia- a condition in which the heart beats with an irregular or abnormal rhythm. Dysrhythmia- an abnormal rhythm.

Sympathetic innervation directly to the heart Release of NA

Arterial blood pressure at the top has increased This is due to increased cardiac output Heart rate increased Haven't affected the cardiovascular system

bronchiole to bronchus

As for the bronchus, consider it's histological structure in relationship to it's function. Bronchi diminish in diameter the structure progressively changes to resemble more closely that of large bronchioles Bronchi needs to remain open all the time and be strong in order to make sure the animal is able to respire This is achieved by the cartilage surrounding the bronchus How does it differ from a bronchus? Bronchiole is an airway of less than 1 mm diameter which has neither cartilage of submucosal glands in its walls Epithelium is composed of ciliated columnar cells and few goblet cells Bronchioles lack cartilage and glands Bronchioles are thin walled airways What are the similarities? Both have smooth muscle

fran starling mechanism

As we increase preload we will increase stroke volume Because ventricular muscle stretching leads to a stronger contractile force : Frank-Starling Mechanism

long axis view of the left ventricular outflow tract

As we move cranially we lose out right atrium and we see the aorta Called aortic view

what is the role of the autonomic nervous system

Automatic processes but modifies eg heart rate and blood glucose Part of the PNS supplying efferent (motor) fibres to 'visceral structures' ie GVE fibres Parasympathetic Local control of action eg urination, salivary glands, GIT and heart rate Sympathetic General increase in alert state - fear, flee, fright, fun and frolic Widespread effects

Activation of cardiovascular system during anxiety

Autonomic nervous system increase in heart rate and strength of the heart beat Crucial in preparation for fight and flight as it pumps blood more rapidly to the needed areas of the body

Outline the course of vascular supply on the distal limb

Axially artery - brachial artery - medial artery - medial palmar - medial and lateral palmar digital

Ganglion cells

Axons make up the optic nerveCover whole area of retina but miss out fovea forming around it to allow highest visual acquity Light hits the first in the retina

B - mode ultrasound

B - Mode Ultrasound Real time slice through tissues Qualitative assessment for function Measurement of chamber dimensions (LA)

ocular ultrasound indications

B- mode US Common indications Very useful to image the inside the globe when you cannot see into the eye eg cloudy cornea, cataract Measure globe size Assess orbital disease eg retrobulbar abscess, FB

What types of heart failure are there and which are most common?

Backward failure (congestion)- more common and chronic vs forward failure (poor perfusion)- rarely- acute. Left heart failure- congestion of the pulmonary venous circulation- drain the lungs- pulmonary interstitial of lungs and into alveoli. Right heart failure- congestion of the systemic venous circulation- drain the body. Fluid leaks into body cavities. Left more common- diseases affect L more than R and is moresignificant. L is high pressure- effect more obvious. Fluid in lungs is life-threatening.

prokaryotic

Bacteria Gram negative (Gram -Ve) Gram positive (Gram +Ve) Acid fast (Mycobacteria these group with Gram +ve) Mycoplasma (No cell wall)

why do commensals cause disease?

Bacteria are able to alter their gene expression Switching genes on and off so they can have different properties = Phase variation Often triggered by some form of stress on the bacteria = Eg turning on adhesion factor increasing colonisation of lung Host controls impaired Changes in host, pregnancy, stress, injury Environment related Co-infection with other pathogen - incurrent disease =All allow opportunity for infection through reduced immunity =Eg dehydration to increase mucus viscosity which slows escalator and reduce function in clearing commensals Why does disease manifest its self? Multiplication of an organism exceeds the threshold for removal When an organism is 'pathogenic' they can actively invade or damage tissue

what happens at altitude?

Barometric pressure and alveolar oxygen tension falls as altitude increases

Understand the preparation and environment required to obtain good ultrasound images

Be able to trim the foot and when placing ultrasound gel use a lot and make sure it has time to settle in to the skin

Produce a basic flock health plan

Be careful with which sheep are introduced to the farm as this will spread bacteria Antibiotic injections and constant check of any mechanical damage to sheep feet When introducing new sheep quarantine for 14 days

Muscarinic agonists

Bethanechol Pilocarpine acetylcholine they are slowing the heart rate, causing contraction of smooth muscle - increasing peristaltic activity in GI. Sweating, lacrimation, salivation and bronchial secretion clinical use - glaucoma

what are short vertebral ligaments

Between the spinous processes = interspinous Between transverse processes = intertransverse Between vertebral arches = interarcuate/flavum

four types of pattern seen on radiographs

Bronchial pattern Alveolar pattern Vascular pattern Interstitial patterns- diffuse (unstructured/fine structured), nodular

Benzodiazepines

Bind to GABA a receptors facilitating endogenous GABA effects Toxicity : sedation, CV and respiratory depression They are developing tolerance makes them unusable for epilepsy but used for status

Barbiturates

Bind to GABA receptor-Cl channel complex increasing power (potentiating) of GABA Can be toxic: sedation, nystagmus, ataxia but normally go away after few weeks

neurosensory layers bipolar cells horizontal and amacrine cells muller cells

Bipolayer cells : relay visual signal, first neurone in visual pathway pass signal to ganglion cells which axons go on to form optical nerve Horizontal and amacrine cells : modulate neuronal activity Muller. Cells extend across whole retina

lymphoid organs in birds

Birds have fewer lymph nodes and many species of bird have none Lymphatic vessels are also less numerous Bursa of fabricius Sac like structure on dorsal surface of cloaca Primary lymphoid organ similarly to thymus it regresses with age

blood ocular barrier

Blood aqueous barrier and blood retinal barrier the purpose is to provide a good blood supply to the eye but limiting the cells and proteins that can enter the eye

In what direction will blood flow across the following structures in an adult? Ventricular septal defect

Blood passes from the left ventricle to the right side of the heart

Clinical signs due to failing right ventricle

Blood starts to 'back-up' in system and this increases pressure in peripheral veins Jugular distension Peripheral oedema - in cattle usually around the brisket Pleural effusion - which worsens hypoxaemia even further

information projecting to the cerebellum and damage to cerebellum

Bottom of cerebellum we have the flocculonodular lobe which has some vestibular nuclei Damage to cerebellum can cause problems = paradoxical head tilt (rare) Damage to left side of cerebellum can cause right head tilt Nystagmus = description of eye movements associated with vestibular system Move and fixation due to retina not being able to move pictures Damage to vestibular system causes spontaneous nystagmus - eyes don't stay still they drift across to one side and flick back

Describe first degree AV block

Bradycardia P wave and QRS are normal P-R interval is prolonged

Describe how respiratory mediators interact with mechanisms of bronchiolar spasm

Bronchiolar spasm / bronchial spasm / bronchospasm : sudden constriction of the smooth muscles in the walls of the bronchioles Caused by: Irritation Recent or current infection Allergy examples of allergic inflammation in respiratory tract : Equine and feline asthma Both inflammatory diseases Leading to bronchospasm How does a allergic reaction lead to bronchospasm? Allergens themselves are harmless but activate T- and B- cells Activation of B-cells by allergen leads to a type I hypersensitivity

deep digital flexor tendon

Runs deep to SDFT Passes through manica flexoria Inserts on flexor tuberosity of distal phalanx of each functional digit Palmar nerves innervate SDFT and DDFT

management of hypoxia and hypercapnia

Capnography Hypoventilation, hyper/hypocapnia, etCO2, approximate PA of carbon dioxide in alveolus and arterial blood Blood gas analysis Can measure PaCO2 PaO2 Blood pH Electrolytes Lactate Others Pulse oximetry - tells saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen Whatever the cause increase the oxygen supply

normal ECG = s wave

S wave - first negative deflection after R wave Ventricular depolarisation at base which is last

Radial nerve roots muscles supplied cutaneous supply

C7, C8, T1 Extensors of the elbow, carpus and digits Craniolateral surface of the forearm and dorsal surface of digits (not digit in horse)

Median nerve roots muscles supplied cutaneous supply

C8, T1 Flexors of the carpus and digits Palmar surface of manus (and dorsal digit in horse)

Ulnar nerve roots muscles supplied cutaneous supply

C8, T1, T2 Flexors of the carpus and digits Caudal surface of forearm and lateral manus (and dorsal aspect of digit in horse)

VQ mismatch summary

Can be altered by positioning and different pathologies Bottom of the lung is described as an area with high perfusion and at the top low perfusion (as blood passes that due to gravity) Therefore positioning is very important Ventilation and perfusion becoming unevenly spread when standing - lots less perfusion in dorsal lung and lots more in area below that When there's a diffusion abnormality : often caused by blockage between capillary and alveolus so oxygen unable to diffuse ultimately leads to hypoxaemia

angiostrongylus vasorum

Can be called heart worm. Adults live mainly in pulmonary arteries Life cycle indirect : dog is definitive and slug is intermediate host

Outline the coagulation cascade in secondary haemostasis

Can be deficient in any of these factors and they will have varied impacts, depending on the effect.

When considering cardiac function, which index is more important for perfusion of peripheral tissues - cardiac output or blood pressure?

Cardiac output will reduce blood flow to lungs Perfusion is the passage of fluid through the circulatory system or lymphatic system to an organ or a tissue, usually referring to the delivery of blood to a capillary bed in tissue.

What can be observed in a cardiac radiograph?

Cardiac silhouette Generalised enlargement. Individual chamber enlargement- left and right atrium, left and right ventricle Changes in great vessels

growth of the primitive tube

Cardiac tube grows quicker than other parts of embryo SO it begins to fold Falls to right this is called d - looping Can fall to left abnormally l-looping

spine palpation

Careful palpation along the spine should be performed to identify any consistent areas of resentment which could indicate pain.

catalase tast

Catalyses the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide Helps protect cells from oxidative damage by reactive oxygen species (ROS)

Outcome of thymic education

Central tolerance T cells which don't react to body's own peptide antigens are selected - negative selection Huge T cell diversity in peptide recognition T cells recognise any non self peptide Maturation of T cells

Describe the anatomy of the ventricular system including sites of production of CSF and routes of flow what is CSF?

Cerebrospinal fluid: fills cavities, is formed by dialysis of blood in choroid plexus within 3rd and 4th ventricles produced by by ultrafiltration of plasma and active transport35% - lateral ventricles23% - Fourth ventricle42 % elsewhere

What is the physiological mechanism by which a cough is produced in airway disease?

Chemical or mechanical stimulation of cough receptors in the pharynx, trachea, main carina, branching points of large airways, and more distal smaller airways causes a nerve impulse to travel via the vagus nerve to a cough centre in the medulla. This then generates an efferent signal via the vagus, phrenic and spinal motor nerves to the expiratory muscles to produce a cough.

DDSP - dorsally displacement soft palate

Choking down - gurgling Loud expiratory gurgling noise diagnosed by endoscopy and nasal occlusion Severely reduces VO2 max

What is the name of the structures producing cerebrospinal fluid?Where in the ventricular system are these structures situated?

Choroid plexusIn the lateral, third and fourth ventricles

what disease processes can cause effusion in the thorax?

Chromosome abnormalities, heart conditions, lung problems or abnormal lymph drainage, cancer, haemorrhage Chylothorax or pyothorax

clinical signs and diagnosis oslerus osleri

Chronic cough Sometimes wheezing Exercise intolerance, dyspnoea or death Immune response to adults in trachea and bronchi causes the worm to encapsulate Trying to contain it This causes nodules Diagnosis - bronchoscopic diagnosis : ch. Ch nodules can be seen particularly at the tracheal birfurcation L1 in faeces on in BAL fluid Resolution of tracheal / bronchiole nodes may take several weeks post treatment

defence of lungs = trapping

Cilia Nasal passages to bronchioles They moved coordinated and symmetrically towards the pharynx Mucus Mucoid gel layer which the tips of the cilia touch Aqueous sol layer coves the cilia Antibacterial lysozyme Mucocilary escalator = Mucus producing cells Goblet cells Produce viscous secretion Forms a gel layer over the sol Present in nasal, tracheal, bronchial epithelium not terminal bronchioles Submucosal (subepithelial) glands Contain serous secretion Neck of gland opens at epithelial surfaces Clara cells In alveoli serous mucin

left ventricle

Circular in section occupies all of apex Prominent papillary muscles Aorta is central

what are the clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment of oestrus ovis (sheep/goat) = bot fly

Clinical signs Avoidance behaviour Excess nasal discharge Laboured breathing Loss of appetite May induce non-localised symptoms due to secondary bacterial infection - lung abscess Diagnosis ELISA test Visualisation Treatment Nitroxinyl, moxidectin (sub-cutaneous), Ivermectin

Crenosoma vulpis (fox lungworm) clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment

Clinical signs Infection may be sub clinical Gaping - birds open mouth and extended neck Weight loss Diagnosis - eggs (containing larvae) in faeces/adults in trachea following post mortem Treatment - flubendazole, mebendazole and fenbendazole

what are the clinical signs, detectio and treatment of dictyocaulus arnfeldi

Clinical signs : eg persistent cough and not responding to certain drugs eg antibiotics Detection - broncho-alveolar lavage/tracheal wash may reveal worms and large numbers of eosinophils Treatment : ivermectin, fenbendazole, moxidectin

what are ganglion

Collection of nerve cell bodies in peripheral NS with same function synapses, cell bodies, general swapping of nerve fibres(train station where you see lines coming into central station and coming out are other nerves / swap train lines - ganglion is the train station)

outer ear

Collects sound waves Pinna - elastic cartilage and skin Quite mobile in animals External acoustic meatus - (external auditory canal) L shaped tube ending in ear drum and contains sebaceous glands that produce ear wax - acting as barrier to infection Tympanic membrane Ear drum/tympanum Covered by epithelium on outside and mucus membrane on inside

corneal opacities

Corneal oedema Endothelial dysfunction eg endothelial dystrophy, intraocular inflammation Epithelial dysfunction - corneal ulcer Fluid enters stroma Regular arrangement of collagen fibres disrupted Cobblestone opacity Endothelial dysfunction : oedema more opaque/diffuse

examining the tear film

Corneal reflection Schirmer tear test to measure test production

cranial and caudal air sacs of birds

Cranial air sacs Cervical, clavicular, cranial thoracic Connecting to ventral bronchi Caudal air sacs Caudal thoracic, abdominal Connecting to primary bronchus Connected with pneumatic bones Involved in evaporative heat loss Help with sound production

caval syndrome in Pulmonary Hypertension and D. immitis / narrowing of pulmonary artery

Critical condition Large number of worm burden in the right atrium and posterior vena cava Increases venous pressure damaging liver parenchyma Increases cholesterol content of erythrocyte membranes leading to fragility and haemolysis Severe anaemia - many immature/nucleated red blood cells Erythrocyte haemolysis leading to haemoglobinaemia (free haemoglobin in blood) and bilirubinaemia (bilirubin in blood) and haemoglobinuria - (blood in urine) Dog may collapse/die

What is the Bursae function?

Cushion tendons in high risk areas by distributing pressure

what happens in the response to haemorrhage in blood vessels

Increased sympathetic tone to vessels Stimulate vasoconstriction Results in increased systemic vascular resistance and therefore moves the MAP back to normal Also local endothelial responses

fate shunt 3 : ductus arteriosus

DA is a big muscular conduit Patency is maintained by low pO2 and high PGE2 First breath increases pO2, PGE2 cleared, DA constricts Blood flow in opened lungs: pressure lower in lung and higher in the body, also helps to close the DA, but can take a while for full closure Remnant called ligamentum arteriosum

Canine heart worm

D. Immitis - affects cardiac/pulmonary system and can be potentially fatal in dogs/cats Ectopic migration and infection can occur even in natural host Ectopic - affects unusual locations or unusual/unnatural host Accumulated water sources are very important for mosquitos which are the carriers of infection

spinoreticular tract

Deep pain and visceral sensationsNot as defined as other pathways primary afferents in spinal cord diverge cranially and caudally spreading out over segments allows intersegmental reflexes such as withdrawal response second order afferents in dorsal horn project to reticular foramenthen pass to thalamus activates limbic system - emotional response

Name the bacteria which are responsible for causing footrot in sheep

D. nodosus and also F.necrophorum

key differences in bovine and canine

D.viviparus - mixed Th1/Th2 but elevated Th2 cytokines as well as increased IgEand eosinophils A.Vasorum deposits of immunoglobulins - IgA, IgG, IgM complement C3 and fibrinogen can be seen in the lungs of infected dogs during the acute phase of infection

Describe the initial response in primary haemostasis

Damage to blood vessel endothelium Local neural reflexes (pain receptors) Muscle contraction (direct mechanical impact on smooth muscle cells) Thromboxane A produced by activated platelets Serotonin released (δ granules) => Vasoconstriction and reduced blood flow

What happens to cardiac output in heart failure?

Decreased cardiac output Decline in the stroke volume that is due to systolic dysfunction and/or diastolic dysfunction Loss of contractility which can be caused by alterations in signal transduction mechanisms Ventricles can become less compliant and 'stiffer' which does not allow diastole

decreased vascularity

Decreased vascularity: under-circulation results in lung fields more radiolucent- right to left shunts, pulmonic stenosis or tricuspid dysplasia resulting in under-circulation of lungs, hypo-volaemia.

defence of lungs = antimicrobial compounds

Defensins Pieces of amino acids produced by macrophages, neutrophils and epithelium They are attracted to the microbe and are embed into the membrane and form a pore Kills bacteria, fungi and enveloped viruses Lysozyme In mucous they are antibacterial enzymes They break down bacterial cell walls

Transposition of the great vessels

Description The two main arteries leaving the heart are reversed Effects on cardiac function In transposition of the great arteries, the positions of the pulmonary artery and the aorta are switched. The pulmonary artery is connected to the left ventricle, and the aorta is connected to the right ventricle. Oxygen-poor blood circulates through the right side of the heart and back to the body without passing through the lungs. Oxygen-rich blood circulates through the left side of the heart and directly back into the lungs without being circulated to the rest of the body. Clinical signs Transposition of the great arteries symptoms include: Blue colour of the skin (cyanosis) Shortness of breath Lack of appetite Poor weight gain

gas transport

Diffusion due to differences in partial pressures Haemoglobin affinity for oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen Carbon dioxide content for deoxygenated blood is higher than oxygenated blood

Describe the mechanisms of vasodilator drugs

Dilate arteries, veins or both. Break the vicious cycle of heart failure. Act by reducing arterial blood pressure- afterload, reducing venouspressure- preload. Reduction ofload and therefore cardiac work Clinical uses- treatment of cardiac failure, antihypertensive agents.

Describe the non-specific treatment of cardiomyopathy- dilated and hypertrphic

Dilated- contractility failure of heart muscle. Drugs that improve contractility= positive inotropes- Digoxin (digitalis glycosides), Pimobendan ("Vetmedin"), Dobutamine- mimics sympathetic NS. Hypertrophic/restrictive (cats)- heart fills poorly. Drugs that helpheart relax= positive lusitropes- calcium channel blockers- quite ineffective, diltiazem- reduces Ca entering cells, reduces contractility, verapamil, beta blocker- propranolol, atenolol.

Differentiate between different wing shapes and their purpose

Dinosaurs and birds Growth plate are the same as dinosaur growth plate Semi-lunar carpals both have - so fold their forearms/wings the same way No carpal flexion - carpal abduction and adduction Dimples on bones where feathers are attached Alular - essentially birds thumb which smooths air flow over wing if angle is sharp

aeulurostrongylus abstrusus

Direct Definitive host (cats), intermediate hosts (snails/slugs) and paratenic host - rodents, birds Diagnosis : larvae in faeces and in BAL fluid, radiograph of the lung Treatment - fenbendazole, ivermectin, levamisole

drug elimination by metabolism and excretion

Drugs metabolised eg by liver and thus inactivated and then excreted Drug can be occur oxidation or conjugation making it inactive Makes them hydrophilic More likely to be eliminatedSome drugs directly eliminated by kidney in the urine eg penicillin

doping drugs -- anaemia and performance enhancing

EPO - increases oxygen carrying ability of blood Inhibits hypoxia inducible factor (HIF) prolyl hydroxylase Positive regulatory protein for EPO gene expression At high [O2], HIF prolyl hydroxylase targets HIF for destruction Erythrocythaemia - increases red blood cell production

what is happening with a dog with severe bleeding

Effects of hypovolaemia on CV function, sensing an altered blood pressure, neurological response mechanisms, effects on heart/vessels, RAAS, local responses Preload - decreased Stroke volume - decreased MAP - decreased Viscosity - won't change Tissue oxygen delivery - compromised

virus replication

Eg Retrovirus Viral entry Enters via multiple different methods Bind to specific receptor on cell surface Virus enters the cell Reverse transcription in retrovirus - RNA to DNA copy DNA then traffics the nucleus and gets integrated into nucleus Transcription to RNA Which can be used to make more genome or more protein Viral assembly and release

calcium channel blockers

Eg Verapamil and Diltiazem Block voltage-dependent L-type Ca2+ channels in cardiac muscle and vascular smooth muscle General effects on the cardiovascular system Antidysrhythmic effects Slows conduction, reduce contraction force and causes coronary vasodilation Reduces myocardia ischemia in humans Allow the heart to fill better and increase blood supply to the heart itself SVT, feline HCM

investigations of anxiety: elevated plus maze test

Elevated plus maze-testThe anxiety of the mice comes from aversion directed against open spacesWe can make conclusions and objectify the emotionsAnxiolytic drugs eg benzodiazepine increased the time spend on open edgesControlled conditions allowThe study brain mechanism of anxietyStudy genetics of anxietyDevelop anxiolytic drugs

modifications for hoof / horn

Elongated dermal papillae is formed at coronary band by basement membrane and dermis Basal cells make keratinocytes - which become squames Glued together keratin squames - form tubules Tubules fluted together by intertubular horn - form hoof/horn Hoof slides over/between dermal lamallae take 12-15 months for hoof growth from coronary band to ground surface

eosinophils in Pulmonary Hypertension and D. immitis / narrowing of pulmonary artery

Eosinophils - important in parasitic and allergic disease they migrate from blood into tissue Increased numbers occur in blood and tracheal washes (BAL) during cardiorespiratory parasitism - eosinophilia Granules large and small cause damage to parasite surface How does the eosinophil degranulate? Fc receptors on eosinophils allow them bind to parasites coated in antibodies and once bound they degranulate. Antibody mediating relationship between nematode and eosinophil Eosinophil begins releasing granules

layers of the myocardium

Epicardium Visceral pericardium Blood vessel adventitial layer Myocardium Cardiomyocytes Contractile part of the heart Endocardium Continuous with blood vessel lining

blood components

Erythrocytes Platelets (thrombocytes) Leucocytes (white blood cells) Granular leucocytes - granulocytes Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils Non-granular leucocytes - agranulocytes Monocytes Lymphocytes T-cells (70-80%), B-cells (10-15%), NK cells (5-10%)

Why does packed cell volume increase?

Erythropoietin is produced by interstitial cells in the kidney primarily due to hypoxaemia - which can be caused by ascent to altitude Released into the circulation and triggers the development of red cell precursors in the bone marrow and release of immature and mature red cells - can increase the PCV by up to 25% PCV increases in 3-5 days and stays increased for the stay at altitude Increases oxygen carrying capacity of the blood - good Causes blood to be thicker and flows less efficiently through already 'diseased' capillary beds and uptake and delivery of oxygen from the lungs is reduced - bad

what happens once the neural folds and grooves form?

Folds fold and meet in the middle very first developed Hole at one end and the other Fusion occurs in cervical region and proceeds in both directions the tub zips up towards head end and tail end (like a raincoat with two zips)Ultimately the neural tube is formed

nutrition of lens

Fetus - lens is supplied by tunica vasculosa lentis Adult - no blood vessels and no nerves, aqueous humour = supplies oxygen and glucose

Describe the process of haemostasis

Fibrin clot removal: Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) activates plasminogen to form plasmin. Breaks down fibrin fibres to fibrinogen degradation products (FDPs)- the smallest of these are called D-dimers, FDPs act as anticoagulants by interfering with platelet aggregation and fibrin polymerisation. Feedback loop to prevent the continuation of secondary haemostasis

the laryngopharynx

From intrapharyngeal opening to opening of oesophagus and larynx Contains epiglottis of larynx Intrapharyngeal opening : formed from free edge of soft palate and palatopharyngeal arches Common pharynx - between soft palette and epiglottis

what are the seven bones of the neurocranium?

Frontal bone Parietal bone Interparietal bone Temporal bone Ethmoid bone (cant see from outside) Occipital bone (back of skull) Sphenoid bone (base of the skull)

vitreous humour

Gel between lens and retina Largest ocular structure Transparent Avascular and nerve-free (lens + cornea also avascular) 99% water, 1% protein/cells Functions Shock absorber Removes waste products Maintains intraocular anatomy

4 sections of neurological exam

General examination Head and cranial nerves Trunk and spine Limbs

Describe the dimensions of the heart in this radiograph:

Generalised enlargement- trachea pushed up, wide cardiac silhouette

explain the role of pineal gland in biological rhythms?

Gland attached to dorsal tectum Produces melatonin and plays a role in circadian and seasonal rhythms Found immediately behind thalamus Produces melatonin from amino acids

explain the difference between graded potentials and action potentials

Graded potentials are brought about by external stimuli (in sensory neurons) or by neurotransmitters released in synapses, where they cause graded potentials in the post-synaptic cell. Action potentials are triggered by membrane depolarization to threshold.

what are example of microbial PAMPs that can elicit an inflammatory response

Gram negative LPS Flagellum Peptidoglycan CpG DNA motives Lipopeptides Gram positive Peptidoglycan Lipoteichoic acid Flagellum CpG DNA motives Lipopeptides

growth time and temperatures

Group Temperature Rough growth time Dermatophytes 25 2-4 weeks Aspergillus species 37 1-4 days Yeasts (pathogenic) 37 1-4 days Dimorphic hyphal 25 1-4 weeks Dimorphic (yeast) 37 1-4 weeks

describe how bacteria grow

Growth is by binary fission Colonises form on plates as piles of bacteria Some bacteria are so motile that they do not form colonises as they spread too thinly Bacteria have generation times- how often the divide or double- doubling time- the length of time required for a single bacterial cell to divide into two daughter cells. Average bacteria double every 20-30 minutes to give colonises in about 12-24 hrs (e.g. Salmonella and E.coli), but some bacteria grow slowly and can take months to form colonies (e.g. Mycobacterium bovis). It will take at least a few days to obtain a culture result.

interventricular septum

Growth of ventricle moves it to central position Once atrioventricular and truncobulbar cushions forms and fuse Last step is formation of two ventricles from common chamber Hypertrophy of bottom of ventricle growing up towards the AV cushions

Name 5 environmental factors that alter bacterial growth rate

Growth rate- a measure of how rapidly bacteria grow in the exponential phase. pH Temperature Osmolality Atmosphere Nutrients, e.g. glucose

What changes occur in heart rate, venous return, total peripheral resistance, tissue fluid volume and urine output after major haemorrhage? (Hint clinical example in Sjaastad, Hove and Sand). How are these changes regulated?

Haemorrhage is a clinical syndrome resulting in a decreased blood volume caused by blood loss which leads to reduced cardiac output and perfusion Below 40% mean arterial and pulse pressures falls and heart reate increases Fall in total peripheral resistance Reduction in tissue fluid volume Increased urine??

self peptide

Healthy cells MHC groove is filled by a peptide generated by the cell

alveolar leucocytes

Healthy lung : macrophages, lymphocytes, occasional neutrophils, low level of mucus Diseased lungs: macrophages, lymphocytes, frequent neutrophils (neutrophilia), hemosiderophages (alveolar macrophages that have ingested and digested red blood cells), excess mucus / secretions

Describe the radiographic appearance of a heart with feline cardiomyopathy

Heart can't fill effectively- atria get bigger. Big atria on top of smaller ventricles. 3 IC spaces- too big.

how to take a sample for a ABG - arterial blood-gas

Heparinised syringe, dorsal pedal, lingual, auricular and a femoral. You see a quick flash back in the syringe and syringe will start to fill with blood. Can be done with a needle or a cannula

archicortex

Hippocampus Function - memory generation in particular spatial memory

In what direction will blood flow across the following structures in an adult? Persistent foramen ovale

Hole in between the left and right atria of the heart which allows the blood to flow from left to right atria

Describe the correct use of cattle foot trimming equipment

Hoof knives are used to trim cattle feet The hoof knife is dragged down over the sole of the foot slowly and carefully to peel off the sole of the hoof More of the hoof is trimmed off at the toe compared to the hoof due to the density of the hoof being greater than the toe - this ensures that the limb does not become lame and remains at good angle to the ground

Erythropoetin (epo)

Hormone that controls the rate of erythrocyte production Can be used as an enhancement drug in sports The source is : early embryonic/foetal/early neonatal life = expressed in yolk sac, liver and kidney (also spleen and bone marrow) Adult life it is produced in the kidney in the renal institium

piston - pendulum theory

Horse and dog take one breath per stride due to compression and opening of the lungs Can only breathe when all feet are off the ground

Crenosoma vulpis (fox lungworm)

Hosts = foxes, wolves, coyotes, raccoon dogs and badgers Target sites = trachea, bronchi, bronchioles Life cycle = indirect and transmission requires ingestion of molluscs as intermediate hosts Eggs are excreted in the faeces they are kept inside the egg shell all the development to L3 + will occur in the egg shell The bird will have three different possibilities of acquiring fox lungworm: Ingestion of egg with stage L3 larvae L3 from paratenic host containing larvae Transport host Penetrate duodenum wall reaching blood stream/liver before travelling to lungs and trachea and then eggs are produced and swallowed - cycle continues

control of pituatary glandendocrine/neuroendocrine?

Hypothalamus driving activity of pituitary gland Anterior pituitary is outside the BBB - can receive feed back from periphery easily Neurosecretory cells (neurons) project to vascular bed in anterior pituitary

what happens when arterial pH has gone down ? How do we evaluate what has caused this?

If arterial pH has gone down hydrogen ion has increased Is it acidemia that is respiratory or metabolic in origin We answer this by looking at the carbon dioxide and carbonate values and decide which has deviated from normal Deviated carbon dioxide : respiratory, deviated carbonate : metabolic

Describe the radiographic appearance of alveolar pattern in the lungs

Ill-defined, "fluffy" increased opacity Presence of air alveolograms Presence of air bronchograms Lobar margins may be seen Blood vessels, heart and diaphragm obscured like a fog - cannot see outlines of structures

keratoconjunctivitis

Inadequate tear production STT < 15mm/min Common in toy breeds eg cocker spaniel Local immune-mediated destruction of orbital and Nictitans lacrimal glands - body attacking the glands Corneal ulcers Anatomy of superficial versus deep ulcers Corneal wound healing Corneal opacities Clinical signs: Conjunctivitis, thick mucoid discharge Blepharospasm/squinting Corneal ulceration Corneal vascularisation and pigmentation Reduced vision

propanolol B1 and B2 adrenoreceptor anatonist - noradrenaline

Increase in heart rate is massively reduced Beta 2 and beta 1 could be in the heart Unlikely to be any alphas in the heart Propanolol (b1 and b2 adrenoceptor antagonist): Isoprenaline

sympathetic action at SA node

Increased activity causes releases norepinephrine at SA node Increases heart rate Increases rate of drift to threshold This works by the activation of -adrenergic receptors

Clinical signs of listeria, prevention and treatment

Incubation period of neural Listeriosis ranges from 14 to 40 days. Dullness, circling and tilting of head facial paralysis. Unilateral facial paralysis can result in drooling and dropping of eyelids and ears. TREATMENT In early stages with antibiotics However once damage has be done there are limited options for repair so severe cases are PTS. PREVENTION Do Not feed poor silage to pregnant ruminants. Do not feed poor quality silage at all Ensure feed method used reduces ocular contact. Vaccines do NOT work as the pathogen is intracellular.

non self peptide

Infected host cell MHC groove is filled by a peptide derived from pathogens proteins

how can microbes cause disease

Infection : Colonise or invade tissues Microbe may produce toxins and poison the host Associated with infection but sometimes just ingestion of pre-formed toxin Microbe cause a reaction Allergic reaction Combination of above

main role of complement

Inflammation Stimulate histamine release from mast cells (mast cell degranulation) Chemotactic agents Recruitments of neutrophils and macrophages to site of infection Cell lysis Through pore formation in cell membranes - including bacteria Opsonisation Coating of surface area leading to increased phagocytosis

corneal vascularisation

Inflammation of conjunctiva Blood vessels growing in Once ulcer healed the blood vessels hypo perfuse - sort of go away Complex interaction of proteases, growth factors, cytokines, epithelial cells, stromal keratocytes, inflammatory cells and lacrimal glands

canine c3 deficiency

Inherited disorder Increased susceptibility to infection Have no serum C3 - 126mg/ml in normal animals Have trouble in making antibodies against certain pathogens - E coli Increased pyometra, pneumonia, sepsis

Porcine Factor H deficiency

Inherited recessive autosomal disease Factor H stop C3B activation C3 accumulates on basal membrane and damages kidney No availability for C3 in serum Die of anaemia and renal failure

indirect cholinergic antagonists

Inhibiting the enzyme that usually metabolises Ach in the presynaptic cleft - acetylcholinesterase (AChE) Chlorine is reuptaken more ACh available at the receptors. - These drugs have the added cholinergic effect of improved skeletal muscle tone & strength

photoreceptor function

Inner segment and outer segmentPigments that pick up and trap light in pigment Current runs across channel Light hits channel Sodium channel closes becomes negative and then hyperpolarisation occurs

process of breathing

Inspiration muscles contract Thoracic volume increases By contraction of diaphragm and intercostals Air flows from the atmosphere into the lungs Until the alveolar external pressure differential has been eliminated = brief pause Process of expiration is reverse passive process

anatomic remnants

Internal umbilical arteries atrophy - become round ligaments of the bladder Internal umbilical vein redundant - becomes round ligament of the liver

Two components of internal intercostal

Interosseus - part of muscle that is between the bone portion of superior and inferior ribs (depresses and retracts the ribs) Interchondral - elevates the ribs (joints formed between the costal cartilages of the ribs)

entropion

Inversion (inward turning) of all parts of the eyelid margin Really common particularly in dogs and certain breeds Treatment - remove an ellipse of skin and stich up or an injection of eyelid filler

nystagmus

Involuntary movement of the eyeball, often referred to as 'dancing eyes'

Outline the distribution of H2O within the body

Intracellular fluid (ICF) compartment- 2/3 of total body H20 within the cells. Extracellular fluid (ECF) compartment- 1/3 total body H20, 80% interstitial fluid- between cells and blood vessels, 20% blood plasma- circulation.

laryngeal musculature

Intrinsic muscles - between laryngeal cartilages and they are involved in respiration and phonation Extrinsic muscles - connect the larynx to hyoid bones, pharynx and sternum and they are involved in swallowing

Cranial nerve XII= Hypoglossal test

Intrinsic muscles of the tongue and pharynx Does the tongue have patent muscle fibres Does it feel firm under finger tips

Atlanto - Occipital joint

Joint between condyles of occipital bone and cranial articular fovea of atlas C1 and skull (atlas) The upward an downward movement / dorsal and ventral flexionYes joint

where are the sympathetic ganglia located?

Just ventral and lateral to the spinal cord the chain extends from the upper neck down to the coccyx

What is haemostasis?

Keeping the balance of blood flow in the body, a balance between abnormal bleeding (haemorrhagicdiathesis) and hypercoagulability (thrombosis). A complex sequence of physical and biochemical changes induced by damage to tissues and blood vessels.

negative control

Known not contain the biomolecule of interest and adds validity to any positive results It will show if any solutions of the assay are contaminated

examining the cornea

Light source +/- magnification Darkened room Looking for : irregularities, opacification, vascularisation, pigmentation Fluorescein staining Orange dye that turns green in alkaline tears Adheres to and stains hydrophilic tissues such as exposed corneal stroma Useful for corneal ulcer diagnosis

Which chamber of the heart is enlarged in this cardiac radiograph:

L Heart Enlargement- DV: main stem bronchi split at level of LA-will move their positions.

Describe the location of the heart structures in a radiograph

LA- left auricular appendage. Left atrium cannot be seen.

narcolepsy

Lack of orexin (function) destabilises the sleep waking flip-flop and emotional stimuli (amygdala) can induce sleep

long axis and short axis view

Long axis view : from base to apex Short axis view : across heart

what is the spleen and its function

Largest lymphoid organ Attached to greater curvature of the stomach on left side of abdomen Functions : Storage of blood Destruction of old red blood cells smooth muscle capsule (allows contraction to allow excess blood into circulatory system), trabeculae, central arteries, red and white pulp

long axis view of the left ventricle

Left sided structure further away from probe

Describe the differences in the great vessels of the heart in the horse compared to the dog

Left subclavian artery branches off the brachiocephalic trunk rather than the aorta. The left and right common carotid arteries branch later off the brachiocephalic trunk resulting in a section of the brachiocephalic trunk called the bicarotid trunk.

what is the structure of the avian herat

Left ventricle Thick walled Forms entire apex Contain muscular bars on interior Right ventricle Thin walled Valves = left AV valve, right AV valve - muscular flap, no chordae tendinea

Describe the vertebral heart scoring system

Length (L) is measured on lateral vs no number of vertebral bodies (starting at the cranial edge of T4). Width (W) measured similarly. Vertebral heart score (VHS)= L+W Average in dogs is 9.7 (range 8.5 - 10.5), 8 in cats.

What is and where does endochondral ossification occur?

Length growth in long bones Cartilage is invaded by vessels and undergoes mineralization Occurs in the growth plates

lens subluxation

Lens moving Crescent shape at top Particularly common in terriers - with acutely painful eye - anterior lens luxation Normal flow of aqueous humour Pressure inside eye increases rapidly causing acute secondary glaucoma

accommodation in avian vision

Lens shape Softer lens shape = facilitates more rapid accommodation as it quickly changes shape Corneal curvature Independent process in each eye Iris sphincter - striated muscle so under voluntary control

where are the ganglia located in parasympathetic

Long ganglia lie close to the organ they supply and there is no chain or ganglia = preganglionic nerve fibres Short fibres run a short distance from the ganglion to the organ = postganglionic nerve fibres

Filaroides hirthi and F. milksi

Live in the terminal airways, bronchioles and alveoli in dogs Usually asymptomatic, although coughing and dyspnoea may occur Life cycle : direct, and infection occurs via ingestion of L1s Very easily transferred in kennels because larvae are infectious when passed out through faces Diagnosis Detection of L1s or embryonated eggs in faeces Radiographic exam may show a diffuse interstitial or focal nodular pattern

Dipetalonema reconditum

Lives in subcutaneous tissue We need to distinguish between D. reconditum microfilariae from D. immitis microfilariae in heartworm endemic regions Significance probably in false positive D. immitis results. Acid phosphatase test determines species - bipolar stains in D. immitis and entire body in D. reconditum

basophils and eosinophils histology

Lobulated nucleus Basophils - granules are blue (like the nucleus) Eosinophils - granules are orange-red Feline eosinophil partially rod shaped eosinophilic granules

blindfolding test in horses

Making it hard Can cause a head tilt Allows diagnosis as makes diseases eg vestibular more obvious

type of nuclei in hypothalamus and their function Paraventricular Supraoptic Suprachiasmatic Lateral Ventromedial Arcuate Mammillary

Manufacturing oxytocin and ADH Oxytocin and ADH Biological clock Circadian rhythm Arousal/feeding Feeding Energy Memory

enriched media

Medium which contains the nutrients required to support the growth of a wide variety of organisms and encourage bacterial growth

What parts of the brain stem control the cardiovascular system?

Medulla oblongata (myelencephalon) which is the lower half of the brainstem continuous with the spinal cord Contains the cardiac, respiratory, vomiting and vasomotor centres - regulating heart rate, breathing and blood pressure

What are virulence factors?

Molecules which allow bacteria to adhere, invade, evade host defence, cause tissue damage, replicate or persist in the host virulence gene A gene encoding a virulence factor

What virus interactions can have dramatic effects on host cells?

Morphological- lysis, rounding and detachment from surface Functional- inhibition or stimulation of cell division Biochemical- activation of cell signalling pathways, induction of immune responses Immunological- display of virus molecules on cell surface These interactions are essential for virus replication and spread.

intraceerebellar communication

Mossy fibres = excite stellate cells are inhibiting Purkinje cells Climbing fibres = excite Purkinje cells (one to one basis) Both fibres excite cerebellar nuclei

what is virus tropism

Most viruses can only infect a specific cell types for instance skin cells or respiratory cells - this is the virus tropism

Adaptive immune responses in respiratory tract

Mucosa - exposed to potential pathogens Antibodies All classes except IgM Mucosal synthesis of IgA Diffusion of IgG from serum Lymphocytes Circulating in blood and interstitium which can be recruited to the RT epithelium and lumen Intraepithelial lymphocytes are associated with mucosal membrane Rapid response

flagella

Multi-component protein tails Filament is made of subunits It is powered by a proton motive gradient across the membrane Different bacteria have different patterns of flagella Not all bacteria have flagella Essential virulence component for a number of pathogens

neonatal sepsis in foals

Neonatal sepsis in foals One third of foal mortality is caused by bacterial infection Recovery depends on severity and manifestation of infection Early recognition and intensive treatment required Early diagnosis Treatment of primary disease process Supportive care

main factors that affect vasoactive tone

Nitric oxide Sodium nitroprusside, glyceryl trinitrate, via cycling GMP Calcium channels Calcium channel blockers Angiotensin II ACE inhibitors, agonists, G proteins Prostaglandins Prostaglandin mimetics, PG antagonists

parasympathetic action

No effect on ventricular muscle cells Strong antisympathetic action on atrial cells Acts on SA and AV nodes: SA node : decreases rate AV node : slow conduction and lengthen refractory period Rate falls - negative chronotropic effect - decrease in force of contraction, negative ionotropic effect

factors influencing ventilation alveolar surface tension

Occurs at interface between water and air - air in the alveoli meeting fluid film surface of alveoli Inner surface of alveoli lined with fluid Reduced with production of surfactant Surface tension will stop the alveoli from being able to expand so much Surface tension increase in smaller spheres Law of Laplace states the pressure inside an alveolus determined by surface tension of lining fluid (T) and the radius of the alveolus Pressure in smaller alveoli is higher than that of the larger Concentration of surfactant is higher in smaller alveoli Surfactant disrupts surface tension

Cranial nerve III - oculomotor nerve test

Oculomotor nerve III Motor to extrinsic muscles, ciliary body, levator palpebrae muscles Control of size of pupil and motor function to upper eyelid

normal sinus rhythm (NSR)

Originates in the SAN It has an inherent pacemaker rate of 70-160bpm in the dog, 160-240bpm in the cat P waves are usually positive in lead II PR interval is usually consistent from beat to beat QRS complex is usually 'normal' Rhythm may be regular or irregular

Explain why some birds can fly and others can not

Ostriches, emus, cassowaries, rheas, and kiwis can't fly. Unlike most birds, their flat breastbones lack the keel that anchors the strong pectoral muscles required for flight

optic nerve

Part of CNS Consists of axons of ganglion cells 3 regions: intraocular portion (can be viewed) retrobulbar portion in orbit and intracranial portion Afferent pathway to visual cortex Passes through lamina cribosa at posterior globe: sieve like area in sclera, weak point can be damaged by intraocular pressure Myelinated or non-myelinated which changes the appearance of the optic disc

tapetum anatomy and function

Part of the choroid that lies behind the retina Retina is translucent like tissue paper so tapetum can be seen underneath Shiny reflective layer like a mirror Responsible for eye shine at night Function - reflects light rays so retina receives light twice

collapsed schnauzer

Partial pressure of oxygen of 86 - normal ranges pH is a little low - academic Is it carbon dioxide or bicarbonate Carbon dioxide dropped down by about ten And so has the bicarbonate We have a metabolic acidosis Urine has glucose in - diabetic keto acidosis crisis Anion gap was larger than it should be (15-17) addition of unmeasured acid to the schnauzer blood

what are PAMPS

Pathogen associated molecular patterns - pathogens can express specific components which are recognised by the host as 'danger signals'

Evaluate the structures that may be affected by an injury to the sole region in horses and cattle

Penetrating foot injuries can damage : the P2,P3 and distal interphalangeal joint, it can damage the digital cushion, sole, navicular bone and navicular bursa. It could also cause damage to the tendons eg the DDFT or the common digital extensor. In a cow it could cause injury to the claws and similar structures as above - unlikely to see lameness as quickly in cattle as compared to horses

What structures of the thorax should be assessed first on a radiograph?

Peripheral soft tissue structures Anterior abdominal contents Thoracic skeleton Cranial mediastinum Caudal mediastinum Diaphragm Pleural space

immunological controls to reduce and control pathogens?

Physical barrier Macrophages Defensins Lysozyme Lactoferrin Complement Surfactants

Describe the processes that lead to the formation of the platelet plug

Platelet adhesion- platelets bind to von Willebrand factor on exposed sub-endothelium via GPIb-IX-V receptor. Platelet activation- Platelets change shape. GPIIb/IIIa receptor activation- binds collagen. Release of agonists- a, b granule contents, ADP, serotonin, platelet activating factor, thromboxane A2. Platelet aggregation- primarily mediated by fibrinogen binding to GPIIb/IIIa on adjacent platelets. Enhanced by generation of thrombin- link with secondary haemostasis. => Formation of platelet plug In the 'normal' situation; healthy endothelial cells & platelets repel each other (negatively charged). Healthy endothelial cells produce prostacyclin (prostaglandin 2, PGl2)- inhibits platelet activation, effective vasodilator.

outer membranes of gram-negative bacteria

Porins allow diffusion through outer membrane They are pore through the membrane Described as gated because they have charge and size limits

pre and post ganglionic fibres in sympathetic nervous fibres

Pre ganglionic fibres are short each nerve leads to ganglion containing cell bodies and lying close under the vertebral column Post ganglionic fibres are long lead away from the sympathetic chain and travel towards the organ its supplies usually follow the path of blood vessels

primary disturbances of acid base pH - respiratory - metabolic

Respiratory - increased or decreased carbon dioxide Metabolic - increased or decreased bicarbonate Aemia - there is a change in the pH of the ECF Osis - tends to refer to what;s going on in the tissues

how to take a swab

Prepare the swab- open packet and remove cap from sample tube Gently take the animal's muzzle and lift the head up Gently insert the swab into the nares, keeping to the medial side of the nares Do not insert the swab more than a few millimetres Immediately insert the swab into the sample tube and label it.

Describe the azygous vein and the species differences

Present in all mammals, but there are species variations. Drains dorsal mid/caudal thorax and L1-L2 region since the caudal vena cava dips ventrally to go through the liver. Dogs, cats, horses = right azygous. Pigs = left (+ right sometimes) azygous. Ox/sheep/goat = left + right azygous. Left azygous enters coronary sinus. Right azygous enters cranial vena cava.

B cells

Primary Lymphoid tissues are the locations of lymphocyte development & maturation Bone marrow - education and maturation of B-cells Thymus Other - species variation in B-cell maturation (Peyer's patches, Bursa of Fabricius)

examples of immunological memory

Primary immune response after initial exposure Concentration of antibody is not hugely raised Secondary exposure to same antigen Immunological memory kicks in Activates memory cells Enhancing and speeding response of immune system Increase of concentration of antibodies Time of response is much quicker Adaptive immune system crucial in vaccination, quite slow but affect lasts

thymus

Primary lymphoid organ Found in caudal neck and cranial thoracic regions Larger in younger animals to kick start development of immune system Regresses with age and is replaced with fat tissue Varies in appearance

what are TSEs

Prion disease: Proteinaceous infectious particle PrP Unusual disease PrP is a cellular protein Normally exists in one shape (pN) but can misfold leading to the formation of large protein aggregates pD seems to propagate more misfolded protein which leads to brain dysfunction and fatal disease

two circulation systems

Pulmonary circulation Right ventricle Deoxygenated blood via pulmonary artery Oxygenated blood via pulmonary vein to the heart Systemic circulation Left ventricle Oxygenated blood to rest of body organs through aorta

define the conditions under which ventilation / perfusion mismatch occur

Pulmonary perfusion = blood flow to the alveoli allowing uptake of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide Anything affecting blood flow to the lungs affects pulmonary perfusion

what are the two basic motor pathways in proprioception

Pyramidal pathway Extrapyramidal pathway Difference is in the complexity - extrapyramidal is more complex Both have lower motor neuron as final common pathway Lower motor neurone are the same for pyramidal and extrapyramidal monosynaptic reflex arc = pyramidal system one synapse between brain and muscle - motor control polysynaptic reflex arc = extrapyramidal system locomotion and posture

normal ECG - R wave

R wave = first negative deflection after P wave Ventricular depolarisation from endocardium to epicardium Largest deflection Big positive in lead 2

• Understand what a rate is

Rate = measurement time e.g. metres/second, miles/hour If A = B then B = A x C C C = B/A Thus rate = measurement/time time = measurement/rate measurement = rate x time A rate is any measurement over a fixed time

In what three ways can an organism react to a stimulus?

React with their own body i.e. grooming Reacting with non-living objects React with social responses i.e. communication within a species

indicator medium

Reactant which recognises and binds to particular bacterial species and produces a result, often visible to the eye such as coloured dye This helps differentiating between several species grouped together

measured values in coulter principle

Red blood cells - absolute number per litre Mean corpuscular volume (MCV) - the average volume of the red cells (fl) Platelets - absolute number per litre White blood cell counts - absolute number per litre Haemoglobin - The amount of haemoglobin in the blood (g/l)

temperature and pH affect on the curve

Reduce affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen All of which tend to be increased in respiring tissues Helpful in tissues doing metabolic work - right ward shift in curve - unloading of oxygen

function of the cornea

Refract and transmit light = major refractive component of eye Tensile strength - lends rigidity to globe Protection - Chemical barrier -Rich subepithelial nerve plexus - Igs and other antimicrobials in tear film - Epithelia cell desquamation - Migrating Langerhans cells and macrophages from limbus

What factors may be complicating and should be considered when preparing a therapeutic regime for a patient with heart disease/failure?

Renal failure, cushing's disease, elderly animals etc

reproduction and spore structures of fungi?

Reproduction is Complex Many can reproduce both sexually or asexually Sporulation bodies can be used for identification in clinical samples. Spores are relatively resistant and can survive and spread infection Spores germinate where conditions are favourable.

sampling - bronchial alveolar lavage (BAL)

Rhinoscopy for foreign bodies or distinctive infective plaques Serology are there antibodies to suspected pathogens Sampling from URT followed by Culture Microscopy Histopathology and cytology

What is cor pulmonale? What causes it?

Right heart failure that occurs without left heart failure. Caused by increased cardiac work secondary to pulmonary hypotension. a primary vascular disease seen at altitudes greater than 1500-2000m primarily due to hypoxia which is made worse by cold and exposure

function of soft tissues of distal limb

SDFT flexes digit and carpus DDFT flexes digit and carpus Suspensory ligament - supports fetlock and prevents it from dropping to low Navicular Bursae - provides a cushion to the navicular bone and P3 Digital Cushion - provides support for the limb and P3 shock absorbance Extensor branches of the suspensory ligament Common digital extensor - extends digit Interroseous muscle - supports fetlock Accessory ligaments limits movement of tendon to prevent over stressing

how do neutrophils stick to surface and make progress

Selectins allow this / adhesion molecules (ICAM)-1 and (VCAM)-1 Slows down cells passage - the interaction between selectin's and their receptors

Describe the indications of angiography

Selective vs non-selective Selective allows precise identification of chamber/vessel outline Valve disease/congenital defects Provides definitive diagnosis Largely replaced by cardiac ultrasound (echocardiography) Put catheter into a specific chamber and inject contrast

Name the three different functions of neurons

Sensory, motor and interneurones

how do we recognise variable surface structures?

Serotyping Phage typing

neutrophil

Short lived Circulates in blood, first leukocyte migrating to areas of infection/inflammation in response to cytokine/chemokine gradient They are phagocytic = engulfs and destroys bacterial pathogens through digestion with lysosomal enzymes

hearing in birds

Short external acoustic meatus to tympanum Song birds - 2 tympanic membranes which protect it from damage They have no pinna They have feathers instead Single auditory ossicle - similar to reptiles Regenerate damaged hair cells unlike mammals Hearing is best - 1 to 4 kHz - some can hear higher frequency

reorganisation by folding

Sinus venosus begins to in wall of one of the atria Atrial tissue both left and right Primitive ventricle and bulbis cordis start to develop and move and sit side by side = Become left and right ventricles Truncus arteriosus - Sitting on top of the two ventricles - Divide into pulmonary artery and aorta

action potential generation in heart

Slow Na + channels Have Na + channels that spontaneously open once an AP has finished at -65mV K+ channels close Influx of Ca2+ speeds final approach of threshold AP occurs after threshold Absolute refractory period

what causes genetic variation in viruses

Spontaneous mutation Mistakes during genome replication Gene transfer between viruses (or cell) Transfer of genetic information between two, usually related, viruses which have infected the same cell Production of hybrid genomes Recombination Reassortment Recombination Gene reassortment Occurs within segmented genomes Simple exchange of genes can occur when two different viruses infect a cell Rapid evolution of virus variants

spontaneous nystagmus

Spontaneous nystagmus indicates a vestibular lesion. Nystagmus has a direction with distinct fast and slow phases.

Describe the properties of hydrophobic dugs/hormones

Steroids Lipid-soluble Cross lipid bilayer easily- dissociates from transport protein Bind to proteins in cytosol Causes transcription and translation in the nucleus itself Long-acting- takes a long time to work- lots of stages Steroid hormones e.g. testosterone, aldosterone,thyroid, cortisol etc

what does stimulation of the vestibular apparatus lead to with extensor muscles

Stimulation of one side of the vestibular apparatus will also lead to excitation of extensor muscles on the side being stimulated. If a dog or a cat starts to fall to the right, the animal will extend the limbs on the right side to catch itself; also, the neck extensors will be activated and the head will be directed away from the direction of the fall.

What mechanisms are activated to restore blood pressure?

Sympathetic nervous system activation- SNS and PSNS are in balance and always changing to keep blood pressure up. Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)

total peripheral resistance affecting blood pressure

Sympathetic tone leads to arteriolar constriction Outflow to the veins is temporarily reduced and increased MAP Narrowing tube increases pressure Reduces flow of blood to the veins

tendon sheaths

Synovial tendon sheaths are thin walled double layered fluid filled tubes surrounding stretches of tendons Enclose tendons like tubes protecting them from pressure and reducing frictions

what is SIRS

Systemic inflammatory response syndrome - a systemic response to an array of severe clinical insults.

describe the roles of TLR receptors in pathogen recognition

TLR is complex and multifactorial and they recognise a wide range of microbial compounds

Describe the role of TLRs in homeostasis

TLRs do much more than just recognising pathogens:

What is the definition of a seizure

Temporary abnormal electro-physiological phenomena of the brain Results in abnormal synchronization of electrical neuronal activity from a group of neurones

Outline the areas of the distal limb that are most susceptible to trauma and explain the anatomical reasons

Tendon injury is the most likely - this is likely to be due to them being shock absorbers and a key role in the flexion of the digit so the movement of the limb The pedal bone/sole of the foot is likely to be susceptible to trauma as it is the base of the limb and most likely to have damage due to the weight and foreign objects

zone of thermal comfort

The comfort zone is defined as the range of climatic conditions within which a majority of persons would feel thermal comfort

How does contractility of the heart change during physical exercise? How is this brought about?

The contractility of the heart increases due to the need for oxygen to be pumped around the body to skeletal muscle increasing Enables heart to be able to handle a greater pre load, empty more completely Activation of beta 1 adrenoreceptors This is activated by noradrenaline being released from the sympathetic nervous system

what is the paratenon?

the loose connective tissue around the tendon

The roles of each part of conducting zone? bronchioles

The respiratory bronchioles deliver air to the exchange surfaces of the lungs. They are interrupted by alveoli which are thin walled evaginations. Alveolar ducts are distal continuations of the respiratory bronchioles.

why is discrimination of bacteria important?

understanding of disease, recognising new emerging diseases, improving the control infections, epidemiology

menace response

The menace response is a blink in response to a threatening stimulus to the eye. It is important not to create a draft or airflow as this will stimulate a corneal response. Optic nerve, cranial nerve II, visual cortex, motor cortex, cerebellum, facial nerve, cranial nerve VII = blink Afferent nervous supply is the OPTIC nerve Efferent nervous supply is the FACIAL nerve

how do DNA probes work

The probe will bind to a complementary region on a DNA strand which allows this section of the DNA to be seen as the probe is usually tagged with a fluorescent or radioactive marker.

Give the classification of neurons as a function of the nerve impulse velocity and give example of anatomical locations.

The larger the diameter of the fibre and the thicker the myelin sheath the faster the transmission velocityIn the CNS - brain, spinal cord

mean arterial pressure (MAP)

The discharge of a volume of blood from the heart to the arterial system which cannot all escape through to the venous system before the next beat occurs - remains in the arterial system

extensor postural thrust

The dog is lifted off the ground and replaced on the table As the hindlimbs touch the table there should be a reflex extension of the hindlimbs which will also precipitate the dog to step backwards

olfaction process and olfactory cells

The ethmoturbinates extend rostrally from ethmoid bone Covered with respiratory epithelium Also contains olfactory sensory neurones Sniffing alters the normal airflow to bring the air into contact with the ethmoturbinates olfactory cells - non - motile - cilia like structures Olfactory receptors Exposed dendrite on the mucosal surface detects chemicals Olfactory neurones continuously renewed due to the presence of neural stem cells in the basal layer Axons collect in bundles in lamina propria

what are the neurotransmitters involved in seizures/epilepsy

The neurotransmitters that are involved are glutamate and GABA GABA inhibiting and glutamate facilitating seizures

toxins

Toxins A-B toxins - anthrax Two parts Binding and entering host cell - forms a pore or induces receptor mediated endocytosis Enzymatic activity responsible for toxicity Membrane disrupting toxins - listeria

Breaching the BBB ways - transcellular, - paracellular, - trojan horse

Transcellular Passive diffusion of small, lipophilic molecules through the BBB into the brain Paracellular The transfer of substances across an epithelium by passing through an intracellular space between the cells Trojan horse Fungus crosses the BBB as a passenger inside host phagocytes

enzyme - linked

Transmembrane element Activates intracellular enzymes Eg insulin Inactive state of that receptor insulin binding causes the protein to become enzyme Lots of proteins activated which causes a phosphorylation cascade in the cell

anatomy of lens

Transparent, avascular, biconvex body Lens capsule Anterior lens epithelium Lens fibres - nucleus and cortex

sense of smell in reptiles

Two different regions Vestibule (anterior) Nasal chamber (posterior) +/- concae or turbinals Nasopharyngeal duct Narrow duct

doppler interrogation of the cardiac valves

Typically used for cardiac valve and regurgitation Blood will from ventricles into pulmonary artery when valves are open Should be no backwards flow of blood when they're closed Regurgitation During ventricular contraction if we have backwards flow of blood into atria that's abnormal

Upper motor neurone lesions

UMN tracts are excitatory or inhibitory to LMNs and LMNs innervate either extensor or flexor muscles - in animals extensor muscles are stronger than flexor muscles therefore loss of UMN inhibition after a lesion can result in increased tone and reflex activity in the limbs caudal to the lesion cause exaggerated stifle extension in patellar reflex reduced or complete loss of movement - assesing the patellar reflex in horses is done by testing the ability of the horse to resist pulling on the tail type of muscle atrophy: differentiates between umn and lmn - atrophy in umn disease is due to disuse - caudal to the lesion and generally mild

tear drainage components

Upper and lower lacrimal puncta Lacrimal canaliculi Lacrimal sac Nasolacrimal duct

haemagglutination

Used to determine the virus concentration from tissue culture isolate Clumping of viruses interacting with cells Works as the viruses bind the receptors of individual cells linking together Large number of virus particles required

production of virus proteins

Uses host ribosomes Virus proteins may also be modified by other host systems Glycosylation can be important as it can prevent antibody binding to the virus

what is serology

Using sera from patients in assays with known antigens to show that an antibody has been generated in the patient to that pathogen. E.g ELISA assay

ventricular fibrilation

Usually terminal Rhythm associated with cardiopulmonary arrest Heart rate rapid and irregular No isoelectric baseline ECG is irregular and chaotic, no recognisable PQRST complexes Course or fine depending on the degree of baseline oscillation

organisms that can cause respiratory disease

VIRUSES Primary infections often followed opportunistic growth of commensal bacteria (pathogens) BACTERIA Opportunistic infection by commensals FUNGI Yeasts on surface causing infection plaques hyphal fungi causing primary infections

cannot get oxygen into the blood most common cause for hypoxia

VQ mismatch Most common causes for oxygen not being able to get into the blood Relates to and explains the consequence of lots of lung disease and lung damage Eg a horse on its back under anaesthetic causes problem with VQ mismatch Intrapulmonary shunts Diffuse alveolar/interstitial disease

advantages of taking swabs

Valuable information, very quick to get the sample, easy to obtain, little impact on animal, no specialist equipment required, swabs are cheap

what is a virus?

a small infectious agent that replicates by infecting the cells of a host organism

vascular responses to hypoxia what is this mediated by

Vessels other than in the lungs vasodilate in response to hypoxaemia in order to try and improve oxygen supply to tissues Adenosine = From hypoxic muscle/tissue Local acidosis = Increased lactate of carbon dioxide - hyperpolarization of CM's due to increased potassium which reduces calcium channel opening potential allowing blood vessels to vasodilate Nitric oxide = Causes vasodilation and is released from the endothelium

why is there a head tilt when we get vestibular disturbance

Vestibular spinal tract tends to connect from the vestibular nuclei to the extensors on the ipse-lateral sideInhibits the flexors on the ipse-lateral side and the extensors on the contra-lateral sideProducing natural change of tone Head tilt towards side of the lesion (left - left ear is down)

visceral layer and parietal layer

Visceral layer is epicardium Parietal layer is contiguous with outer layer / adventitial layer of the blood vessels

mid brain/mesencephalon function

Vision hearing, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal (alertness) and temperature regulation Mesencephalon adjoins the pons and rostrally it adjoins the diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus) Partial or total obstruction of the cerebral aqueduct in the mesencephalon during development can lead to a blockage of CSF causing the ventricles to swell and brain tissue will be damaged

long term control of blood pressure

Volume and composition of blood is largely regulated by the kidney via pressure natriuresis RAAS ADH Capillary fluid shift Has an almost infinite ability to excrete salt which controls ECF volume and hence BP Pressure diuresis = pressure natriuresis Can control extracellular volume and blood pressure

Describe the importance of the spleen and changes in packed cell volume in oxygen delivery during exercise in the horse

Warm up releases RBC from the spleen rather than not

normals for interpreting arterial blood gas results

We have to decide if we have a acidaemia or alkalaemia And decide if carbon dioxide or bicarbonate is most deviated from normal - respiratory or metabolic problem

McMaster Egg Counting methods

Weigh 1 gram of faecal sample and place into a universal container/tube. Place a known amount of flotation fluid in the universal and mix the sample by shaking. Pour the faecal slurry into sieve/ tea strainer placed over the beaker Flush known amount of flotation fluid through sieve into beaker. Swirl beaker whilst taking sample using pipette. Transfer the filtrate sample to the 2 McMaster slide chambers taking care to avoid bubbles. Leave the counting chambers to stand for 5 minutes before examination. Examine the filtrate in the filled chambers under the microscope at 4x, followed by 10x magnification. Identify and count all eggs within the engraved area of both chambers (ignoring those outside the squares).

pathology and detection of d.viviparus

What causes the animal to become so weak: Causes parasitic pneumonia Emphysemic lung - alveoli damage

function and anatomy of sympathetic system

Whole body experienceFight or flightThoracolumbarGanglia close to spinal cordShort pre-ganglionic neuron, long post ganglionic neuron

Describe the appearance of pericardial effusion on radiographs

Whole cardiac silhouette grossly enlarged Globular appearance and sharp margin Outline distinct as no movement Secondary signs of right-sided failure Ultrasound very sensitive indicator

what is the medullary centre activated by

a group of neurones in the pontine reticular formation that release acetylcholine This release is a cholinergic action

diagnostic tests

abdominal ultrasound - check for other potential sources of bacteraemia eg infected umbilicus biochemistry - assess the state of hydration - plasma lactate rises in septic shock

pleural effusion

abnormal accumulation of fluid in the thoracic cavity/pleural space

thoraconcentesis

also known as thoracentesis or pleural tap Thoracostomy tubes (chest tubes or thoracic drains) withdraw air or fluid from the pleural space preperation Right lateral recumbency Clean the space and ensure area is sterile Recognise where ribs 7,8,9 and the left chondrocostal (13) arch incision Counting back three interspaces from the 7th interspace the point of skin incision for drain Drain passes through subcutaneous tunnel tube enters thoracic cavity at subcutaneous tunnel at the 7th interspace - placed in the lower part of the space to avoid damage to the neurovascular bundle Lies along the lower border of the rib along the upper part of the space

hypoxaemia

amount of oxygen dissolved in blood that is free is normally around 90-100 when it falls to around 60mm Hg

bronchodilation sympathetic stimulation

b2 adrenoreceptors (Nor) Adrenaline / (Nor) Epinephrine acting as agonist Relax smooth muscle in lung Dilation is increased via cAMP Main drugs for asthma and COPD

what happens in the response to haemorrhage in aortic arch and carotid sinus

baroreceptors in aortic arch and carotid sinus = recognition of reduced blood pressure as they're sensitive to stretch

discuss how the demands of performance create a predisposition to injury in the racing greyhound

bending the bones generates microcurrents sensed by osteocytes which lay down bone if there is a negative charge on compression side and remove bone if there is a positive charge on tension side reduced stress leads to degradation of bone matrix this causes a danger period as there is a lag time between repeated stresses and increase in strength

what is simple squamous epithelium?

best suited for passive transport across cytoplasmlittle protect - not found on surfaces of high stressfound in alveoli vessels blood vessels and body cavities

botulinum toxin

binds to nerve terminal and is very potent Blocks Ach release causing death from paralysis This has also been used to treat local muscle spasms and fight wrinkles

main difference between mechanical and biological vectors?

biological will support pathogen multiplication and replication within their bodies

exercise - induced pulmonary haemorrhage (EIPH)

bleeding in the lungs High pulmonary blood pressure More likely in cold environments

Define the areas desensitised by common regional anaesthesia

block sensation to structures distal of the anaesthesia palmar digital nerve block or abaxial sesamoid nerve block

pulmonary perfusion

blood flow to the alveoli allowing uptake of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide Anything affecting blood flow to the lungs affects pulmonary perfusion

what expresses selectin and what is it?

blood vessel endothelium local to areas of inflammation will express new receptors - selectins they are integrin receptors external signals also cause leucocytes in the vessels to express integrins which bind the receptors what does the binding of integrin with their receptor do? slows down the leukocytes down near the infected tissue and the immobilised leukocytes reorganise their cytoskeleton (=diapedesis) - allow to move between the cells from the vessels into the tissue diapedesis : the immobilized leukocytes reorganization their cytoskeletonsthis changes the cell shape they spread out over the endothelium leukocytes pass between gaps in the endothelial cells cell migrates along chemokine gradient until reach area of inflammation

haemotoxylin stain?

blue stains mainly genetic material

Define the main divisions of the central nervous system? brain and spinal cord

brain and spinal cord

four main steps of an ECG

calculation of heart rate, determination of the heart rhythm, measurement of the complex amplitudes and intervals, measurement of the mean electrical axis

Lower motor neurone lesions

can either occur due to damage to the neruonal cell body in the CNS or due to damage to the axon in the periphery - distal to lesion both axon and neural termiantion at NMSK junction degenerate - decreased or absent reflexes due to the efferent portion of any reflex arcs involving these muscles being lost - no ACh is released and the muscle fibres will not be stimulated to contract rapid or severe muscle atrophy from denervation of muscles

The blood-gas barrier effect of exercise and training on it

can reduce or thin the blood-gas barrier in order to improve efficiency of transfer The rate of diffusion of gases depends primarily on: driving pressure or gradient ie the difference in gas pressure across the membrane, the thickness of the membrane, total area of membrane available

discuss the specific adaptations and physical attributes of racing greyhound

canine muscle fibres are primarily type I (slow supportive and aerobic) and type II (fast motility of limbs) the type II are mixed ability fibres which allow fatigue resistance and also sprint more fat in canine muscles than horses/humans which makes them better adapted for endurance

lub ventricular systole

contraction of ventricles Results in cardiac output Atrioventricular valves close

lamina propria

consists of loose, highly vascularised supporting tissue which becomes more condensed at its deeper aspect to form a band of fibroelastic tissue

electrocardiography

heart rate and rhythm measurement - continuous ECG

what can we ultrasound

heart, lung surface, pleura and pericardium, lymph nodes, thymus and space occupying lesions, vascular structures

metabolic acidosis

decrease in bicarbonate and pH metabolic problem eg dog with horrendous diarrhoea can be caused from loss of bicarbonate or gain of acid - ketones in diabetes result acidosis, decreased carbonate and carbon dioxide treatment : intravenous fluids and address underlying cause

histology of tendon?

dense connective tissue extracellular fibres (collagen mainly) parallel and regularly orientated resistant to stress many fibrocytes and fibroblasts

What does the dermatome contribute to?

dermis - skeletal muscle, dermis, muscle stem cells and brown fat cells

adaptive immunity

develops after previous exposure to a virus and is specific to that pathogen and strain

laboratory diagnosis of protozoan infection

direct microscopic examination Look at the eggs and different life cycle stages Sample collection is very important as the parasite have complex life cycles serology Toxoplasma (pregnant women) Blood test at the first pre-natal examination This shows whether the women has had previous exposure and whether she is at risk = If a woman receives her first exposure to toxoplasmosis while pregnant the baby is at risk

hopping

dog is hopped sideways Once the limb goes outside the line of the body there should be a rapid and accurate sideways repositioning of the limb

where are sensory cell bodies supporting large afferent fibres located?

dorsal root ganglia or trigeminal ganglion

signs of upper airway disease

dysphagia, sneezing nasal discharge inspiratory dyspnoea obstructed nares snoring/snorting facial deformity

what happens in the response to haemorrhage in sympathetic effect on heart

effect on the heart - sympathetic nervous tone from noradrenaline released from nerve endings acting on beta1 adrenoreceptors in the heart Inotropic effect : increased force of contraction Chronotropic effect : heart rate increases

preload?

end diastolic volume (EDV) - the amount of blood in the ventricles at the end of diastole (filling)

structure of the cornea

epithelium, stroma, epithelium

process from embryo to lining uterus lining?

funnel-like structures catches oocytemoves to top and fertilization occurdivides into two cells which divides into four and into eightmorula moves to uterus and form blastocystembryo hatcheshatching blastocyst lines uterus lining

risk factors of cardiac disease

heritable : particular bulls can produce susceptible/resistant offspring, degree of erythrocytosis (increase in RBC), chronic cold temperatures, obesity, certain plant toxins

what are the three types of cartilage?

hyaline, elastic and fibrous (fibrocartilage)

What is the cerebellum and how did it develop

highest density of neurones within the whole brain Related to movement and posture Paired upgrowth from where pons is is attached to brainstem by 3 paired peduncles (stalks) Part of the hindbrain caudal part of cranial cavity : Dorsal to 4th ventricle

non permissive host

host in which the parasite cannot complete life cycle eg Toxocara spp. in humans

capnography

in normal circumstances metabolic rate doesn't alter much, so ventilation determines arterial CO2. Arterial CO2 therefore tells us about ventilation. At the end of the tidal volume the machine sucks some of the breath into the device and analyses the amount of carbon dioxide Relates to ventilation and heart output

What are the three main classes of cell surface receptors

ion channel / ligand gated g protein linked enzyme linked

neutrophils oxygen dependent

killing after phagocytosis / called respiratory burst Increased oxygen utilisation Generation of reactive oxygen species such as superoxide anion, hydrogen peroxide = damage bacterial membranes Produce hyperchloric acid

white matter

lots of myelin (fat) insulating nervesDorsal columns: ascending (sensory) tracts.Ventral columns: descending (motor) tracts.

central venus pressure

measures pressure of blood returning to the right side of the heart usually reflects the volume of blood returning ie is circulating volume okay

what is the main supply to distal forelimb?

median artery continuing as medial palmar artery

commensals

microorganisms which exist on / in animals without causing disease They are important to the health of animals as they can : stimulate an immune response and support development of immunity, can compete against pathogens, play a role in nutrition

inverse agonist?

most receptors are in their resting state and a inverse agonist binds has more affinity to the resting state of receptor which is opposite of agonist and antagonist equally attracted to both states There is a equilibrium between the resting and active state but usually receptors are naturally resting

Hyphal growth

moulds form large colonies they can produce asexual spores in different ways

What does the myotome contribute to?

muscle - skeletal muscle

fetal lungs and livers

net receivers during foetal life, to help growth in adults, lungs liver are not 'providers' oxygen, nutrients

In a closed system when we add additional acid

no way of blowing off carbon dioxide and the animal would die as carbon dioxide would drop down

peripheral nervous system affect

non-adrenergic non-cholinergic (NANC) neurotransmitter in many tissues The neurotransmitter is released at same time as Ach and noradrenaline Primarily slower response than above Can be either excitatory or inhibitory Can be potential therapeutic targets

innate immunity

non-specific and rapid response against viral infection

What is chronic inflammation

normal response again but wound may not heal because of foreign body or continuing infecition takes weeks months or years eg : persistent infection (mycobacterium tuberculosis) or foreign body

Haematocrit (Hct)

packed cell volume (PCV) - this is the fraction of whole blood volume that consists of red blood cells Calculated Hct / PCV

choanae

paired caudal openings of nasal cavity, funnelling air from nasal cavity into nasal pharynx

where are flexor tendons located?

palmar aspect muscles arise from medial epicondyle of humerus in forelimb and caudal aspect of femur, tibia and fibula in hindlimb

where is the abaxial sesamoid nerve block?

palmar digital nerves on abaxial surface of proximal sesamoid bones neurovascular bundles can be palpated over sesamoids desensitises the digit

where are the cardiac images obtained

parasternal window Left or right side of window Lateral recumbency in dogs Heart closer to chest wall when lying down due to gravity and standing in large animals subcostal window

lacrimal function nerve tested?

parasympathetic VII can be tested by the Schirmer tear test

abnormalities

peripheral dimpling irregular lung surface second image is pneumonia with pleural effusion

macrophages

phagocytosis pathogens, foreign bodies, antigen that communicate with T-cells

sodium channel blockers

physically block the pore slows down phase 0 Slows down depolarisation They reduce the maximum rate of depolarisation during phase 0 Lidocaine Slows AP generation and raises depolarisation threshold - used to treat ventricular tachycardia They are extensively used as toxins

eosin stain?

pink stains mainly proteins (cytoplasm)

sandwich ELISA

plate is coated with specific antibody to capture the analyte another specific antibody is used for detection = analyte is sandwiched between the antibodies

fundus

portion of the posterior segment of the eye that is viewed with the ophthalmoscope Tend to think of as a pizza = sclera base = sclera and choroid base and tomato = sclera choroid and retina base tomato and cheese

resting potential in cardiac muscle

positive charge on the outside and negative on the inside

what is the composition of a tendon ?

primary collagen fibres form primary bundles primary bundles surrounded by endotenon forms secondary bundles - crimp present surrounding secondary bundle secondary bundles form tertiary bundles tendon is made of tertiary bundles

process of gastrulation?

primitive streak forms Some cells detach from the epiblast layer and they start to move towards the primitive streak and primitive node When they arrive they push through the epiblast and end up between the epiblast and hypoblast Some displace hypoblast = endoderm Some lie between epiblast and endoderm = mesoderm Cells remaining in epiblast = ectoderm

keratinisation

process of differentiation of living epidermal cells characterised by high cellular metabolic activity happens in live cells

nitric oxided and endothelins

produced locally in response to lots of stimuli they are endothelial derived factors Nitric oxide A tonic vasodilator Released by shear stress Acetylcholine or kinins Endothelins Usually vasoconstriction

rapid immunomigration (RIM)

proteins (antigens and/or antibodies) are absorbed onto a strip of tissue such as nitrocellulose sample is applied on one end of the strip and will migrate along the strip by capillary action sample may need to be pre-treated (eg diluted) prior to application

function of the lens

provides a third of the refractive power of eye (rest is cornea) Accommodation Blocking UV light from the retina

effects of hypoxia on the pulmonary vessels

pulmonary vasoconstriction of the small pulmonary arterioles in response to hypoxia - significantly effects ventilation and perfusion opposite to what happens in response to hypoxaemia poiseuilles law - a small amount of vasoconstriction incerases the resistance within the pulmonary vasculature

hypoxaemia

reduced oxygen in the blood

hypoxia

reduced oxygen in tissues

bone marrow response reticulocyte count HIGH NORMAL

regenerative non-regenerative

how do we see emotions in animals?

response patterns: Motoric Movements (often seen as behavioural) Autonomic Activation of the ANS Hormonal Adrenal medulla and cortex Integrative Brain activity

negative sense

reverse complement to positive sense - does not normally code for protein

cardiac muscle?

show striations but different to skeletal presence of one or two nuclei per cell found in centre often branched shorter presence of intercalated disks (darkly stained transverse lines)

standardsied exmaination

similar to physical examination consistent measurements The more parallel you can get the better the imagine Horse - left sided views allowing us to see left atrium and aortic outflow Gives us better alignment

what are the histological characteristics of smooth muscle?

simple and least differentiated narrow spindle shaped fibres single central nucleus per fibre no striations within sarcoplasm (cytoplasm)

four types of simple epithelium?

simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, simple pseudostratified columnar

What is the limbic system

single cortex on top of corpus callusom projecting nuclei in the hypothalamus it receivers projections from cortex from cortex from limbic structures which particularly projects towards brain for certain behaviours eg stress response

what does ectoderm form?

skin, epidermis, nervous system

pro angiogenic factors

switch on angiogenic path

what are the three main types of junctions between neurones and other excitable tissues?

synapses = Neurone to neurone can be excitatory or inhibitory only in grey matter (small gaps in cells) neuromuscular junctions = Neurone to muscle cells, always excitatory in skeletal muscle (still have a synapse) neuroglandular junctions = Neurone to glandular cells and most secretory glands

what is atrial systole?

the atria contract and push blood into the ventricles

What are commisures?

transverse connections between hemispheres

C3a main role

triggering inflammation (C4a and C5a) Change smooth muscle contraction leading to more blood in area Increases vasodilation - oedema formation allowed Activates mast cells or neutrophils Increases fluid in the tissue and speeds up lymph flow

types of nerve fibers and their functions?

type A fibers - thickest and fastest conducting, myelinated eg skeletomotor fibres type B fibers - medium in size, myelinated, slower than type A eg preganglionic automatic efferents type C fibers - smallest and thinnest, non-myelinated, slowest conduction eg postganglionic autonomic efferents

structure of erythrocytes

typical lipid bilayer of globular proteins with a biconcave disc shape have the ability for elasticity / deformability which allows passage through capillary diameters FUNCTION = transport of oxygen from lungs to cells and transport of carbon dioxide from cells to lungs swelling of erythrocytes failure of Na+ ion movement causing swelling of erythrocyte cell membranes leading to swelling and loss of the normal concave disc morphology

sandwich ELISA

used an antibody pair to detect specific antigen eg cytokines, acute phase reactants, virus particles

non-cellular

viruses Prions (Proteinaceous infectious particles). Single proteins.

identify 1-8

1 - nasal septum 2 - dorsal meatus 3 - 4 - ventral meatus 5 - common meatus 6 - dorsal concha 7 - ventral concha

Atenolol B1 selective adrenoreceptor antagonist

Beta 1 receptor on the heart will cause increases in heart rate and contractility when stimulated

organic acids

By products or participants in aerobic metabolism, e.g. lactic acid.

carbonic acid of carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide enters the red blood cells where it reacts with water to form carbonic acid Carbonic acid dissociates to Bicarbonate ions (transported to plasma) Hydrogen ions (buffered by Hb)

function of the iris

Controls amount light into the eye Forms part of the blood-ocular barrier

Enhancing the stride length

Limits stride rate - inertia (limbs are pendulums - the amount or force or energy that is required to change the force or energy of that pendulum) = mass x radial distance(squared) Increase limb length or by flexion and extension of back ulna extends the amount of work of the triceps mediolaterally flattened thorax with scapula positioned laterally - everything is designed in a straigth line allows scapula and shoulder joint to be free to move

potassium channel blockers

Mechanism Slow phase 3 of action potential and therefore increase refractory period and duration of action potential

clinical signs D.immitis

Narrowing pulmonary artery Exercise intolerance Hydrothorax Hydroperitoneum Chronic cough Dyspnoea

sclera components

Opaque Largest portion of the outer coat of the eye Composed of collagen and fibroblasts - has to be quite strong 3 layers are episclera, scelra proper/stroma, lamina fusca Anterior portion covered by bulbar conjunctiva

what do cartilage channels undergo during endochondral ossification?

Process that channels undergo as growth slows and layer of growth cartilage becomes thinner narrower finally replaced completely by bone Normal physiological process Vessels regress and canal obliterated and filled with chondrocytes which becomes cartilage

avian renal portal system

Receives blood from caudal body Drains from hind limbs Drugs injected into hind limbs are metabolised before general circulation Portal blood flow regulated - portal valve Continuous with caudal mesenteric vein

Myocbacterium tuberculosis

Recognised by TLR9,TLR4, TLR2 expressed on the surface of alveolar macrophages Initiate transcription of inflammatory cytokine in order to regulate infection Reduced TLR1, TLR2 activity leads to susceptibility to M tuberculosis and M leprae Genotyping might improve therapeutic intervention

mycobacterium turberculosis

Recognised by TLR9,TLR4, TLR2 expressed on the surface of alveolar macrophages Initiate transcription of inflammatory cytokine in order to regulate infection Reduced TLR1, TLR2 activity leads to susceptibility to M tuberculosis and M leprae Genotyping might improve therapeutic intervention

non-specific defences

Removal of particles Physical and anatomical G head position and cilia Lubricants Mucus Reflexes Coughing and sneezing Antimicrobial compounds Lysozyme

What drugs act on the RAAS?

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS): ACE inhibitors (names end in -pril). Improves ejection fraction. Improving the oxygen supply/demand ratio primarily by decreasing demand through the reductions in afterload and preload. Prevents angiotensin II from triggering deleterious cardiac remodelling. Reduce level of angiotensin II- venous dilators, arterial dilators Reduce levels of aldosterone Reduce fluid accumulation Overall effect is "decongestion" ACEI- causes efferent arteriolar dilation, causing a reduced glomerular filtration rate.

components of haemoglobin

Represents 95% of erythrocyte protein the components : Globin Two pairs of polypeptides 2 x alpha or 2 x beta chains Central haem group Containing iron atom that can bind a molecule of O2

coulter principle

Simplify and improve blood cell analysis This meant that large populations could be screened rapidly This forms a size distribution plots against cell number and cell size Comparison of different cell types

dendritic cells

Specialised group of antigen presenting cells (APCs) Many subsets according to their tissue location

withdrawal response

Squeezing the toes allows you to test two separate modalities : sensation and strength of withdrawal Withdrawal reflex is a local segmental reflex sensation and withdrawal are independent of each other except for the necessity of intergity of the peripheral nerves

what do chordae tendinae do

Stop valves prolapsing up into the atrium Rupture causes failure of mitral valve to close

what are the clinical signs of a dog with a case of pleural effusion

This will decrease the amount of space that is available for the lungs to expand within the chest cavity The dog must work harder to breathe - clinical sign Rapid shallow breathing and increased respiratory effort Dogs may have open mouthed breathing, may also cough

optimal gas exchange ratios

Ventilation should be evenly distributed and match blood supply V/Q ratio of 1 is balanced and ideal Alveolus left - obstructive bronchial = no ventilation V/Q ratio is zero On right - obstruction in alveoli - perfused No gas exchange can occur - alveoli dead space

Why would a blockage in one of the ventricular structures cause a build up of CSF in the brain?

Ventricles become enlarge the excess fluid increases the size of the ventricles and puts pressure on the brain - the blockage would cause the swelling Hydrocephalus

what is MAP dependent on

cardiac output, total peripheral resistance, blood volume

what ganglion go directly to the heart

post ganglionic

what three parts is stroke volume composed of

preload, contractility and afterload

which peripheral nerve is tested by the extensory carpi radialis reflex

radial

causes of hypoxia/hypoxaemia

reduced oxygen inspired cannot get oxygen ot lungs reduced systemic oxygen oxygen cannot bind to HB (and / or oxygen cannot get off haemoglobin cannot get oxygen into the blood

what is the blood brain barrier?

selective barrier between parenchyma of nervous system and circulating blood - it selectively blocks to large molecules mainly by active transport unless they are lipid soluble

cranial laryngeal nerve (x) from vagus

sensory innervation of the laryngeal mucous membrane motor innervation of cricothyroideus

dilator muscles control

Dilator muscles under sympathetic control and we have constrictor muscles under parasympathetic control Adrenaline when scared which causes iris to dilate to get as much light in as possible Parasympathetic constricts with too much light coming into our eye

miosis

Excessive constriction of the pupil

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)

Expressed onto the cell surface It relates to role in transplantation Determines if tissues/cells are recognised as self or non-self Controls how immune system detects and responds to specific antigens Antigen presentation where MHC molecules display peptide fragments for recognition by appropriate T cells two classes of MHC

process of lung development

Form by process of branching morphogenesis Many genes involved Lungs develop similarly to the kidneys and breast tissue

iron metabolism after RBC breakdown

Free iron is toxic to cells as it acts as a catalyst in the formation of free radicals from reactive oxygen species What happens to iron: (never allowed to be free)

the tongue worm - Linguatula serrata

Infects dogs from eating meat coming from small ruminants that are infected Causes - mucopurulent nasal discharge, epistaxis and sneezing Reported treatments - salt water flushes to detach adult and treatment with milbemycin oxime

Treatment Strategies

Inflammatory mediators act on host cells and stimulate neurones particular vagus nerve which is part of parasympathetic nervous system CNS respiratory centre activated High release of neurotransmitters acting on host cells which leads to smooth muscle contraction and bronchoconstriction

innate immune responses in the respiratory tract

Leucocytes Originate from blood and Interstitum Carried from lung to trachea Macrophages Neutrophils Basophils Eosinophils Mast cells Number of molecules produced: Lysozymes Defensins Surfactants Cytokines Complement Inflammatory mediators

why is necrosis essential in development

Limb development - the interdigital mesoderm initially formed between fingers and toes is removed Ossification - death of chondrocytes Nervous system - death of neurones

What are the 2 subfamilies of motor neurones?

Lower motor neurones Motor neurones of the spinal cord and brain stem nuclei that innervate skeletal muscle effectors Upper motor neurones Located in the brain and have fibres that descend to and modify the action of lower motor neurones The lower motor neurone serves as the final common pathway for all output to striated skeletal muscle

mechanisms limiting ventilation regionally

Lower portions of the lung are ventilated more than the upper zones Intra-pleural pressure is higher (less negative) at the bottom of the lung (base) than at the top due to the weight of the fluid Lung easier to inflate at low volumes than at high volumes (becomes stiffer) Resting lung volume at base small so expands well on inspiration

dictyocaulus arnfeldi

Lung parasite of horses and donkeys (mules/zebra) Horses more likely to be infected when kept on pasture with donkeys - donkeys will not show clinical signs Donkeys are direct host Infection in donkeys has PPP of 13 weeks It is found in small bronchi In horses, not patent - very few eggs - L1 in donkeys it is a patent infection (this happens when there is direct evidence of parasite reproduction that has been detected)

fate shunt 2 : foramen ovale

Lungs open = low pulmonary resistance Placenta gone = high systemic pressure Pressure differential causes septa to close together and fuse Blood is diverted to lungs via right ventricle - the remnant is called the fossa ovalis

Cranial nerve IV - Trochlear nerve test and Cranial nerve VI - Abducens nerve test

Motor to extrinsic muscles Looking at nystagmus Normal = eyes flick from right to left as the horse locks on objects Abnormal = wouldn't track

horses swab sites

Nasopharyngeal swabs are used for sampling pathogens in the upper respiratory tract restraint standing physical restraint - head collar and stocks testing for steptococcus equi pass it to At the level of the caudal soft palate, the swab should stimulate a swallow.

Deep gluteal

O: Ilium and ischiatic spine I: Greater trochanter A: Extend and abduct hip. Rotate medially at hip N: Cranial gluteal nerve

long axis view - left side

Plane of view is more vertical Left sided structures are much closer to us

what do drugs affecting cholinergic transmission interfere with?

Release Reuptake of metabolites Facilitation of receptors Metabolising enzyme

parasympathetic action at SA node

Releases acetylcholine at SA node cells to decrease heart rate Decreases rate of drift to threshold

Which chamber of the heart is enlarged in this cardiac radiograph: right

Right Heart Enlargement- DV: RA only chamber in expected place.Reversed D- globular shape of right side.

alveolus

The are minute polygonal chambers Diameter changes with inflation and deflation of the lung and also varies with size of the animal Two outermost surfaces are formed from alveolar epithelial cells There is a network of alveolar capillaries between the two epithelial sheets Blood gas barrier - single basal lamina Fibre skeleton - connective tissue cells and fibres form alveolar Interstitum

fixation

The fixating response can be useful in the co-operative patient to demonstrate conscious vision of a patient. Using a small slow moving object, the ability of an animal to follow its path is tested.

response to hypoxia

The normal drive to ventilation is changed readily by changes in levels of carbon dioxide in the body

Canine distemper virus spread

The virus replicates in the URT spreads to the tonsils and bronchial lymph nodes A cell associated viraemia follows with spread to other lymphoreticular tissues Viral replication produces lymphocytolysis and leukopenia resulting in immunosuppression - facilitates a secondary viraemia to develop once in neurones it can spread by neurotropic spread cell to cell

selective inhibitor

These are sometimes added to petri dishes to ensure that only the bacteria that we are cultivating are able to grow, so it kills any background bacteria which may compete for resources or obscure the results.

anisocoria

Unequal size of pupils, can be serious or of no consequence

normal ECG dog - Q wave

Ventricular depolarisation Initially at the septum down towards the apex which give the Q wave First negative detection after P wave

operant conditioning?

a learning procedure whereby the effects of a particular behaviour in a particular situation increase (reinforce) or decrease (punish) the probability of the behaviour

yeast cells division / budding

asexual division by budding

obligate parasite

at some or all stages of life cycle cannot survive in the absence of the host

when does gastrulation occur?

between implantation (the attachment of the fertilized egg or blastocyst to the wall of the uterus at the start of pregnancy) and organogenesis (production and development of organs)Basic body plan is established and the primary body axes are established

What is epilepsy

disease of the brain characterized by an enduring predisposition to generate epileptic seizures Usually at least 2 unprovoked epileptic seizures less than 24 hours apart caused by recurrent episodes of paroxysmal brain disfunction Electrical signal sends neurotransmitter a to synapse-- so with epilepsy there's a huge surge of electrical signals and not enough inhibitors

genome

either RNA or DNA, single or double strand, circular, linear, if single stranded it can be positive of negative sense: Positive sense = sequence can code directly for virus protein Negative sense = reverse complement to positive sense - does not normally code for protein

Cavitation

formation of cavities - holes or spaces

chromosome

haploid circular DNA chromosome is much longer than the typical prokaryote and must be compacted to fit inside the cell To fit into the cell it is organized into a DNA-protein complex called the nucleoid. Has essential core genes of the bacteria Has other genes that define the properties of the bacteria

oslerus osleri

is a parasitic worm with the adult worms found in the upper airways (trachea). Metastrongyloid nematode with direct life cycle Infection occurs by ingesting L1 infected faeces or by direct transfer of L1 in sputum No gastropods are involved

Ecto-parasite

lives on the outer body, surface of the host eg fleas, lice, ticks, mites

dermis

living layer where connective tissue blood vessels and nerve

MHC class I and II

seen by cytotoxic T cells class 2 : to alert the t helper cells if there is an infection going on, mainly on antigen presenting cells - macrophages, dendritic cells, B cells

functional residual capacity

the volume of air present in the lungs at the end of passive expiration

explain the process of preparing a histological section - paraffin proceduce?

tissue collection fixation (10% formalin) and trimming dehydration (series of alcohols up to 100% to remove water)paraffin embedding - makes it rigid form block of tissue sectioning with microtome straightening sections on water bath - float flat transferring sections to slide staining and cover slipping - see material

secondary lymphatic tissues

where lymphocytes are activated = spleen, lymph nodes, mucosa associated lymphoid tissue

primary lymphoid tissues

where lymphocytes are produced and mature into B cells (in the B structures)= bone marrow, bursa of fabricius T cells = thymus

Defence of the lungs: to exclude or remove foreign agents

ØPrevent entry ØSwallow ØTrapping ØSneeze/cough out ØAntimicrobial compounds ØEliminate via immune response

plasmid

•Not all bacteria have plasmids (but they are very common) •An independent small DNA molecule (most are circular) •Has partition genes so when bacteria divide both cells gain plasmid •Plasmids can transfer between related bacteria carrying a range of properties

function of the third eyelid

- Protects ocular surface - Distributes tear film and removes debris from corneal surface - A third of aqueous production from the third eyelid gland - Contains immunoglobin secreting plasma cells - defence on ocular surface

how do viruses hack host cell machinery to increase viral protein translation?

- hijack ribosomes to produce viral proteins - dsDNA viruses utilise host DNA polymerase for replication, enhance viral production - block S phase when host cell DNA is normally replicated, block G1 phase allows for accumulation of viral proteins and vision production

how do viruses host protein block?

- host antiviral activity inhibits release of retrovirus particles - tetherin is induced by interferons, causes retention of fully formed virions on infected cell surface - viral protein Vpu counteracts this activity by degrading tethering

some limitations of ELISA

- indicates previous exposure but not sufficient to indicate when infection occurred - false negatives and positives can occur

what is the mechanism of vaccines?

- induces immunity 1. host exposure to vaccine antigens 2. naive T and or B cells that recognise begin clonal expansion and differentiation 3. develop population of memory cells 4. next encounter with same antigens induces protective secondary response

Which nerves carry somatic (motor) impulses to the muscles of ventilation?

- phrenic and intercostal Intercostal mm. supplied by intercostal nerves which are ventral branches of the thoracic spinal nerves

name three stages of dopaminergic events implicated in stereotypies?

- sensitisation of corticostrial circuits (reduced frontocortical inhibitory control)- enhanced mesoaccumbens DA responding- hyperactivity of the dopaminergic system leads to enhanced nigrostriatal transmission - behaviour rigidity

describe the path of the nasolacrimal duct and infraorbital canal

- the nasolacrimal duct opens at the nasal puncta on the ventral floor of the nasal vestibule close to the transition point between the nasal mucosa and the nostril Lacrimal duct is at the top outer edge of the eye Nasolacrimal duct allows tears to drain from each eye into the nose Nasolacrimal duct ends near the lateral wall of the nostril on the medial surface of the alar fold of the ventral nasal concha Hence for nasolacrimal flushes in cattle, entry is usually through the upper of lower lacrimal puncta

ion movements during action potential

- threshold of excitation causing Na voltage dependent ion- channels in membrane to open and Na rushes in by diffusion and electrostatic pressure - depolarisation from -70mV to +40mV - K voltage dependent ion-channels open later than Na channels as they require larger depolarisation - Na channels become refractory = channels become blocked and cannot open again until membrane reaches resting potential so no more Na in - K channels open so K moves in freely out of cell causes membrane to return to normal value and K closes - sodium channels reset as membrane normal value overshoot over -70mV before normal return eventually NaK pump remove the Na ions that leaked in and retrieve the K that leaked out

what are viroporins?

- viral proteins that make hydrophilic holes in cells, allow release of virions

what factors influence the emergence of virus infections?

- virus adaptation and change - international travel - host susceptibility to infection - climate change

How has nerve function been affected in the image below? Which nerve is affected (and muscle) What is the clinical significance of this? Roaring in horses - laryngeal hemiplegia

- vocal folds seem to be hanging into the oesophagus Recurrent laryngeal nerve damage Intrinsic muscles of larynx Reduces their airflow during exercise and reduces the amount of oxygen a horse can inhale

how bacteria of different groups can have antibiotic resistance

1 enzymes that degrade or inactivate antibiotic B lactamases - penicillin/ampicillin 2. Alteration of target site altered ribosome structure 3. elimination of antibiotic from bacterial cell efflux pump - tetracycline 4. bacterial cell impermeable for antibiotic gram negative cell wall - penicillin

how do viruses evade the antiviral state?

- concealment (replication intracellularly, prevent antigen presenting, integrate into genome) - interference with immune system (block cytokine receptors, inhibit induction of interferon and signalling)

what is antibody detection of viral protein/antigen testing for?

- detection of viral antigens - immunoflourescence / immunohistology used for: detection of viral antigen, identify in cells or tissue by reaction with specific antibody

lymphocytes histology

9-12 micro metres in diameter Nucleus round condensed chromatin Pale blue cytoplasm

the oxygen pathway

= Atmosphere = Into the lungs by ventilation (tidal volume) oxygen into the blood by diffusion = Heart = Circulated to tissues in the blood = Into the tissues by diffusion Into mitochondria = oxidative phosphorylation PO2 reduces as travels through system PCO2 increases as travels through system Partial pressure way of measuring gases - directly proportional to concentration of a gas

what does molecular epidemiology tell us

1. Identification of specific organisms 2. Relationship of organisms in the environment 3. Presence of specific genes in a population

life cycle of a virus

1. Invade the host, through the skin or mucous membrane 2. Infect susceptible cells at cellular level (tropism) 3. Overcome local defences eg innate immune response to replicate in permissive cells 4. Virus assembly and spread from the site of infection often via the bloodstream to other organs Undergo further rounds of replication Exit / shedding from host in high numbers to infect other susceptible hosts to ensure spread and maintenance Routes = urine, faeces, skin, respiratory tract

Describe how cardiovascular physiology is impacted in heart disease

1. Normal systemic arterial pressure. 2. Cardiac output. 3. Venous pressures. All related- priority is maintenance of blood pressure- tissue and organ perfusion- require a minimumperfusion pressure. e.g. in DCM- heart contracts poorly, stroke volume decreases, as does blood pressure. High heart rate- blood doesn't fill in time, preload decreases.

How can bacteria survive host defence

1. Resistance to host defence e.g complement resistance, avoiding phagocytosis and protection against recognition by antibodies 2. Active subversion of host defence e.g producing toxins or ejecting bacterial effector proteins.

what are the four steps of phage typing

1. The phage attach to the surface structures 2. These structures vary slightly between different isolates of the same species 3. Multiple phage are assessed for their ability to infect bacteria 4. The pattern of susceptibility leads to a phage type Uses lytic bacteriophage It identifies pattern of susceptibility of a bacterial isolate to establish its phage type (PT)

sinus arrythmia

As NSR except greater variation in P-P (or R-R) interval Rhythm is irregular but regularly so If it is related to the respiratory cycle respiratory sinus arrhythmia Normal rhythm in dog, abnormal in cat It is mediated by fluctuations in vagal tone and abolished by giving atropine, accentuated by vagal manoeuvres

function of the nasal cavity in birds

As air gets increasingly warmer it increases the water saturation - amount of water saturated into the air. Nasal conchae warming the air so humidifying it which helps to stop drying out the lower respiratory tract Water condenses onto the surface of the mucous membrane of nasal conchae when temperature decreases - important in removing heat from body

non true lungworm

Ascaris suum and toxocara canis = most important species

fermentation assay

Assays indicate ability to ferment different sugars Can be changed for different sugars - lactose, fructose, galactose All assays are based on a pH change more acid if the sugar can be fermented Phenol red is neutral pH at red

What should be checked during regular reassessments of patients with heart disease/failure?

Assess patient for side effects, toxicity etc Drug doses may need to be adjusted There is rarely a standard dose Regular blood chemistries are advisable Repeat investigations if indicated- unusual to do Weigh Aim is resolution of clinical signs- rarely a cure, will require lifelong therapy. Therapy failure- dose too low- dose by surface area not weight? Administration failure? Absorption if given by mouth? Tachyphylaxis- the longer the drug is used, the less effective it becomes, may need to change drug. Combination therapy is common. Adverse effects of therapy: Dose too high- lean weight/fluid presence Idiosyncratic reaction Complicating factors- renal dysfunction Co-existing disease- liver dysfunction Effect of combinations- polypharmacy?

indications for cardiac ultrasound

Assessment of : Cardiac chamber size Enlargement/appropriate Myocardial pathology or function Structure of function damaged Valvular function and regurgitation Doppler Most common Vascular dysfunction

Explain the functions of the lymphatic system

Assists in circulation of body fluids between cells and bloodstream- returns tissue fluid to circulation Protects body against foreign material- carries material/organisms to lymph nodes Transports dietary fats

how is perfusion affected by lung disease and cardiac function

Asthma , pneumonia, mountain sickness Cardiac function - congenital heart defect, hypovolemia, pulmonary oedema Pneumonia - blood flow passes through infected region it doesn't pick up any oxygen which mixes with normal blood and this reduces lower oxygen tension in the blood

Give the four names of neuroglia in the central nervous system and their function

Astrocytes - axon guidance and synaptic support + blood-brain barrier Microglial cells - mononuclear phagocyte Ependymal cells - transport of electrolytes and some solutes Oligodendrocytes - myelinating cells

waves in the ECG

Atrial depolarisation = P wave Tends to be positive bell shaped curve PQ interval Slightly negative Q wave - septum is depolarising R - early ventricular depolarisation S - base of ventricular depolarisation T - repolarization of ventricles

stages of the cardiac cycle on wiggers diagram / seven stages

Atrial systole Isovolumetric contraction-ventricles contract with no volume change Rapid ejection- of blood into the aorta and pulmonary arteries from the left and right ventricles Reduced ejection Isovolumetric relaxation- beginning of diastole Rapid ventricular filling Diastasis- passive filling of ventricles slows, before atria contract for active filling

formation of the valves

Atrioventricular / mitral and tricuspid valves They form from reshaping and tissue loss within ventricular walls The ventricle dilates, walls hypertrophy, trabeculation occurs and endodermal cell death The strands of cardiac well mesenchyme from atrio-ventricular cushions which connect to ventricular wall which forms the cusps of the AV valves and chordae tendinae

muscarinic antagonist

Atropine In the heart it blocks the vagus effect (which slows the heart down) therefore the heart will increase GI motility inhibited clinical use : tachycardia and anaesthesia to reverse heart block due to increased vagal activity Anticholinesterase poisoning - enzymes that metabolises ACh

b cell receptors

B cell transform from immature state into B cell with immunoglobin or antibody on surface membrane B cell receptor if on membrane If It is floating it is antibody B cells are precursors of plasma cells Immunoglobulin secreted by plasma cells has specificity for one antibody B cell receptor = surface immunoglobulin (Ig)

Describe the nutrition for bacteria

Bacteria require nutrition from the immediate environment, which may be a wound, intestine, blood etc. Bacteria can be fastidious- require specific supplements, or non-fastidious- grow from basic chemicals. Most vet relevant organism's pathogens are chemoheterotrophs- use organic chemicals as sources of energy and carbon.

normal ECG - T wave

Base line of ECG line is at zero and then ventricles repolarising after pause Ventricular repolarisation T wave very variable = may be positive, negative or biphasic

what are the approaches to reduce risk to infection in animals?

Basics of cardio-respiratory parasite control Optimal control Avoid risky behaviour Improve hygiene and nutrition Cover transmission cycle- proper disposal of faeces Treatment intervention

Describe the course and names of the major blood vessels providing blood supply and drainage of the spinal cord and brain, including a comparative knowledge in the major domestic species

Basilar artery- continuation of the ventral spinal arteries, both vertebral arteries merge here Internal carotid - Dog and human only supply is internal carotid that comes up directly from common carotid - Sheep and cat are supplied from maxillary artery - Cow supply comes from maxillary and vertebral artery

Describe the vagus nerve's widespread course and the distribution of its important branches

Below the base of the skull the vagus nerve gives off branches that go to pharynx and larynx Goes to : A pharyngeal branch - to pharynx The cranial laryngeal nerve - to larynx vagus nerve continues caudally and joins sympathetic trunk at cranial cervical ganglion which forms the vagosympathetic tract

manipulation of bronchial tone to reduce airway resistance

Beta 2 agonists and M3 antagonists act on the autonomic nervous system and can be used to reduce airway resistance. Examples of beta agonists : epinephrine, isoprenaline salbutamol or clenbuterol (more selective than adrenaline) and muscarinic antagonists : atropine (not as selective), tiotropium or ipratropium

isoprenaline - a beta adrenergic receptor agonist - B1 and B2 binds

Beta receptor in the heart and when stimulated cause heart rate to contract don't know if B1 or B2 why is there a decrease in ABP? Must be beta receptors in the vascular which are causing vasodilation decreasing blood pressure

How does the stay apparatus work?

Big hock allows the quadricep the patella up and in a medial direction so now the ligaments sit either side of the trochlear ridge Stifle held in extension Trochlear - pully Patella slides in groove - pull over to side sits with everything locked Medial rotation of patella to pull it up and over to the side - locked Pull up with quadriceps and lateral movement of that to slide the patella back down to go to the groove Quadriceps pull up on stifle and release from hook

which T cells are retained relate positive and negative selection to sniffer dogs - diagram

Bit like training a sniffer dog - identify specific drugs and ignore everything else T cells which recognise the body's MHC class I or II are retained Keep all T cells which recognise - positive selection T cells which respond to self peptides in the MHC are eliminated - T cells which ignore self peptides are retained Dogs that recognise luggage with drugs in but not dogs that get excited by all the luggage

complications in diagnosing feline D.immitis

Blood smears may give false negative as no microfilariae in blood Diagnosis may be improved by analysing samples acquired in evening Nocturnal periodicity May have very low worm burdens - ELISA will be false negative Therapy does little help to the cat ELISA used in dogs may not be sensitive enough for cats Cats there are very few worms which may cause significant pathology The ELISA developed for use in cats measures antibody to parasite rather than parasite antigen Positive antibody serology results may not tell you current status Blood antibody will be present in cats which have previously been infected Difficult to differentiate Level of antibody doesn't correlate with level of infection Results should be interpreted with caution and with clinical signs

cutaneous trunci reflex

Blunt object onto muscle We want a twitch response Removes flies - evolutionary Localises lesions = where we lose the reflex

location of B-cell maturation species variation human birds ruminants, dog, pig, horses rabbits

Bone marrow Human, primates, rodents, birds Bursa of Fabricius Birds Ileal Peyer's patch Ruminants (cows, sheep), dogs, pigs, horses, maybe secondary to bone marrow Appendix Rabbits

erythopoiesis in the adult

Bone marrow Sinusoidal capillaries with larger intercellular gaps to allow passage of cells Inactive marrow is replaced by fat (yellow marrow) but can regain activity by extension from active tissue and from circulating stem cells

b cell maturation diagram

Bone marrow, lymphoid progenitor cells go to B cell and T cells Some B cell maturations in peyers patches of bursa of fabricius Which then migrate to lymph Progenitor T cell migrates to thymus for T cell education and central tolerance before migration to lymph nodes

What is the difference between central and peripheral vestibular disease?

Both display ataxia, gait disturbance and strabismus Peripheral lesion: head tilt towards side of lesion, horizontal or rotational nystagmus with fast phase directed opposite to lesion, facial nerve paresis same side as lesion, Horner's syndrome possible on same side, no postural deficits, normal mental state, no signs of cerebellar deficits. Central lesion: head tilt towards either side, horizontal, rotational or vertical nystagmus with fast phase to either side (head position may alter this), cranial nerves V, VI, VII, IX, X, or XII might be affected to same side as lesion, Horner's syndrome rarely seen, postural deficit possible on same side as lesion, depressed stuporous of comatose status, possible signs of cerebellar deficits (dysmetria or intentional tremor).

inspiration boyles law

Boyles law: P1V1 = P2V2 ∆P is produced by increasing lung volume (V). Increase in volume = decrease in pressure The thoracic cage expands and lung volume (V) increases The expansion is brought about inspiratory muscles

Describe second degree AV block

Bradycardia P wave not conducted through the AV node P without QRS

Describe complete (third degree) AV block

Bradycardia Persistent failure of conduction through the AV node SAN is still working which is why there are many P waves Ventricles are paced from a ventricular origin Wide and bizarre complexes form

T. gondii and toxplasma life cycle in which host does sexual and asexual reproduction of T.gondii parasite occur

Bradyozoites are released in the gastrointestinal tract when the wall is digest They then penetrate the small intestinal epithelium and start sexual reproduction Bradyzoites and sporozoites, from cysts and oocysts respectively, are released in the intestine and infect the intestinal epithelium where they replicate - asexual reproduction by endodyogeny (budding) producing 8-16 tachyzoites. Tachyzoites are lunate in shape, about 6 microns in diameter and possess the ability to multiply in almost any cell type.

Describe the radiographic appearance of bronchial thickening

Bronchi become more prominent, may be calcified. Normal left, thickened right. Bronchial calcification- may be long term chronic changes- asthma etc. Much brighter than normal.

Describe the radiographic appearance of bronchial pattern in the lung

Bronchial opacity more prominent and extends more peripherally Bronchi appear as 'doughnuts' viewed end-on and 'tram lines' side on Pulmonary vessels may be lost in the increased opacity Many causes (not only chronic bronchitis)

bronchus on radiographs

Bronchus end on appears circular and smaller circles- vessels. Side on view of bronchus- train-track appearance

Explain the tests which assess primary haemostasis

Buccal mucosal bleedingtime (BMBT)- time taken for bleeding to stop after making a small incision. A quick test to perform in practice. Requires practice and does not determine cause of abnormality. Healthy dog: 1.7-4.2 min, healthy cat: 1.0-2.4 min=> Prolonged in suffering disorder of primary haemostasis. Platelet count:- EDTA sample, counts should be performed as soon as possible to avoid clumping. Three methods can be used: Haemocytometer Automated cell count- more accurate BUT cannot see what is happening (e.g. cat platelets tend to clump; CKCS dogs have larger platelets) therefore must check on a smear. Blood smear- estimated count from a blood smear= no. x 15 x 109/L, healthy dog/cat >10 platelets / 100x oil immersion field- check for clumping in feathered region (pseudo-thrombocytopenia). 17.

bulbar vs palpebral conjunctiva

Bulbar conjunctiva overlines the sclera white with small vessels Palpebral conjunctiva is pinker

Fish eye anatomy

Bulbous eyes Dome shaped cornea Rigid iris where the lens protrudes Retina adjust position of photoreceptors in the eye Difficult to adjust to light changes Pupil is fixed Focus : change lens position not the shape of the lens Ratio of rods to cones varies in environment eg deep sea fish (more rods in dark) Colour and UV light visible

List the differences in structure and function between the distal limb of carnivores and herbivores

CARNIVORES have relatively short, multipurpose limbs, used for both locomotion & apprehending prey. Carnivores gain speed by exploiting trunk flexibility to extend limb reach and thus stride length. Trunk flexibility is enabled by the small volume of viscera associated with a meat diet, which is why multipurpose limbs are required in the first place. Because trunk flexion/extension requires massive abdominal/epaxial muscular effort, carnivores are short distance sprinters. Equine limbs are particularly specialized for distance locomotion, relying relatively more on passive bone/ligament linkage and less on active nerve/muscle interaction (see details below.) OMNIVORES Have relatively long limbs that are devoted entirely to locomotion (ungulate animals have hooves). Because a roughage diet and bulky abdominal viscera limit trunk flexibility, stride length is obtained by limb elongation in ungulates. Stride rate is increased, anatomically, by reducing mass at the distal limb and, physiologically, by flexing distal joints during limb forward protraction. In contrast, ungulates are designed for distance running.

limitations with diagnosis of canine lungworm

CBC. Some other diseases will give similar results Smears and concentration tests. Microfilariae may not be seen if few are present. In both tests, occult infections are not detected Echocardiogram. May be difficult to interpret Radiology. Signs may be similar to other diseases ELISA. Only adult female antigens detected. False negatives occur if - immature females present or male only infection (or problem with kit)

Compare and contrast species-specific differences between cow, sheep, goat, and pig Explain the functional adaptations in the four species cow, sheep, goat, and pig

COW Two main metacarpal bones 2 and 3 and 4 acts as a dewclaw = fewer digits means faster movement increased stride rate SHEEP Only two digits very similar shape to the horse Again will increase stride rate as less digit contact on the ground Sheep need to be fast animals to escape predators so that's why they have long legs and only a few digits on the ground GOAT goats are more agile than sheep and are very good climbers - two digits like sheep They are also able to forage better compared to sheep which are grazers More pointed claw PIG Four digits only missing the first metacarpal Pigs tend to dig more than cows and forage They have more metacarpal than the cow which allows weight baring across more bones

factors influencing ventilation resistance to flow in the airways

Calibre of Airways - size Same factors as resistance to flow in blood vessels Resistance to flow inversely proportional to the 4th power of the tube radius = implications - radius decreases then the resistance to the air flow will increase Mouth breathing nearly halves the airway resistance Mechanisms to overcome resistance At each bifurcation there is increase in number of parallel branches - bronchi to bronchioles to alveoli = small diameter tubes but lots of parallel branches compensates for increase in resistance total resistance declines Lung volume increases elastic fibres within lung pull to expand tube diameter Activation of smooth muscle can increase airway diameter - muscle curves around respiratory bronchioles relaxation of muscle decrease resistance Turbulence Airflow pattern is turbulent or laminar Turbulent air flow Vortices - swirling Rises with increasing flow speed The flow rate is fastest in trachea and long bronchi Laminar air flow Parallel movement of air, minimal friction Smaller bronchioles, bronchi

main MSK adaptations in dog

Can survive adverse conditions Locate prey and stalk and catch them Equipped to kill prey

main MSK adaptations in the cat

Can survive dry conditions Can locate small pray Ability to stalk and catch prey Equipped to kill prey and defend territory - marking, signalling and fighting Muscle - fast twitch type II fibres for speed Flexibility in joints for posture Light body frame Long limbs and tail for balance with a flexible neck

haematogenous spread definition?

Cancer cells known as circulating tumour cells acquire The ability to penetrate the walls of lymphatic or blood vessels after which they are able to circulate through the blood stream to other sites and tissues of the body

what do bacteria need

Carbon Such as glucose in order to build sugars Nitrogen Media mixtures of peptides and amino acids Peptones contain phosphate, sulphate, potassium, magnesium, calcium and iron Phosphates Part of nucleic acids and compounds with energy rich bonds Sulphates Sulphur containing amino acids Mg, K, Ca, Fe Important co-factors in a number of enzymes and processes Trace Elements Certain co factors can also be essential

blood flow into atria before birth

Caudal vena cava entry into atria lots of blood enters Aimed at septum primum to the left keeping foramen ovale open Blood flows right atrium to left atrium we don't want it flowing into the lungs because they are not aerated yet Goes from LA to LV, aorta, body gets reoxygenated in the yolk sac Small amount goes to aorta through the ductus arteriosus

life cycle explained of tongue worm - linguatula serrata

Causes irritation to the dogs Dogs sneeze and causes inflammation - epistaxis They lay eggs Coughing up the eggs will be swallowed and ingested will be eliminated in faeces of dog Ingested by sheep which is intermediate host Larvae with migrate to different organs into pupae in viscera = infectious nymph in pleural tissue Raw offal fed to dog - is how the dogs are infected Humans can also be infected by raw meat from sheep and goat

dictyocaulus viviparus - bovine lungworm life cycle

Causes substantial economic loss Eggs will hatch whilst passing through gastrointestinal tract Contaminate the manure Larvae have stages Pre patent period - 3 weeks A term of waning use for the "silent" period between the time an exogenous agent (specifically, a parasite) impacts on a living organism and its detectability in the new host

name the openings in the diaphragm for? caudal vena cava

Caval Foramen - lies within the central tendinous region of the diaphragm and contains the caudal vena cava

caval syndrome treatment

Caval syndrome surgery removal In very heavy infections adulticide treatment may lead to severe pathology as dead worms may cause thromboembolism - obstruction of a blood vessel by a blood clot that has become dislodged from another site in the circulation. Prognosis is very poor Worms need to be removed very quickly

orbit purpose

Cavity within skull that encloses the eye Purpose: Protection, Separates the eye from the cranial cavity Foramina within walls of orbit Pathway for blood vessels and nerves to reach eye

T lymphocytes (t cells)

Cell mediated adaptive immune response Recognise antigen displayed by major histocompatibility complex Range of subsets = t helper cells, cytotoxic T cells

difference between classic and operant conditioning?

Classical is about a response that is not under the control of the organism Stimulus - stimulus learning Making the connection between the two stimuli as response is already there Operant involves a voluntary, controllable response Stimulus - response learning Connection between stimulus and response and the response is feeding back and reinforcing the connection

variable in CSF = turbidity normal finding change due to bacterial infection?

Clear A measure of the degree to which water loses its transparency due to the presence of suspended particles Similar to above

clinical signs diagnosis and life cycle of eucoleus (capillaria) boehmi

Clinical signs Sneezing Rhinitis Nasal discharge Epistaxis - blood from the nose Diagnosis Rhinoscopically on the epithelial lining of nasal turbinates Lifecycle unknown Eggs are used in diagnostic stage have been found in dog faeces by faecal flotation and from nasal swabs/flush Eggs are confused with whip worm - Trichuris vulpis and another lungworm - E.aerophilus How to tell the difference E.boehmi egg has rough pitted surface E.aerophilus egg has shell with striation Trichuris vulpis egg has a smooth shell Treatment = ivermectin and antibiotics

Cadiac Glycosides Explain indication for use of cardiac antidysrhythmic agents

Clinical use Management of supraventricular (atrial) arrhythmias Management of heart failure Cardiac glycosides have a narrow therapeutic index Can cause rhythm disturbances

clipping

Clipping May be required but may not be appropriate Have to obtain consent Water / surgical spirit with contact gel may be sufficient

tricyclic antidepressants

Clomipramine Produces more noradrenaline -NA reuptake inhibitor Antidepressent Inhibits serotonin and noradrenaline They block the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine in presynaptic terminals, which leads to increased concentration of these neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft.

risk factors that predispose development of pneumonia eg calves

Close confinement - stressed and closer to spread disease Transportation and other stress Poorly ventilated and overcrowding Decline in maternal antibody = more susceptible Intercurrent infections

defence of lungs = swallowing

Close proximity of air and food passages in the head which allows swallowing easily of foreign particles which are then destroyed by stomach acid Nasal Cavity Within the nasal cavity there are cilia which move towards the larynx Larynx/pharynx/glottis Epiglottic cartilage covers glottis preventing food and liquids entering larynx and trachea

the phosphate buffer system

Closed system Active in bones important buffer in ICF and urine Phosphates as buffers - inorganic : high concentrations intracellular, especially in skeletal muscle cells

function of the eyelids

Closure for protection from trauma Blinking role Distributes tear film - provides nutrition and hydration to ocular surface Drains till film pumps tears into nasolacrimal canaliculi Physical removal of debris from ocular surface Contributes to tear film Mucin - goblet cells of palpebral conjunctiva (inner most layer of tear film) Lipid - meibomian glands

Explain the tests which assess secondary haemostasis

Coagulation tests: Group tests- test for groups of factors: Anticoagulant = sodium citrate (citrated plasma)- bounds Ca2+, doesn't clot until Ca2+ is added- fill tubes to line! Important! Prothrombin time (PT) or OSPT (US: one-step prothrombin time)- add thromboplastin (@ TF) and Ca2+ ions to activate the extrinsic pathway. Activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT)- add reagent to activate the intrinsic system (surface activator & phospholipid) and Ca2+ ions- note no thromboplastin. Time to clot formation prolonged by alterations of factors (<30% normal), always get a reference range for the machine

competitive antagonism

Competitive antagonism requires a higher concentration of the agonist when the antagonist is present to ensure that the desired effect occurs Parallel shift of dose response curve in present of antagonist - competitive antagonism

non-cellular components of innate immune system

Complement Cytokines Lactoferrin Produced by epithelial cells of the mucus membrane and neutrophils Iron binding protein - particularly abundant in milk Anti bacteria Deprives bacteria of iron - which is essential for bacteria growth Direct damage to bacterial membranes Acute phase proteins Produced in liver in response to cytokines It is a diagnostic marker in inflammation

resistance to host defence

Complement resistance O antigen polysaccharide chain which are very long This hinders binding of complement to the chain Capsule Incorporation of sialic acid inhibits complement Avoiding phagocytosis Capsule M protein (streptococcus) Production of Fc-binding proteins to prevent interaction with Fc-receptors on phagocytes Protection against recognition by antibodies

photoreceptors = rods and cones

Complex specialised cells Contain visual pigments Where light energy is converted to a nerve impulse (phototransduction) ie start of process of vision Cones Colour vision Visual acuity Rods Night vision

outline the role of complement in innate immunity

Complex system of 30 plasma proteins Circulates in blood as inactive precursors Available all the time activated in response to infection causing a cascade reaction It is a rapid amplification of activated proteins C3a and C3b - acts as a sort of glue to allow immune cells to catch victims C3 convertase forming c5 convertase Membrane attack complex - proteins anchor themselves in bacteria membranes Virus travel from cell to cell - completely defenceless complement attaches

positive control

Confirms if the procedure is performing as intended. A positive control allows for confidence in the diagnostic test results, confirms that negative results are accurate and assists in any protocol adjustments or optimizations that may be necessary

neuropathology disease categories

Congenital anomalies (malformations) Trauma/vascular Inflammation Degeneration Neoplasia

anatomy of conjunctiva : conjunctival surfaces

Conjunctival fornix Becomes bulbar conjunctiva till it reaches the cornea Reflected over the third eyelid Another fornix Reflected up to palpebral conjunctiva Single sheet with several blind endings Foreign bodies can be trapped in fornix

functions of the larynx

Connection of nasal part of pharynx and trachea Breathing / respiration Protection of lower airways Swallowing Formation of voice - phonation

Annulus fibrosus

Connective tissue sheath that electrically insulates the ventricles from the atria - ossification Allows ventricular filing to complete before the initiation of ventricular systole

regions of brain involved in menace response

Conscious visual pathways Contralateral visual cortex Contralateral motor cortex Ipsilateral cerebellar hemisphere

limb evaluation

Consists of a number of tests to assess several different modalities Responses vary between animals and so comparison between sides and from front to back can be useful to determine the significance of your finding assess the proprioception, sensation, segmental reflexes, muscle mass and tone

nasal conchae

Consists of turbinates covered by nasal mucus Coiled up like a paper roll very thin bone Divide the airways into three different areas Ventral, middle, dorsal

anatomy of ciliary body

Continuation of posterior aspect of iris Forms uveal part of iridocorneal drainage angle - where the aqueous humour drains out the eye Double layer of epithelium continuous with iris Comprises - smooth muscle, connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves Pars plicata = folded part- ciliary processes where the lens muscles attach and secretes aqueous humour Pars plana = flat

three types of capillaries

Continuous Continuous lining of endothelial cells Found in majority of the body Fenestrated Not true holes but rather when the cell membrane is compressed to permit greater fluid transmission Found in glomerular capillaries in the kidneys Discontinuous sinusoid Wider intercellular gaps permit increased exchange with surrounding tissues Found in liver, bone marrow, lymphoid tissues and some endocrine glands

automated cell counters

Coulter principle (electrical technique) : to enumerate/counts and identify blood cell populations A stream of cells passes through an aperture between two chambers, across which there is an electrical current Passing cells disrupt the electrical flow which causes a pulse to be recorded: Amplitude is proportional to cell volume and pulse frequency = cell number

Which nerves control laryngeal function?

Cranial laryngeal nerve has two branches. The internal branch innervates the mucosa and the external branch innervates the cricothyroid muscle and constricts the pharynx. Caudal (recurrent) laryngeal nerve innervates the intrinsic muscles of the larynx (except the cricothyroid muscle).

ductus venosus

Creates low resistance pathway through liver Shunts through the liver with quite a high rate of flow From umbilical vein to caudal vena cava Umbilical arteries (x2) : go to placenta Umbilical vein : go to the fetus DV allows 50% blood to bypass liver DV streams blood to foramen ovale closure Functional closure in minutes this is due to improved pulmonary clearance and no umbilical blood supply, anatomical closure within minutes

right ventricle

Crescentic in section and wraps itself around the left ventricle it is cranial to it and to the right Pulmonary artery is cranial to and left of aorta Trabecula septumarginalis - within the right ventricle which is a muscular band

The only muscle that widens the glottis

Cricoarytenoideus dorsalis Supplied by recurrent laryngeal nn. Relevant for left laryngeal hemiplegia Left nerve is damaged Inspiratory noise Poor performance Can feel the wasted muscle Fails the slap test

Poiseuille's Law

Cross sectional area is related to flow Reduced diameter (Æ, from 4mm to 3mm) increases resistance by 4th power (i.e. 1mm × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = a 16-fold increase in resistance)..so blood flow reduces massively

innervation of the larynx

Crosses two segments so it has two nerve supplies Cranial - laryngeal nerve from vagus providing lots of sensory innervation Caudal - laryngeal nerve from cranial nerve XI - accessory and innervates all the laryngeal muscles

laboratory diagnosis of fungal infection

Culture Used for distinguishing between moulds and yeasts Morphology different - look different Dermatophyte Test Medium (DTM) plate Very difficult to determine Dermatophytes should have a red 'halo' early in its growth Any fungus will turn the plate red if left too long Direct microscopic examination Histopathological demonstration of fungal hyphae or yeast forms Ringworm hyphen

Describe the consequences of different injuries to the sole region in horses and cattle

Damage to sole - lameness difficulty to work Damage to navicular bursa - synovial fluid leak and meet with red blood cells which will affect the distal interphalangeal joint as the synovial fluid acts a lubricant for the joint The DDFT provides flexion of the digit and shock absorption of the horse and flexes the distal phalanx which would not be able to do if the damage occurs Suspensory ligament damage will cause damage to the suspension of the pedal bone and the stability of the fetlock joint

primary causes of acquired heart disease

Degenerative valvular disease = Aortic/mitral Heart muscle disease - cardiomyopathy Valve/endocardial infection Pericardial disease Rate/rhythm abnormalities

microhaematocrit for dehydration, jaundice, haemolysis, lipaemia, lukocytosis

Dehydrated - plasma low also an artefact of stored blood - swelling of RBCs If the plasma is not clear this can be a sign of diet or a sign of jaundice where the liver function is effected creates a very yellow plasma Increase in white blood cells increased buffy coat can be signs of leukemia

hypovalaemia

Dehydration is the loss of fluid from the ECF and ICF Hypovolaemia is loss from vasculature Hypovolaemic shock is loss of enough vascular fluid to cause inadequate oxygen delivery to the tissues

enveloped viruses

Derive envelope from cell membranes by budding - they can bud from these components: Plasma membrane = Influenza, retroviruses Nuclear membrane = Herpesviruses Internal organelles = Coronavirus Enveloped viruses are less stable than non-enveloped

gram positive

Describing the group of bacteria that have a cell wall that is structurally less complex and contains more peptidoglycan than the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria are usually less toxic than gram-negative bacteria.

Aortic stenosis

Description When the heart's aortic valve narrows. The valve doesn't open fully, which reduces or blocks blood flow from your heart into the main artery to your body (aorta) and to the rest of your body. Effects on cardiac function Congenital heart defect Calcium build up on the valve Rheumatic fever Clinical signs Abnormal heart sound (heart murmur) heard through a stethoscope Chest pain (angina) or tightness with activity Feeling faint or dizzy or fainting with activity Shortness of breath

Pulmonary stenosis

Description condition in which a deformity on or near your pulmonary valve narrows the pulmonary valve opening and slows the blood flow Effects on cardiac function Pulmonary valve stenosis usually occurs when the pulmonary valve doesn't grow properly during fetal development With each heartbeat, the valve opens in the direction of blood flow — into the pulmonary artery and continuing to the lungs — then closes to prevent blood from flowing backward into the heart's right ventricle. Clinical signs Heart murmur — an abnormal whooshing sound heard using a stethoscope, caused by turbulent blood flow Fatigue Shortness of breath, especially during exertion Chest pain Loss of consciousness (fainting)

What is the effect of temperature on bacterial growth and what are the names of bacteria at different optimum temperature ranges?

Different bacteria have different optimal growth temperatures, as the amino acids and proteins within the bacteria are more adapted at certain temperatures.

what is the process of formation of notochord?

Different cell types that differentiate to form the embryo Cross section of early embryoPrimitive pit Cells that converge go through primitive pit and primitive node go towards the head of the cell (top)Intercalate into the hypoblast - they form a structure called the notochordal plate The cells in the notochordal plate proliferate and separate to form the notochord

Describe the methods of counting liquid culture growth

Direct counting by microscope- cannot distinguish viable from non-viable cells, not often used. Colony counting (viable counts)- serial dilutions spread on surface of plate =, spread plate, pour plate, Mile-Misma, membrane filtration. Absorbance- measurement of absorbance of liquid culture at 600nm.

PLR test

Direct or consensual PLR is best demonstrated in a dark room with a bright light source Afferent supply is the optic nerve Efferent supply is the oculomotor nerve Pathways - Optic nerve, cranial nerve II through to optic chiasm to oculomotor nerve (III) makes eye blink = direct Optic nerve, cranial nerve II through optic chiasm but makes other eye blink = indirect

where is the probe paced

Directly over the tricuspid valve on the right hand sign Half way between elbow and shoulder = right pushed forward Push and up and underneath triceps Most images are taken from the right to get to the left

what is elisa used in?

Disease detection Eg canine distemper virus, canine and feline, heartworms, BSE, BVDV Detection of illegal drugs Eg alfentanil, an narcotic analgesic often administered to race horses, or Salbutamol, a bronchodilator Detection of hormones Eg pregnancy tests

Why is cell membrane function a good target?

Disrupted functional integrity of cell membrane leads to escape of macromolecules of ions from bacterial cell so can no longer function Disadvantage : high level of similarity between bacterial and animal cell membranes More toxic for animal cells Hence often last resort antibiotics in human medicine = bactericidal Examples - polymyxin, colistin

superficial digital flexor tendon

Distal end of P1 it splits and inserts on P2 Forms a sleeve around DDFT at level of proximal sesamoids (manica flexoria) Flexes proximal and middle phalangeal joints and therefore whole foot - also stabilises fetlock joint

respiration mechanics in avian

During inspiration the sternum moves forward and down and the ribs move cranially and ventrally Lowers pressure in the thoraco abdominal cavity drawing air in Expiration - sternum back and up

Compare the anatomy of birds with low and high flight locomotor capacity?

Eagle =high chicken = low Larger wing span in high flight locomoter Much more muscular Larger guts in chicken More rounded shape of chicken Agile head

Compare the anatomy of birds with low and high flight locomotor capacity

Eagle =high chicken = low Larger wing span in high flight locomoter Much more muscular Larger guts in chicken More rounded shape of chicken Agile head/shape of eagle

outline how osteochondrosis may occur

Early lesions are caused failure of cartilage canal bloody supply Causes focal areas of ischaemia (insufficient blood supply) associated with that cartilage canal causing: Chondronecrosis/chondrolysis Necrotic canal vessels these necrotic regions become incorporated with subchondral bone may form cyst with bone or trauma/weight bearing may cause formation of dissecting lesions - osteochondritis dissecans

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

Eg fluoxetine, citalopram, paroxetine Block the re-uptake of serotonin to enhance its functional activity allows more serotonin to be available to be taken up by other nerves. = antidepressant

Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs)

Eg imipramine, amitriptyline Enhance the functional activity of noradrenaline and serotonin by blocking the reuptake of both neurotransmitters

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)

Eg selegiline (MAO-B) Enhance the functional activity of norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine by inhibiting degradation of neurotransmitters by monoamine oxidase

epiglottic cartilage

Elastic cartilage Most flexible and most rostral Attached to root of tongue, body of thyroid cartilage and basihyoid bone During deglutition the large blade part partially covers entrance to trachea

blood pressure in different vessel windkessel effect

Elastin and collagen are present as when the cardiac output occurs those vessels need to recoil High level of elastin and collagen in the aorta damp the oscillating cardiac output when the blood leaves / is pushed out the heart - Windkessel effect

regulation of cardiac function?

Electrical activity Contractile function control Important role of ANS Hormonal mechanisms Hormonal mechanisms

the beginning embryo

Embryo a disc with three layers: Endoderm Mesoderm Heart - cardiogenic plate of mesodermal tissue at head end of embryonic disc Ectoderm It is the first organ to undergo functional differentiation

5 stages of lung development

Embryonic Pseudoglandular Forms glandular tissues Supports function of lungs Canicular Branching, more tubes Saccular Alveoli sacs are beginning to grow and differentiate Surfactant Enables lungs to open and work at birth Alveolar Continues post Nataly

negative emotions vs positive emotions

Emotions are either function or adaptive (helps us survive) significance Negative emotions eg anxiety promote avoidance or defensive behaviour - flight or fight Positive emotions - pleasure may facilitate ingestive, exploratory, sexual or novelty seeking behaviour

cranial and caudal vena cava

Empty into the right atrium Bringing deoxygenated blood from body There is an intervenous tubercule which guides blood into right atrium

structure of lymph nodes

Enclosed in a capsule Afferent vessels open into subcapsular sinus - bring fluid to Into the trabecular sinuses Lymph flows into trabecular sinuses into medulla and medullary sinus - as lymph passes through the node lymphocytes are added and macrophages act as filters to remove microorganisms in an attempt to halt the spread of infection and tumours Efferent vessels leave at hilus

how are viruses released from the host cell?

Enveloped viruses- budding or exocytosis. Non-enveloped viruses- cell lysis

what is ELISA

Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assays (ELISA) technique Commonly used antibody-based diagnostic techniques for the detection of specific molecules Eg proteins and carbohydrates in samples

what are examples of diseases caused by viruses?

Epidemic, large scale diseases Foot and mouth disease Emerging diseases Coronavirus Disease in individuals or groups Cancer

epidermal lamellae vs dermal lamellae

Epidermal lamellae Same as epidermis of the skin Horny / keratinised Insensitive Line the inside of the hoof wall Basal cells attached to BM Basal cells produce keratinocytes Dermal lamellae Same as dermis of the skin Soft Sensitive Contains collagen, fibroblasts, blood vessels and nerves Cover P3 and extend up over distal end of P2 Basement membrane

Types of haemorrhage what can occur and what are the causes

Epidural hematoma - Occurs when blood accumulates between the skull and outer covering of the brain, typically following a head injury. Can cause a brief loss in consciousness. Subdural hematoma - Collection of blood on the brain surface, typically the result of a the head moving forward quickly and coming to a sudden stop. Subarachnoid haemorrhage - Bleeding between the brain and the meninges covering the brain. Commonly caused by trauma, but may also be triggered by the rupture of a major blood vessel. Symptoms include loss of consciousness and vomiting. Intracerebral haemorrhage - Bleeding inside the brain. It is not usually caused by injury, rather a neurological deficit. Symptoms include vomiting, decreased consciousness, weakness in a part of the body, and higher than normal blood pressure.

what are the components of fungal growth?

Eukaryotic Grow at 25 degrees Non photosynthetic Cell walls contain chitin and other polysaccharides Heterophic nutrition Uses exoenzymes to digest outside and then absorbs nutrients Sexual or asexual reproduction Tolerate high osmolarity and low pH Resistant to antibacterial drugs

Describe how to perform an examination of the bovine foot

Examination - you want to arrange the cow in front of you with the cow limb placed into a crush and being held well - make sure cow is happy

streptococcus Equi - cause of strangles

Example of carriage upper respiratory tract 24% of recovered animals can shed Resides in guttural pouch You can screen using a nasal pharyngeal swab but it may not pick it up Recommended if carrier for more than 2 months to treat site of infection

mydriasis

Excessive dilation of the pupil

colloid osmotic pressure

Exerted by plasma proteins Promotes fluid reabsorption into circulatory system Pulling fluid back into the capillary

B lymphocytes

Express membrane bound receptors/antibodies Central role in adaptive immunity Able to differentiate into Plasma cells - release antibodies Memory B cells - able to respond if that pathogen seen by host again

Intercostal muscles

External and internal intercostal muscles lie between the ribs Occupy the intercostal spaces Innervated by the corresponding spinal nerves External intercostal lie superficially and fibres run in downwards, forwards and medial direction and insert on superior border of rib below

function of intercostal muscles

External and internal muscles occupy the intercostal spaces between ribs External run caudoventrally Internal run cranioventrally Muscles used in inspiration and expiration

anatomy of the third eyelid

Extra eyelid that is located medially It has a central T-shaped cartilage inside it Goblet cells cover whole eyelid Lots of stromal connective tissue Lymphoid follicles present on posterior surface Nicittans gland at base - tear production role Lacks musculature in the dog, cat has smooth muscle to retract

capsules

Extracellular polymetric material that is secreted around the bacteria and loosely associated with its surface Hard to visualise Function : protect against desiccation (drying), may facilitate adherence to surfaces, may provide a matrix for biofilms of bacteria, some interfere for phagocytosis

reptile eye

Eyelids Some have transparent lower eyelid Scleral ossicles - bones surrounding globe providing support Nictating membrane Lacrimal/harderian glands

organs with sympathetic supply

Eyes- pupil dilation. - lets light in to see danger Bronchioles- bronchodilation. - dilate airways to access more oxygen Heart- increase heart rate, increase force of contraction. - pump oxygen Blood vessels- vasoconstriction (generally speaking). Adrenal glands- secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline. GI tract- decreases activity. Bladder- urine retention (bladder wall relaxation and internal sphincter contraction).

adaptations for function in dog

Fast twitch fibres for speed

three basic layers of the eye

Fibrous (outer) layer Sclera and cornea Vascular (middle) layer Uveal tract Neuroectodermal (inner) layer Retina and optic nerve

fick's law of diffusion

Fick's Law of Diffusion Links together: nature of membrane, surface area, partial pressure gradient, membrane thickness

how is preload controlled

Filling of the heart Low heart rates gives longer amount of times for ventricles to fill with blood = greater force of contraction Venous return Pressure difference between venous system and atria Greater the difference greater their return Has four influences : skeletal muscle pump, respiratory pump, sympathetic nervous system activity, blood volume

what are the main structures for adhesion

Fimbriae / pili : most frequent adhesive structure in gram negative bacteria Eg ecoli, salmonella, Bordetella Adhesive macromolecules imbedded in membrane : adhesins Eg streptococcus

What is and where does intramembranous ossification occur?

Flat bones Width growth in long bones Mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts and produce bone directly

axial system adaptations in cat

Flexible lumbar region (back) - increases stride length Lower gut mass - increased RoM of hips Nuchal ligament reaches to C2 in dogs Axial system leans backwards so the line of force is in a straight line Still has same function to suspend the head and neck in front of the body No nuchal ligament in cats Can get a really floppy neck Cats also have lots of fast muscle fibres in their neck muscles - a reflection of their ambush behaviour

short axis view of the left ventricle

Flipped probe 180 clockwise - so in short axis Plane is switched going across the heart Yellow - left ventricle that we can see most of

traumatic reticulitis.

Fluid accumulation in the pericardium decreased cardiac contractility, stroke volume and consequently cardiac output. Renal blood flow and arterial pressure are reduced.

resistance to airflow

Fluid dynamics equations Resistance = length/radius ^4 (halving the radius means 16 x more resistance) Resistance to flow also affected by changes in direction Horses are obligate nasal breathers: Very hard for them to mouth -breathe Flow aided by: ram air into nostrils, straighter head-neck-thorax alignment Horses have less complex turbinates to reduce resistance

uveal tract anatomy

Focussing on the vascular (middle layer) - uveal tract Blood supply and immune system for the eye

Scatterplots

For each point need to know two pieces of information Shows relationship between two sets of data Often useful to show a line of 'best fit'

Describe the range of motion of the different joints in the horse

Forelimb - shoulder elbow and carpus Metacarpus up as close to radius and ulna almost 180-degree turn Elbow and shoulder are always flexed together - difficult to tell lameness Hindlimb - stifle, tarsus, Hock and stifle joint always work together - reciprocal apparatus Foot flexed and hip will be flexed - there is less flexion in the carpus joint There is some adduction/abduction of the hip joint which is not present in the shoulder

formation of lung buds

Formation of gut Respiratory diverticulum separates off and forms the lungs Continue to branch and grow Between different animals there are different number of lung lobes - number of original bronchi that branch determines the number of lung buds Highly influenced by surrounding mesenchymal tissue

paranasal sinuses frontal and maxillary sinus

Frontal and maxillary systems common to all - all species have them Frontal sinus Between nasal and cranial cavities Usually drain into ethmoidal meatus: Different in horses Maxillary sinus Caudolateral aspect of upper jaw Around cheek teeth Huge species variability Other = palatine, sphenoid, lacrimal, palatomaxillary Infraorbital - birds

what is the significance of dehorning adult cows to the paranasal sinuses?

Frontal sinus communicates with horn and during removal of horn in adults the sinus is exposed which predisposes it to infection The innervation from the horse arises mostly from trigeminal nerve When cattle are dehorned there needs to be large amounts of anaesthesia Don't do where flies are abundant as frontal sinus is opened

Tinbergen's four levels of behaviour explanation

Function (what is the behaviour for?) Evolution (where does the behaviour come from?) Mechanism (how is the behaviour achieved?) Development (how does the behaviour develop in ontogeny- early development?)

inspiration

Function of inspiratory muscles During inspiration: Diaphragm contracts - dome flattens and moves caudally External intercostal muscles contract which causes ribs are pulled cranially and outwards = increases the volume of the thoracic cavity

expiration

Function of inspiratory muscles Mainly passive - relaxation of intercostal muscles Expiration caused by relaxation of inspiratory muscles Ribs recoil back to original position

eukaryotic cells examples

Fungi Moulds Yeasts Parasites Protozoa Higher multicellular organisms i.e. worms fleas flies etc.) (covered under parasitology teaching NOT all parasites are microorganisms as parasites includes worms, insects etc.)

Functions of the respiratory system

Gas exchange and transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide Metabolic functions Synthesis of surfactant Synthesis and release of histamine Uptake and inactivation of compounds eg prostaglandins Activation of angiotensin by ACE Body temperature regulation Body acid-base regulation Vocalisation and display Facilitates venous return to the heart

how does the outflow differ in the parasympathetic nervous system?

Has craniosacral outflow meaning neurons begin at the cranial nerves and sacral spinal cord

Mast cells

Have IgE receptors on their surface and ' triggered ' when antigens bind surface IgE. Granule contents released Involved in the response to allergy and parastic infections - worms In tissues not blood Rounded nuclei, granular cytoplasm, granules released: histamine, heparin, proteases Can become cancerous Most common cutaneous tumour in dogs Diagnosis by syringe removing some tissue

bacteria virulence factors

Have adhesions Examples - fimbriae, outer membrane proteins Interact with host cell ligands to increase adhesion of bacteria cells This binding may trigger specific invasion mechanisms they survive inside the cell using their specific survival mechanism May also adhere but not invade just grow and cause damage Can cause local abscess that can spread infection or put pressure on the CNS tissues can cause damage In this case the site of infection is dictated by where they stick hence you can get abscess in liver, spleen, spinal column junctions - places where blood flow is slowed are more prone to this

Describe how therapeutic regimes are put together for patients with heart disease/failure

Heart disease/failure can have different causes, presenting clinical signs, the disease progression and response to treatment varies. Consequently there is no single therapeutic regime which can be instituted in all patients with heart disease/failure. A number of factors require consideration: Primary causes of the heart disease- valve degradation, cardiomyopathy, idiopathic Non-specific treatment of the primary disease Treatment of congestive heart failure Identify dysrhythmias and treat if indicated Identify complicating and co-existing factors Regular reassessment What does the owner want?

Identify specific species adaptations for locomotion

Highly developed sternum: the keel (carina) is the big ventral body of the strenum which has pectoral muscles inserting, better fliers have big keels, bone marrow aspirate, prone to damage in commercial poultry Skeleton Light, compact and just strong enough Higher in calcium phosphate than mammalian skeletons Pneumatised bones - a bone that is hollow or contains many air cells Better fliers have more extensive pneumatisation Medullary bone Liable calcium reserve Induced by oestrogens and androgens during reproductive phase Red muscle High levels of myoglobin, mitochondria and lipid globules Fat is the energy source Light, compact and just strong enough Higher in calcium phosphate than mammalian skeletons large pectoral muscles - the rib cage is so rigid to make sure that the thorax does not collapse at contraction of ribs Perching - musculature of leg Ridges on flexor tendons that fit into ridges on bones When you pull tendons tight they lock so allows perching Hind limb extension releases lock

nasal conchae in birds

Highly vascular epithelial folds in the nasal cavity which increase the surface area Conchae function: Increase the surface area Warm/humidify air Lined by ciliated epithelium=( They filter the air) Goblet cells which produce mucus that are trying to prevent foreign particles entering the oropharynx Caudal conchae - olfactory epithelium

adaptations of the horse

Horse is adapted to the very limits of optimal function Light as possible Little muscular energy as possible Strong and robust enough to cope with strain

adaptations of the horse

Horse is adapted to the very limits of optimal functionLight as possibleLittle muscular energy as possibleStrong and robust enough to cope with strainCardiovascular system - adaptations are almost mere to making it function at sedentary levelsRespiratory system - coupled with stride rate increase stride length and increase stride rate OPTIMISES SPEED

Safety issues when carrying out nerve blocks

Horse may experience discomfort or be flighty and cause damage to yourself or the handler: Kicking Biting Barging Throwing head Needle pricks Medication Zoonotic diseases Insert needle before connecting syringe Compromise of sterility Infection of synovial structures Inability to determine difference in gait post nerve block 'Opinion' diagnosis, differs in people Lameness may not be limited to a single region or joint

Identify the phases of the cardiac cycle shown by the four sounds heard on this PCG and the species:

Horse- not all will have 4 sounds that can be heard. S1- early ventricular contraction, AV closure. S2- closure of SL valves, backflow of blood. S3- vibration of ventricular wall duringpassive filling of ventricle. S4- ventricular filling due to atrial contraction.

list four most common sites of OCD in the dog and horse

Horses Tibiotarsal joint - distal intermediate ridge of tibia or lateral trochlear ridge of talus Femoropatellar joint - lateral trochlear ridge of femur and patella Fetlock joint Less common - shoulder elbow hip Dog Shoulder - caudal aspect of humeral head Stifle - lateral femoral condyle Elbow - coronoid process of the ulna and medial condyle of humerus .

summary of SIRS

Host response to pathogens is a double-edged sword and can lead to severe complications such as sepsis and MODS Sepsis SIRS & MODS is generally caused either by localized infections turning systemic or breakdown of protective barriers allowing bacterial entry. Sepsis, SIRS & MODS lead to high morbidity and mortality with currently limited therapeutic interventions Therapeutic intervention is very difficult since a careful balance has to be achieved to prevent detrimental effects without suppressing beneficial effects

intracellular survival

How to get inside the cell? Phagocytic cells Forced phagocytosis - manipulate cells How to move inside the cell? Inside the cell is very viscous Manipulation of host cytoskeleton - actin and - microtubules How to obtain nutrients inside the cell? Manipulation of host metabolism Survival - modify vesicle trafficking (prevent fusion of phagosome with lysosome) or escaping the phagosome Listeria haemolysis is rapidly degraded by proteasomes

thyroid cartilage

Hyaline cartilage Forms most of the floor the larynx Rostral part forms the Adam's apple Articulates with thyrohyoid bone and the cricoid cartilage

arytenoid cartilage

Hyaline cartilage Paired and articulates with the rostral part of the cricoid cartilage Vocal process present where the vocal folds attach

cricoid cartilage

Hyaline cartilage Signet ring shaped wider on the dorsal surface than ventral Articulates with thyroid cartilage

parts of the larynx

Hyaline cartilages Main elements of larynx Thyroid - U shaped Cricoid - signet ring shape Paired arytenoids - sort of triangular Elastic cartilage Epiglottis - leaf shaped

dynamic equilibrium of interstitial fluid

Hydrostatic pressure = P (arterial end) > P (venous end) Pressure falls as the fluid travels

Clinical signs due to changes in pulmonary vasculature

Hydrostatic pulmonary oedema - worsens hypoxia and have soft 'wet' cough and shallow fast breathing Predisposed to secondary pneumonia as proteinaceous fluid ideal for bacterial growth

List of ruminant diseases with neurological presentation?

Hypomagnesemia BSE (scrapie, rabies, Aujeskey) Meningitis Brain/spinal abscess Listeriosis - unilateral facial paralysis PEM Lead poisoning Nervous ketosis

Interpret the results of nerve blocks and make decisions on further diagnostic tests

If none, where the lameness is now present the further diagnostic tests of MRI radiography and ultrasonography, can go ahead to ensure that the damage can be discovered but the region has now been determined for these tests

how does contractility increase stroke volume and preload

If we increase the contractility - forces on ventricle wall then we get ventricles that will contract to a greater extent increasing the amount of blood ejected out the heart (stroke volume) Increases the contractile force enabling the heart to be able to handle a greater pre load, empty more completely, allows this against an increased after load, and enables an increased stroke volume

5 types of immunoglobulins

IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, IgM 5 types of immunoglobulins Many different variable regions so the chance of matching to pathogens is greater As B cell further differentiates - crossing over of genetics and combination Different appearances and binding influences different roles

key role of central nervous system

IgE antibodies have been formed since B-cell first came into contact with antigen IgE bind to mast cells/basophils in mucous membranes If allergen encountered again mast cells/basophils degranulate and release a large amount of histamine and other inflammatory mediators Inflammatory mediators lead to smooth muscle contraction around bronchioles directly and via CNS Bronchoconstriction

Generalised progressive retinal atrophy (gPRA)

Important cause of inherited blindness in pedigree dogs e.g. Toy and Miniature poodles, Labrador retrievers, English Cocker spaniel Bilateral symmetrical degeneration of neurosensory retina Gradual loss of vision Secondary cataract common No treatment Normally starts as night blindness as effects rods first

bicarbonate buffer system

Important in blood, pKa is about 6.1 meaning its chemical buffering capacity at 7.4 is poor but as it is open at both ends it is a highly effective system Carbonic anhydrase is an important enzyme primary role to prevent changes in pH caused by organic and fixed acids in the ECF :

General Examination history how conclusions

In a hands off manner and obtaining information from the owner History Taking a thorough history is essential. Especially in those conditions which may be transient such as seizures, since the abnormalities for which the animal is presented may not be manifested during your examination. How? General observation of the animal on approach to the examination room and interaction with owner and its surrounds allow you to asses for mental status, posture, gait, muscle condition and response to the surroundings Conclusions Should have an idea of the probable location and extent of nervous system dysfunction that you can test with the rest of your examination

why is the myelin sheath is so important to define the velocity of the nerve impulse conduction.

In a myelinated axon the axolemma (part of cell membrane which covers the axon) is surrounded by a myelin sheath that is interrupted at regularly spaced intervals by myelin - free gaps called nodes of Ranvier At the junctions the nerve fibre plasma membrane - axolemma is directly exposed to extracellular fluid Whereas the sheathed portion of nerve fibre is insulated (nodes are insulated) Depolarization occurs at the nodes of Ranvier Myelin sheath allows electrical impulses to transmit quickly and efficiently - travelling wave of depolarisation Saltatory conduction = action potentials occur at the nodes of Ranvier and the localised circuits arise between adjacent nodes of Ranvier and the action potentials in effect jump from node to node

B - cells

In the bone marrow, self antigen is presented on stromal cells. If B-cells responds to this self antigen through their B-cell receptor there are two different routes: = interaction leads to cell death by apoptosis = Receptor editing (re-arrange BCR genes to avoid recognition of "self" antigens) - unique to B-cells! Educated naïve B-cell express both, IgD and IgM on their cell membrane

cardiomyopathy

In the dog - usually DILATED Disease of the heart muscle Muscle function is poor Heart does not pump effectively

suspensory apparatus

In the forelimb we have serratus ventralis forms a suspensory sling - supports scapular and humerus against side of horses body However would result on shoulder flexion if not counter balanced Shoulder maintained in extension by supraspinatus muscle and co-operative antagonism of biceps

where is the thermoregulatory centre located?

In the hypothalamus and it contains receptors sensitive to the temperature of the blood

things that can affect exercise performance

Incline ~12% increase in workload per 1% increase in gradient Ground conditions ~19% increase in workload on muddy (going = soft) ground Track being turf, sand or fibre? Thermal environment ~10% increase hot vs cool, hot/humid vs hot Altitude (barometric pressure) Rider to horse weight 600 kg horse + 10 kg child +1.7% 350 kg horse + 70 kg adult +20%

how can bacterial growth be measured in liquids

Increase in optical density over time- a measure of absorbance of light- normally around 600nm wavelength, the more bacteria, the greater the absorbance of light Generation (time for one full round of division) Growth rate- how much doubling per hour

variable in CSF = total protein cisternal and lumbar normal finding change due to bacterial infection?

Increase in the proportions indicates an immune mediated response

Stopping Anaesthesia process

Increase the dose of the agonist the dose response curve will shift back to original state You can use an indirect agonist with anticholinesterase Increase concentration of Ach as anticholinesterase will stop the metabolism of Ach As its inhibiting the enzyme Get a higher concentration of Ach which will replace/shift antagonist from the receptor

Describe the mechanisms of venodilator drugs

Increase venous capacity, decrease preload, reduce fluid build up. Drops pressure in veins.

factors governing diffusion at the tissues

Increased heat and pH shift curve to right Bohr shift Increased carbon dioxide, decreased pH=unloading Each occur in metabolically active tissues

Noradrenaline a and b agonist

Increasing the heart rate it is not selective for alpha or beta so we don't know which adrenoreceptor type is in the heart what causes increase in arterial blood pressure? as cardiac output has increased in a non-pithed rat elevated and increased blood pressure sending signal to central nervous system to reduce the heart rate and normalise system

septic focus

Infection present in a limited area of the body such as the tonsils or sinuses - in this case a pus filled swelling in the brain

uveitis

Inflammation of the uveal tract Chorioretinitis Pain - blepharospasm Red eye - conjunctival and episcleral hyperaemia Miosis - swollen dull-iris Inflammation - in anterior chamber Low intraocular pressure Corneal oedema - vascularisation Secondary consequences: synechiae, secondary glaucoma, cataract, retinal detachment, retinal degeneration, optic nerve atrophy Triggers of uveitis - the eye can be common target for inflammation

how does inflammation cause bronchoconstriction

Inflammatory cells infiltrate the lungs and release mediators that augment the inflammatory response in the epithelium, creating a cycle of chronic inflammation. This process causes bronchoconstriction and epithelial damage, and it can result in remodelling of the airway.

Schiff Sherrinton syndrome

Information passes from the lumbar intumescence to cervical intumescence Forelimb have rigid extension (increased tone) Inhibitory interneurones (border cells) between the forelimb and hindlimb have been sliced

Where would you pass a naso-gastric tube or endoscope? What forms the dorsal and nasal conchae? Within what structure does the frontal sinus extend? What is this sinus known as?

Infraorbital canal through middle meatus Coiled fragile laminae They originate from the ethmoid bone and attach to maxilla - dorsal Originate from maxilla and extend further into nasal cavity - ventral Extends into the middle meatus and drains through the nasofrontal duct and into the frontal recess From notes : usually drains into ethmoidal meatus

How does Listeria invade move in cells and move between cells

Ingestion of contaminated feed an my result in septicaemia, encephalitis or abortion Moves in cells? Spread occurs via lymph and blood to various tissues Organism can invade through breaks in the oral or nasal mucosa Migration in cranial nerves is thought to be the main route of infection in neural listeriosis Move between cells? Can survive and replicate intracellular and to transfer to cell to cell without exposure to humoral defence mechanism

angiography - selective LV

Insert catheter into femoral artery. No leaking contrast

Three mechanisms of microbial pathogens causing damage to the nervous system?

Invade and replicate in the tissues Direct invasion of peripheral nerves. From adjacent structures such as from the meninges. From the blood Haematogenous. induce a damaging immune response Inflammation of CNS Damage cause by local inflammation to the CNS Auto-immune response. Human example Guillain-Barré syndrome due to Campylobacter Damage the nerve by neurotoxin block signalling damage specific cells

ion channel / ligand gated

Ion channel = neurons Ligand gated = peptides Examples - angiotensin 2, vasopressin A protein sitting in a lipid bilayer of a cell - something binds to a extracellular area on the channel which causes a conformational change in the protein opening it allowing specific ions through

Outline how a disease can spread within a population

It can live up to 14 days on the foot and longer in foot trimmings It can spread within the population over pasture as the sheep are together and the anaerobic bacteria is able to survive for a long amount of time

interatrial septa = SP and SS

It grows towards the AV cushions Development of prongs O1 and O2 Horseshoe shaped Growth of tissue up from AV tissues and the two prongs will eventually overlap - they are not stuck together so allows blood to flow between the two atria Maintain right to left flow - second septum develops = septum secundum which forms a second foramen

hypocretin

It is a facilitatory neurotransmitter involved in appetite control and neuromodulation of sleep

Angiotensin II RAAS system

It is a vasoactive peptide Cells in the kidney store renin that gets released upon a sense of drop in blood pressure Circulates around the body to make AT1 which is fairly inactive but as it goes through the lung it is converted into AT2 which is very vasoactive - causes direct vasoconstriction and can cause noradrenaline release

The sinoatrial (SA) node where is it? what does it do?

It is located in right atrium controls the rhythm of the whole heart Reaches threshold potential first Changes to permeability to different ions make action potentials

Describe the general role of the ANS

It is part of peripheral nervous system Unconscious and autonomic It reacts to the situation to try keep the body alive two components parasympathetic and sympathetic : keep body ticking over and ready for anything

explain how the clinical signs of OCD relate to underlying pathology

Joint effusion - abnormal amount of fluid on the joint Lameness (cartilage aneural) more likely if: Subchondral bone involvement Synovitis Onset clinical signs often associated with exercise/trauma May convert silent OC to OCD

structure of tear film

LAME - lipids, aqueous, mucin, epithelial 7-8um thick Lipid - limits evaporation - thick tear film Aqueous - most of volume Mucin - aids spread and adherence of tear film Epithelium

Describe the phases of growth of bacteria in liquid cultures

Lag phase- bacteria start to metabolise and grow Exponential phase- division of bacteria, doubling each time Stationary phase- bacteria reach a limit on resources (limiting factor) Decline/death phase- bacteria are exhausted of a component needed for growth, new bacteria cannot grow. Consider the bodily environment- may take longer to get to the stationary phase, e.g. intestinal infection will have a continuous food supply.

Describe and apply the principles of mobility scoring in cattle to identify lameness

Lameness of the cow is graded with 4 categories - locomotion score focussing on cows needed treatment 0. Good mobility and no sign of pain and flat back and long fluid strides Early signs of lameness - mobility imperfect steps are uneven Impaired mobility - uneven weight bearing on the leg that is immediately identifiable - normally an arch to the back Severely impaired mobility - can't keep up with the healthy herd

general structure of neurones?

Large cells which consist of : Cell body Processes (poles) which include one single axon and one or more dendrites (inputs to cells) Processes, poles, neurites Axon May extend up to a metre Response for transmission of nerve impulses away from the cell body Remain single until axon terminals are reached A few collateral branches at right angles to the main axon may occur

avian eye

Large compared to head Larger and sharper images compared to mammals Nictitating membrane - 3rd eyelid = rapid sweeps which clean cornea Lacrimal and Harderian glands = keep the surface of eye lubricated

Macroglia

Large glial cells such as oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells, and astrocytes Oligodendrocytes Insulators in CNS Schwann cells Insulators in PNS Ependymal cells Make CSF and form blood-CSF barrier

natural killer (NK) cells

Large granular cytotoxic lymphocyte Role in destruction of virus infected cells

cervical vertebrae characteristics

Large plane joints orientated parallel to the ground between the joint processes of cervical vertebraeThey are synovial jointsAllow side to side neck and allows neck up and down

lumbar vertebrae characteristics

Large transverse process Large dorsal spinous process Joint processes are vertical

cardiomyocytes

Large, cylindrical cells Striated (myofibrils) Work like skeletal muscle Short branched fibres Allows interconnectivity Contracts at exactly the same time Lots of mitochondria histology All the cells in the ventricle contract almost at exactly the same time Cardiomyocytes are excitable cells, functional syncytium, the structure facilitates fast action potential passage T tubules allow quick reuptake of calcium - allows cells within the ventricle and atria to relax/contract quickly

Describe the location and normal dimensions of the feline heart on radiographs

Lateral Radiograph- width of heart is two IC spaces. Normal DV- width is 0.66 width of thorax at 5th rib.

Identify the veins, arteries and nerves in this photo.

Lateral digital vein Lateral digital artery Lateral digital nerve (median nerve)

life cycle of cattle lungworm dictyocaulus viviparus

Latter half of first grazing season Affects cattle on permanent pastures They have to malt twice to become infective from L1 TO L3 Cattle develop immunity after exposure Hypobiosis (dormancy) of late larval stage has been demonstrated in adult cattle L3 larvae may overwinter on pasture in enough numbers to cause disease

How does the atrial septae form?

Left and right atria separated by atrial septum 1 It grows towards the AV cushions development of prongs O1 and O2

Describe the differences in the great vessels of the heart in the cow/sheep/goat compared to the dog

Left subclavian artery branches off the brachiocephalic trunk rather than the aorta. The left and right common carotid arteries branch later off the brachiocephalic trunk resulting in a section of the brachiocephalic trunk called the bicarotid trunk. There is a left azygous vein which branches off the caudal vena cava.

circling - vestibular vs forebrain

Lesions which causes the animal to spontaneously circle may have either a vestibular or forebrain localisation and can be on either the left or the right side of the brain. Animals which present circling will most likely be circling towards (the side of) the lesion. the dog has a head tilt indicative of a vestibular lesion. The Yorkshire Terrier by comparison has a head turn which would be consistent with a forebrain lesion.

Cranial nerve VIII - vestibulocochlear

Less effected in equine species than others Can check hearing with a clap On the right - profound head tilt due to reduced sensation from the cochlear apparatus

primitive cardiac tube

Like a pulsatile toilet roll in this stage Two lateral extensions of the cardiac disc hollowed out Forms pair of endothelial tubes which soon fuse to form the primitive cardiac tube when the embryo folds laterally

what is surfactant

Like washing up liquid It enables alveolar cells to touch one other without sticking 90% phospholipid, 10% protein Made by type II pneumocytes in lungs If there is no surfactant then respiratory distress syndrome occurs Fluid filled lungs have very low compliance (cannot open) as water has high surface tension, Air - filled lungs are very compliant due to surfactant reducing surface tension

limitations of cardiac ultrasound

Limited area for imaging heart through the cardiac notch due to air in the lungs Ribs - bones limiting the imaging window so need a probe small enough Os Cordis in cattle Distance problem in large animals as depth will not be large enough Anatomy of the forelimb may limit the imaging angle

what changes are seen in the brain at altitude

Low PaO2 and cerebral oedema Cerebral oedema is partly due to vasodilation in the brain due to it being in a closed box you get an increase in pressure and leads to leakage of fluid into cerebral tissue Ataxia, wobbling, dysphoria, aggression, coma and death, irritability and headaches Cattle look like BSE

how is ventilation regulated

Lungs provide oxygen and remove carbon dioxide Respiratory centre is in the brain stem in the medulla Generates action potentials Modulated feedback from Chemoreceptors - detection of arterial gas levels Mechanoreceptors - stretch receptors within the lung

Describe the positioning of dogs and cats for ventrodorsal thoracic radiographs

Lungs, chronic cough cases looking at specific lung detail- puts lungsvery close to the plate- cardiac silhouette is distorted though, notappropriate for animals in respiratory destress. Place animal in dorsal recumbency.

What are lymph vessels and what is the flow like?

Lymph vessels are similar in structure to veins but are more delicate flow is unidirectional - away from tissues and returning at point of cranial vena cava Flow is mainly passive and is maintained by valves and contraction of surrounding skeletal muscles and arteries LYMPHOEDEMA Localised fluid retention and therefore tissue swelling

differentiating cells of the immune system

Lymphocytes differentiate into plasma cells They secrete antibodies in large amounts T and B cells can be effector cells or memory cells Circulate around body waiting to reactivate if same antigen is encountered again Secondary immune response Monocyte - normally irregular nucleus / bean shaped

acetylcholine receptor and affecting transmission?

M1 - autonomic ganglia M2 - heart M3 - smooth muscle & secretory glands M4&5Detected by molecular cloning ACh (no clinical use- is metabolised so quickly) ACh release ACh metabolism Each step can be targeted pharmacologically to modulate transmission. Will have effect on both muscarinic and nicotinic synapses.

two classes of MHC molecules?

MHC CLASS I = every nucleated cell presents endogenous 'self' peptides - in a healthy cell it is self but if infected by virus then those cells will present viral proteins - signal to be destroyed MHC CLASS II = on antigen presenting cells (B cells, dendritic cells, macrophages) present exogenous (non-self) peptides Similar function Involving delivery of short peptides to the cell surface for recognition by CD8+ and CD4+ T cells respectively

Describe how T and B lymphocytes that react with 'self' proteins are removed during their development

MHC molecule display peptides which are sampled by B and T cells to identify if non-self or self Healthy cells MHC groove is filled by a peptide generated by the cell Self peptide Infected host cell MHC groove is filled by a peptide derived from pathogens proteins Non self peptide

Understand that different imaging modalities are useful for imaging different tissues and different parts of the distal limb

MRI you are able to see the fluid contained (percentage of water content) - eg bone marrow

Identify a number of methods suitable for disseminating knowledge to farmers

Magazines Word of mouth Letters Emails

diaphragm anatomy and innervation

Major muscle of inspiration Made up of striated musculature Motor and sensory innervation is from the phrenic nerve Originates from C5-C7 Insertion at inner aspect of thorax, ribs, sternum via two crura to lumbar vertebrae

Stride rate

Maximised by reducing the distal limb mass Use of tendinous levers During protraction flexion of the limb reduces the radial distance of centre of mass inertia = mass x radial distance(squared) Heavier it is at the bottom the more difficult to increase stride rate Removal of bones - digits and metacarpals

What drives perfusion

Mean arterial blood pressure - we can measure it by feeling the pulse (is tricky), invasive measurement and non-invasive measurement

What structures (veins, arteries and nerves) pass across the surface of the guttural pouch

Medial compartment: internal carotid, cranial nerves X, IX, IX Lateral compartment: stylohyoid bone, external carotid

Outline the process of thrombopoiesis

Megakaryocytes which form platelets - cycle that is kept in balance by negative feedback

Label and describe the key features of platelets

Membrane-bound fragments of cytoplasm from megakaryocytes Surface glycoproteins (GPs) Phosphatidyl serine (PS)- sticky for blood factors Rich in microfilaments and microtubules - allowscontraction Organelles- alpha granules (a), dense granules/bodies (d), g and l granules

Cranial nerve II - optic nerve test

Menace response Blink Brought about by motor part of facial nerve Withdraw response Central processing and cerebellar - involves fore brain Learned response not a reflex Absent for first 14 days of life Pupillary light reflex Direct and consensual responses Oculomotor nerve (CN III) Anisocoria - any animal with different sized pupils

describe the general architecture of the vascular system of the spinal cord and brain

Meninges Series of layers of membrane surrounding the central nervous system both the brain and the spinal cord Layers of meninges three layers- dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater function: Protection, containment of CSF, maintenance of BBB (blood brain barrier), support

examples of angiogenesis

Metabolically active tissues need to be close to a capillary for gaseous exchanges Limited angiogenesis in adults mainly just female reproduction Pathology - wound healing, skin/heart disease, tumour development

Oxygen cannot bind to the haemoglobin or cannot get off teh haemoglobin causing hypoxia

Methemoglobinemia Elevated amount of met haemoglobin in the blood Can be caused by paracetamol toxicity Met haemoglobin carries oxygen through the blood but doesn't release it into the cells Starts to replace normal haemoglobin so oxygen isn't released or reach tissues Carboxyhaemoglobin is normal Hb with Co2 binded to it - this has a lot more affinity for Hb than oxygen. Which means that carbon monoxide is bound in place of oxygen

Dirofilaria immitis life cycle

Microfilariae in the dog blood is ingested by mosquito Becomes L3 infectious Mosquito is an essential intermediate host Infectious L3 transferred to the dog when they bite which will move towards pulmonary arteries where they meet sexual maturity L4/L5/adult - right heart and pulmonary vessels

What parts of the brain stem control alertness, awareness and consciousness?

Mid brain (mesencephalon) Associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep and wake cycles, alertness

variable in CSF = cytology normal finding change due to bacterial infection?

Monocytes, lymphocytes, rarely neutrophils Increased neutrophils is a sing of bacterial or early viral CNS infection

Monocytes/macrophage

Mononuclear phagocytes = engulfs and destroys bacterial pathogens through digestion with lysosomal enzymes They circulate in blood and differentiate to macrophage after migration into tissues Macrophages are able to act as antigen presenting cells with a central role in both, innate and adaptive immunity

parasympathetic nervous system

More targetedRest and digestCranial & sacralGanglia in/close to effector organLong pre-ganglionic neuron, short post-ganglionic neuron outflow from parasympathetic the brain (cranial nerves) or sacral region (pelvic nerves) Cranial nerves - provide majority of PS supply to organs Pelvic nerves - provide PS supply to pelvic organs

Identify the carbon sources for bacteria

Most bacteria require carbon and nitrogen in usable forms in large amounts. Carbon is the main constituent of organic compounds (and therefore structures) of bacteria. Microbes can be divided by their preferred carbon and energy sources- chemical compounds or light.

iris structure

Most of the iris is made up of the stroma : lots of fibrous connective tissue, collagen bundles, pigmented and non pigmented cells, blood vessels and iris sphincter muscle Anterior surface - contains iris dilator muscle (opens the pupil) Posterior surface - bilayered iris epithelium

Explain why association neurons are involved in the reflex arcs.

Most reflex arcs the sensory neuron connects to the motor neurons through association neurons (interneurons)These allow transfer of information between neuronsAs sensory neuron needs to transfer information to the motor neuron to cause a effector response the interneurons are involved

eye anatomy amphibian

Move lens towards or away from the cornea = accommodation Iris is striated muscle Vision involves pattern recognition as they don't have good visual acuity Retina processes 90% of info

mitral valve

Move sligthly higher up the body wall to get mitral valve Fish mouth view - mitral valve Still imaging from right

Left parasternal long axis view of the left ventricular outflow (aorta)

Moved angled more cranially towards right side structures Main focus is the aorta Much better alignment of the probe and direction of blood flow this way

long axis view of the right ventricle

Moving even more cranially Gets right sided outflow tract Tcv - tricuspid valve Pv - pulmonary valve Pa - pulmonary artery

what is MLST and how does it work

Multilocus Sequence Typing A procedure which characterises individuals of a microbial species using DNA sequences of multiple housekeeping genes. For each gene, the different sequences of the individual isolates are aligned with others and they are matched and compared at each loci to determine the sequence type (ST). They are genes needed for bacteria to grow and so are commonly found and are not too heavily modified

Name the three different structures of neurons found in the body and give example of anatomical locations

Multipolar - Central nervous system Bipolar - Restricted mainly to special sensory pathways (pseudo)Unipolar - Peripheral nervous system

msk diseases in cat

Muscle Traumatic injuries Cat bites - cellulites/abscess/osteomyelitis Joints Trauma - disruption Developmental - rare Bones Trauma - RTAs Caudal equina syndrome Fractured pelvis Fractured limb bones Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism if fed an all meat ration Developmental Luxating patella Rare compared to dog

diaphragm location

Muscle is attached to the xiphoid process (sternal part) to the inside of the lower costal cartilages and ribs by digitations (costal part) and to vertebral column (vertebral part)

adaptations for function in cat

Muscles for anaerobically processes and explosive energy and muscles to ears to locate sounds Retractable claws to secure prey Greater range movement in spine and shoulder than dog Weight bearing during walking Antebrachium range of pronation 45-55 degrees

how can DNA be used to differentiate between closely related bacteria?

Mutations can occur within a small population and genes may also be lost or gained. The pathogen can be sequenced to compare DNA structures since DNA is not constant.

neutrophil development in bone marrow

Myeloblast Promyelocyte Myelocyte Metamyelocyte Band neutrophil Segmented neutrophil left shift When strong inflammatory demand more neutrophils in circulation Begin to see immature neutrophils or 'band forms' within the blood

structure of respiratory tract

Nares & nasal cavity Paranasal sinuses Pharynx Larynx Trachea Bronchi Bronchioles Alveoli

sense of smell in amphibians

Nasal sac, vomeronasal oran, nasolabial grooves

sense of smell in fish

Nasal sacs Water carries chemicals in choana (internal naris)

autonomic reflexes

Neural regulation of the ANS occurs by reflexes - autonomic reflexes They work through feedback mechanisms which involve the afferent nervous system. Their function is to maintain homeostasis

Discuss the role of prions in the development of TSEs what are TSEs?

Neurological disorders Neuronal loss Invariably fatal Very long incubation periods It is caused by a misfolded prion protein Protein only hypothesis Prion protein - unknown function, host encoded high expression levels in CNS Misfolded is PrPSc - beta sheets = it is spontaneous but can be inherited

where are receptors for hypocretin found?

Neurons in locus ceruleus and dorsal raphe nucleus locus ceruleus neurons release norepinephrine dorsal raphe release seratonin = both of which are inhibitory at their termnation in the pontine reticular formation nucleus

the nucleiod

No nucleus but the genome is tightly organised and packed Compacting is achieved by super coiling the DNA Involves strand braking and passing the loop through the break and reforming the break using the DNA gyrase enzyme which is unique to bacteria Formation of protein complexes with DNA binding proteins (histones like proteins) further packages the DNA

thoracic vertebrae characteristics

No transverse processes as there are regions for articular surfaces of the ribs Dorsal spinous process relatively long; vary on region Low mobility so joints are small

snake hearing

No tympanic membrane but not deaf The quadrate bone receives vibrations Stapes attached to quadrate Capable of detecting low frequency sound = quadrate = stapes/columella = oval window

Nociception:

Nociception: The neural process of encoding noxious stimuli. Nociceptive pain (pain from activation of nociceptors) Noxious stimulus: A stimulus that is damaging or threatens damage to normal tissues

classifications of learning

Non-associative learning : Habituation Sensitization Associative learning: Classical conditioning Operant (instrumental) conditioning = process of learning to automatically have a particular response to the presence of a stimulus

B receptor activation

Norepinephrine acts at beta get higher, shorter action potentials -stronger, quicker contractions Increases Ca2+ entry K+ channels open sooner Rate rises - +ve chronotropic effect Force of contraction increases - +ve inotropic effect

normal fundus variations

Normal fundus variations Depends on overall pigment in individual Coat colour, iris colour and fundus colour are linked Typical colour combinations dog, herbivore: strong coat colour, brown iris, overall yellow/green/blue fundus with obvious tapetum Cat: strong coat colour, dark yellow iris, overall yellow fundus with obvious tapetum Reduced pigment in coat typically associated with blue iris and reddish/brown or red/white appearance of fundus Sclera and neurosensory retina do not change Sclera is white: neurosensory retina is transparent Choroid and tapetum and RPE most likely to change

Describe the appearance of normal thoracic vasculature on radiographs

Normal pulmonary vessels are clearly visible in central and middle zones. Vessels taper towards the periphery.

muscles of the nostrils

Nostril dilation Levator nasolabialis Caninus Transversus nasi Important mainly in the horse All innervated by the facial nerve, supplied blood by facial artery

larynx in avian

Not covered by a epiglottis/soft palate Slit like opening Muscles around it control the passage of air 4 cartilages present in the larynx No thyroid and epiglottis

canine cognitive dysfunction

Not normal part of ageing main symptoms can be summarized by acronym DISH Disorientation, interaction changes, sleep changes and house soiling

process of neuralation of chick embryo

Notochord Sends these signals makes ectoderm clues go to neuroectoderm cells and sends signals thickening forming the neural plate Folding and new hinge at neural crest which elevates After elevation there is convergence of neural folds Fusion of neural foldsCells trapped above tube = neural crest cells The neural crest cells migrate to regions in body to form many structures

what are the four long vertebral ligaments?

Nuchal lig : occipital bone - 3/4 thoracic vertebra Supraspinous lig - thoracic vertebra 3 - sacrum Ventral longitudinal lig - 8 thoracic vertebra - sacrum Dorsal longitudinal lig - vertebral canal, neck - sacrum

What is the mature virus particle (virion) is composed of?

Nucleic acid (genome) Surrounded by a protein coat (capsid) The surfaces may have embedded proteins which help the virus to enter cells Some have lipid envelopes

Quadriceps femoris - Rectus femoris

O: Ilium I: Tibial tuberosity A: Extend stifle and flex hip N: Femoral nerve

Sartorius

O: Ilium and thoracolumbar fascia. Iliac spine and ilium I: Patella and cranial border tibia A: Flex hip and flex or extend stifle N: Femoral nerve

Superficial digital flexor

O: Lateral supracondylar tuberosity of femur I: Tuber calcanei and MP 2, 3, 4 and 5 A: Flex stifle, extend stifle, flex first 2 digital joints N: Tibial nerve

Gastrocnemius

O: Medial and lateral supracondylar tuberosities of femur I: Tuber calcanei A: Flex stifle and extend tarsus N: Tibial nerve

Internal obturator

O: Pelvic symphsis and dorsal ischium and pubis I: Trochanteric fossa of femur A: Rotate laterally at hip N: Sciatic nerve

Adductor

O: Pelvic symphsis, ischiatic arch, ventral pubis and ischium I: Lateral caudal femur A: Adduct limb and extend hip N: Obturator nerve

Quadriceps femoris - Vastus lateralis, vastus intermedius and vastus medialis

O: Proximal femur I: Tibial tuberosity A: Extend stifle and flex hip N: Femoral nerve

Deep digital flexor

O: Proximal tibia, proximal fibula I: DP 2, 3, 4 and 5 A: Extend tarsus and flex digits N: Tibial nerve

Quadratus femoris

O: Ventral caudal ischium I: Intertrochanteric crest A: Extend hip and rotate laterally at hip N: Sciatic nerve

neurological exam cattle

Observation = Posture, behaviour, muscle tone/atrophy, symmetry Gait on halter if halter trained= Proprioception, incoordination, ataxia Straight line away from you and circle left and right Panniculus - skin sensitivity Examination of the head - facial symmetry, nystagmus, strabismus, palpebral reflex, cornea reflex, menace response Pupillary light reflex Inspect oral cavity (use palatum reflex) - tongue paresis Swallow reflex

poultry swabs

Observe clinical signs in commercial flocks such as head shaking, swellings around the head, discharge / dried nasal crust or conjunctivitis, a loss in production may also mean swabs of the upper respiratory tract are taken as part of a flock investigation Generally tracheal swabs are taken small enough to fit through the glottis Cloacal swabs will also be taken

Before the neurological exam

Observe from a distance Changes in mentation Abnormalities of cerebral function Abnormal states of wakefulness

Clinical exam of cattle

Observe from a distance - BCS, RR, gait Head to tail body systems What is normal/abnormal Signs of ill health - elevated temp/respiratory rate, discharge etc Cow sheep : rumen turnover, udder, MM assessment

Describe the cell-based coagulation model of secondary haemostasis

Occurs at the location of damage. Intrinsic and extrinsic systems generate FXa in parallel on different cell surfaces. Initiation: Injury exposes TF-bearing cell to flowing blood- small amount of FIXa and thrombin generated. Amplification: Thrombin activates platelets (exposing PS) vWF released (tethers platelets to site of injury by binding to GPIb/FIX receptor on one hand and subendothelial collagen onthe other) Leads to generation of FXI, FVIII, FV Propagation: Factors assemble on the activated platelet to form intrinsic tenase (FIXa, FVIIIa and Ca2+) Results in FXa generation on the platelet surface Prothrombinase complex (FXa, FVa, Ca2+) forms and results in a burst of thrombin generation directly on the platelet (stabilisation)

anthrax toxin

Oedema Toxin Protective antigen Binding Oedema factor This leads to calmodulin-dependent adenylate cyclase Leading to more cyclic AMP Leads to oedema formation Lethal Toxin Protective antigen Binding Lethal factor Zink metalloprotease Stimulates cytokine release Overactive immune response Leads to oedema and necrosis Cattle and sheep you get septicaemia Pig and horses you get haemorrhagic enteritis Both lead to death

name the openings in the diaphragm for? oesophagus

Oesophageal Hiatus - contains the oesophagus, dorsal and ventral vagal trunks

neonates born at altitude?

Often born with pulmonary hypertension Small number have signs as described of altitude disease Fetal circulation may also not develop into adult circulation because of abnormal pressure dynamics in heart Persistent ductus arteriosus (aorta to PA) Persistent foramen ovale (between atria)

sense of smell in birds

Olfactory bulb size related to lifestyle - smallest in seed eaters and largest in aquatic animals that rely on scent

what happens when Light stimulates retinal neurons?

Optic nerve axons activate neurones in the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the rostral ventral hypothalamus Axons from suprachiasmatic neurons terminate in a ventrolateral nucleus in hypothalamus These latter hypothalamic neurons project diffusely in the prosencephalon and brainstem and release the neuropeptide = hypocretin =It is a facilitatory neurotransmitter involved in appetite control and neuromodulation of sleep

Describe the anatomy and the biomechanical function of the equine foot

P1 2 and 3 Navicular bone and bursa - filled with synovial fluid and protects Digital cushion Sole Frog Sulcus of frog The digital flexor tendon sheath - protects the DDFT and SDFT from damage as these are so important Vascular foramina of the distal phalanx - allow blood supply to pedal bone

pros and cons of emotional state drugs

PROS Quick effects Some patients very effective Useful to support behavioural techniques CONS Unwanted effects Species differences impact on toxicity Paradox effects

keratin tubules

Papillae form them They are squames bound together Hollow due to loss of central papilla as tube elongates Tubules secured to each other by inter-tubular horn - bottom of the tubes those keratinising cells secure the keratin tubules together

atropine muscarinic antagonist

Parasympatholytic (blocks the receptor) , used to increase rate, reverse heart block due to increased tone of vagus nerve

How do host cells recognise pathogens

Pathogens express specific components that are recognised by the hosts as 'danger signals' Pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) The host expresses specific receptors that recognise PAMPs Pattern recognition receptors PRRs

Pneumonyssus caninum - Dog nasal mite pathology, diagnosis, treatments

Pathology Depends on size of infestation Sneezing / snuffling Nasal discharge / bleeding Diagnosis From nasal swabs - adult mites Treatments Subcutaneous selamectine

Starling force

Pc= CHP- hydrostatic pressure in the capillary. Pi= IOP- colloid osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid. Both tend to force fluid out of capillary. Pi= IHP- hydrostatic pressure in the interstitial fluid. Pp= COP- colloid osmotic pressure of the blood plasma. Tend to suck fluid back into the capillary. Arterial end- filtration exceeds absorption, net production of interstitial fluid. At venous end- reabsorption exceed filtration.

Describe how the musculoskeletal structures of the bird are adapted for flight

Pectinous muscle is a large muscle beneath the supracoracoideus - the pectoral muscles are those who provide the down thrust of the humerus - the power stroke of flight The supracoracoideus provides the upwards movement of the wing - the muscle is on a pulley aspect to the humerus This means that the bird does not need to have an extremely large muscle which is heavy as the pulley system removes this need - more easy to fly There are many holes in the bones of the birds skeleton to ensure that the flight of the bird is easy The thorax of the bird is very rigid - this is to prevent the crushing of the thorax from the high power pressure of the pectoral muscles - unlike humans who thorax is dependent on our breath The claw aspect of the birds have multiple different features for different needs eg grasping The bird also has a form of a stay apparatus when perching meaning no energy is required when the bird is perched and resting

Describe how the musculoskeletal structures of the bird are adapted for flight?

Pectinous muscle is a large muscle beneath the supracoracoideus - the pectoral muscles are those who provide the down thrust of the humerus - the power stroke of flight The supracoracoideus provides the upwards movement of the wing - the muscle is on a pulley aspect to the humerus This means that the bird does not need to have an extremely large muscle which is heavy as the pulley system removes this need - more easy to fly There are many holes in the bones of the birds skeleton to ensure that the flight of the bird is easy The thorax of the bird is very rigid - this is to prevent the crushing of the thorax from the high power pressure of the pectoral muscles - unlike humans who thorax is dependent on our breath The claw aspect of the birds have multiple different features for different needs eg grasping The bird also has a form of a stay apparatus when perching meaning no energy is required when the bird is perched and resting

myotatic reflexes triceps

Percuss a finger/thumb which is pressing onto the tendon of insertion of the triceps muscle Causes - reflex extension elbow, increased tension in tendon, movement of skin over muscle belly

myotatic reflexes cranial tibial

Percuss muscle belly of cranial tibial - causes reflex flexion of the hock

myotatic reflexes extensor carpi radialis ECR

Percuss the muscle belly of ECR muscle Reflex = extension of the carpus

haemotology

Performing a differential cell count Obtain an accurate total WBC count by machine or manual haemocytometer - Cells x 10^9/L Use blood smear to count and classify 100 or 200 WBC calculate an absolute number for each type (10^9/L) from % and total white blood cell count

What types of atrial septal defects occur in animals? What are their impacts of oxygen delivery and cardiac function?

Persistent foramen ovale = doesn't close can close migraines and strokes Atrial septal defect = cause extra blood to overfill the lungs and overwork the right side of the heart. If not treated, the right side of the heart eventually enlarges and weakens. The blood pressure in your lungs can also increase, leading to pulmonary hypertension

XLD agar

Phenol red changes from yellow to red as pH changes selective growth medium used in the isolation of Salmonella and Shigella species from clinical samples and from food It utilizes sodium deoxycholate as the selective agent and, therefore, is inhibitory to gram-positive micro-organisms

G protein linked

Pheromones, hormones, neurotransmitters Example - cAMP, IP3 Norepinephrine/epinephrine operates through this Binding causing change which activates protein on inside which causes a second messenger system to be activated

function of the retina

Photoreceptors outer most layer retinal ganglion inner most layer Light has to travel through all layers to get to photoreceptors And then back across the retina to exit through retinal ganglion axons

what keeps airways sterile?

Physical barriers keep distal airways sterile and reduce the particles that get to the lower respiratory tract Upper respiratory tract is not sterile - nasal pharynx, trachea It gets cleaner going down due to cilia and secretions which are preventing excessive accumulation of organisms Commensal organisms colonise epithelia surfaces

Discuss how to investigate a lame horse

Physical exam History Trot up / gait assessment Lunging Flex joints - flexor test ultrasonography/radiography/nerve block/MRI/synoviocentesis

where does enchondral ossification occur postnatally?

Physis/growth plate - longitudinal bone growth Articular epiphyseal cartilage complex (AECC) Cuboidal bones Occurs during healing of unstable fractures - cartilage forms which is replaced by bone

List factors which aid adhesion

Pili/fimbrae Adhesin Flagellum Capsule

Give examples of avian specific problems relating to the musculoskeletal system

Pinioning - cutting off manus to prevent flight and brailing involves holding manus in flexed positon by leather straps

atlanto-axial joint

Pivot or trochoid joint Allow movement/rotation around axis Ce1 and Ce2 (atlas and axis) allows rotation Atlas as a tube and axis as a peg - allows rotate no joint

visceral vs parietal pleura

Pleura covering the surface of the lung is called visceral/pulmonary pleura. It is reflected around the root of the lung where it joins with the bronchi and becomes continuous with the costal parietal pleura. This in turn is continuous with mediastinal pleura Visceral pleura = coats lung Parietal pleura = lines thoracic cavity

Describe the location of the pleural cavity and mediastinum

Pleural cavity: lung has fluid outside- don't extend to sternum. Mediastinum:it contains the heart, thymus gland, portions of the esophagus and trachea, and other structures

Describe the radiographic appearance of pleural effusion

Plural effusion: "transudate", blood, lymph, exudate. Edge of lungs have fluid on outside.

process of erythropoiesis

Pluripotent stem cells, erythroblasts still have nucleus - reticulocyte and then final mature erythrocyte

How is technical quality of a thoracic radiograph assessed? PCCELA

Positioning- Pink Collimation- Camels Centring- Collect Exposure- Extra Labelling/markers- Large Processing/artefacts- Apples Inspiratory or expiratory?- On Inspiration- not the end of the world but makes interpretation more difficult if not achieved

leads of ECG

Positive and negative electrodes They are called limb leads One - RF and LF - positive Two - RF and LH - positive Three - LF and LH - positive Earth lead on hindlimb

Pharmacological manipulation of contractility

Positive inotropes Causes phosphorylation of calcium channels Allowing faster calcium reuptake Sensitisation of troponin C to calcium Increases contractility

production and drainage of aqueous humour

Posterior chamber secretes aqueous chamber Leaves anterior chamber Most aqueous humour drains out the eye entering trabecular meshwork and drains into aqueous plexus and into Venus

lymph nodes function

Presentation of antigen to lymphocytes and immune response if necessary Lymph enters node by afferent lymphatics and leaves via efferent lymphatics Packed with T- and B- lymphocytes, antigen presenting cells and monocytes Immune cells are monitoring lymph for foreign pathogens

what does constriction of arterioles cause to happen with the right ventricle

Pressure increases in 'circuit' supplying the lungs Increased pressure generated in arterioles which is transferred to the pulmonary arteries which then ultimately impacts the right ventricle Increases in PA pressures increase within hours Changes in RV will occur within days to weeks changes in structure of blood vessels and heart seen - hypertrophy of the media of the arterioles, dilation of right ventricle hampers ability to flow into the lungs which results in right side heart failure

Explain the impact of inhibitors on the coagulation cascade

Prevents inappropriate clot formation. Tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI), Antithrombin (III)- thrombin & factors IXa, Xa & Xia.

reduced oxygen inspired causing hypoxia

Problems with oxygen supply - kinked ET tube Low atmospheric pressure - reduced oxygen in atmosphere When air is inspired it becomes humidified Therefore we have to account for the loss of saturated vapour pressure when inspired Amount of oxygen inspired is a lot less because of the pressures Hypoventilation - causes hypercapnia Extremely common especially in anaesthetised patient Partial pressure of oxygen in alveoli decreases and carbon dioxide partial pressure increases Due to us not breathing enough causes carbon dioxide accumulation BOAS

Golgi tendon organ describe function

Produce information from the tendons Located serially with muscle fibres Better place to respond to tension

main functions of ciliary body

Produces and drainage of aqueous humour Maintains normal intraocular pressure Provides nutrition to lens and inner cornea Anchors lens zonules and provides accommodation - focussing Constitutes blood aqueous barrier Provides blood and nerve supply to anterior segment

function of tear film

Providing nutrients and oxygen to ocular surface Protects ocular surface from desiccation and bacteria Lubricates ocular surface Provides smooth and transparent ocular surface

Describe the mechanisms which occur and the systems which are activated during heart failure

R.A.A.S- salt/water retention Fluid builds up in vessels- especially veins Venous pressure rises High venous pressure-> fluid is pushed out of veins-> congestion/oedema. But output and blood pressure are restored- usually have few weakness signs- blood pressure kept up, collapsed state is rare but would be severe and advanced heart failure ADH- anti-diuretic hormone- water retention Natriuretic peptides Atrial stretch- atrial natriuretic peptide- now being used as diagnostic tests- markers of heart failure. Stimulates natriuresis- removal of salt and therefore water. Therefore reducing atrial stretch.

specific defences

Recognition of particles by immune system Passive immunity Lymph nodes/tissues Innate immune system Mucosal immunity Antibodies and lymphocytes

haemoglobin buffer system

Red blood cells are tightly packed with haemoglobin (Hb) and cytoplasm contains carbonic anhydrase Rich in histidine residues and accounts for majority of the overall protein buffering capacity of the body Carbon dioxide into blood stream most into red blood cells Some of the carbon dioxide binds with haemoglobin Majority goes into carbonic acid which mainly goes to hydrogen ions and HCO3- (bicarbonate ions) Hydrogen ions buffered by Hb which changes configuration of Hb molecules and releases oxygen into the tissues

Describe the mechanisms of arterial dilator drugs

Reduce afterload, increase output, reduce valve leakage, reduce work of the heart.

Pharmacological effects of benzodiazepines

Reduction of anxiety and aggression Sedation and induction of sleep Reduction of muscle tone and coordination = diazepam and alprazolam they are effective after a single dose Side effects - memory impairment can cause irritability and aggression eg alprazolam, lorazepam, diazepam activate specific benzodiazepine receptor that facilitates inhibitory GABAergic transmission

Poutine reticular fomration

Region in the pons that is involved in regulating the sleep and wake cycle and filtering incoming stimuli to discriminate irrelevant background stimuli

functions of respiratory epithelium

Regulation of air flow by erectile tissue Cleaning (cilia) Humidification (evaporator) Warming (variable blood perfusion) Protecting reflexes (sneeze reflex)

neurotropic spread definition?

Relating to the growth of nervous tissue From peripheral nerves nerve to nerve

what happens when we get to extreme preloads / what is the length tension relationship

Relationship lost If we have a low preload we have limited cross over between actin and myosin If they stretch further due to increased pre load - greater potential for cross bridge to occur leading to increased contractile force If over stretched sarcomeres it leads to a point where less ability for cross bridge formation so reduced contractile force

what is the effect of the PSNS on the heart and lungs?

Relaxation Slows heart rate Breathing slows down

how are ssDNA viruses produced?

Require active host DNA polymerase to replicate genome. These viruses can productively infect only dividing cells, where DNA polymerase is active. They then use host RNA polymerases to produce mRNA. E.g. parvoviruses, circoviruses

factors influencing ventilation

Resistance to flow in the airways Lung compliance Alveolar surface tension

mechanisms limiting global ventilation

Resistance to flow in the airways Lung compliance Alveolar surface tension

functions of paranasal sinuses

Resonating cavities Insulation / cooling Light weight construction Increased insertion surfaces - spaces for teeth

retinal detachment

Retina is strongly attached at only two points Around the optic disc Ora ciliaris retinae (peripheral retina) Detachment occurs between neurosensory retina and RPE Systemic hypertension, e.g. geriatric cats Congenital, e.g. collie eye anomaly (inherited retinal disease) Trauma Inflammation Neoplasia Complication of lens luxation or chronic cataract

DNA variation

Ribosome sequencing Multi locus sequence typing MLST Probe based tests PCR

Which chamber of the heart is enlarged in this cardiac radiograph:

Right Heart Enlargement- lateral: RA difficult to interpret. Increased sternal contact, apex should normally only be on the sternum.

lung lobes on positive contrast dorsoventral bronchogram

Right Lung Lobes: Cranial Middle Caudal Accessory Left Lung Lobes: Cranial- cranial, caudal Caudal Individual lung lobes are not often seen, unless there is abnormal air filling due to disease- contrast between lobes.

Describe the positioning of dogs and cats for lateral thoracic radiographs

Right lateral recumbency (left side imaged)- heart, both laterals when looking for lung metastases- bottom lung collapses, top inflated. Put a wedge under the sternum easier to interpret. Center beam on back end of the scapular.

identification of leucocytes

Romanowsky stain effect - a mixture of 2 stains that give a third colour (purple) Purple Eosin Orange Acidic Stains basic tissue components orange (to pink) Components described as 'eosinophilic' or 'acidophilic' Azure Blue Basic Stains acidic tissue components blue (to black) These components are described as basophilic

alveolar sac

Rotunda-like area on the end of the alveolar duct There is usually a cluster of alveolar sacs at the end of one alveolar duct

sepsis

SIRS due to infection

shock

SIRS induced hypotension (reduced blood pressure) unmanageable by fluid resuscitation in association with hypoperfusion (low blood flow) leading to reduced oxygen level in organs/tissues (ischemia)

pericardium

Sac surrounding heart Inner - visceral layer - surface of heart Outer - parietal layer No significant lumen

Describe the formation of vertebrae - resegmentation?

Sclerotome become attracted to notochord/neural tube region and grow around them and meet Resegmentation change - splitting of existing sclerotome and joining of neighbouring scleretomesas nerves come out from neural tube to myotome a fissure is formed in the sclerotomethe cranial part of one sclerotome and caudal part of other sclerotome fuses

What occurs to the valves during ventricular diastole?

Semi lunar valves closed Mitral and tricuspid valves open Blood flows into ventricles

What occurs to the valves at the beginning of ventricular systole

Semi-lunar valves open Blood is ejected from the ventricles

What occurs to the valves at the beginning of ventricular systole?

Semi-lunar valves open Blood is ejected from the ventricles

Cranial nerve IX - Glossopharyngeal test

Sensory, taste (posterior 1/3) Motor to tongue (extrinsic muscle) Stylopharyngeus muscle Motor to pharynx Often see horses with tongue protruding between the incisors

coagulase test

Separate coagulase positive / negative Staphylococcus aureus and also separate other groups of non-coagulase positive staphylococci S. epidermidis Coagulase is often associated with virulence but some coagulase negative strains can cause disease

AV cushions

Separation between atria and ventricles at red arrow begins Cardiac jelly and blood flow triggers developed atrioventricular endocardial cushions Forms a barrier/shelf so separates atria and ventricles Ultimately form papillary mm, chordae tendinea, growth of mesenchyme and AV valves

what is typing?

Separation of bacteria within the same species is typing Typing allows linkage of bacteria derived from same lineage or source Typing asks are the bacteria from the same lineage It uses common features that can vary subtly within species due to drift between separate populations Physical methods for typing are being replaced by molecular typing

Describe the potential causes of alveolar pattern

Should be black- air filled , changes in pattern caused by alveoli being filled with: Fluid- oedema, blood, pus Cellular debris Neoplastic infiltrate Or lung lobe collapse

what does blood oxygen content of blood show? and how is this measured

Shows effective lung function Shows effective ventilation Assessed globally by Mucous membrane colour Nice and pink is good oxygen delivery Pulse oximetry and Blood gas analysis

shunt 3: ductus arteriosus

Shunts blood in pulmonary artery straight to descending aorta Pressure differential between lungs and lower body streams flow back to placenta Allows equivalent ventricular function in fetus - helps develops ventricular musculature and vasculature Helps blood not to go into the lungs but pulmonary artery and into aorta closure Functional closure in mins to hours Anatomic closure may take 2-7 days If closure does not occur, ventricular septal defect = patent ductus arteriosus Relatively common condition, non life threatening, reduces efficacy of heart

shunt 2 - foramen ovale

Shunts oxygenated blood straight through RA to LA through foramen ovale due to the high flow of the blood Pressure difference across FO keeps it open in fetus Patency maintained by high blood flow closure = functional closure quick - hours = anatomic closure is slow - weeks/years with a small opening persisting in about 25% mammals Failure to close results in atrial-septal defect and hole in heart

acid fast

Similar to gram positive Genetically linked Single membrane, thick cell wall, mycolic acids - waxy compounds which are crosslinked with the cell wall - makes it harder for things to penetrate One group called mycobacteria

ventricular premature complexes

Site of origin is within the ventricles Rhythm is irregular Wide and bizarre QRST complex interrupts rhythm Spread through myocardium not conducting tissue Usually the underlying NSR is undisturbed QRST unrelated to P waves QRST complex voltage is usually large

neutrophils histology

Size 12-15 micrometres Double size of erythrocyte Lobulated nucleus (2-4 lobes) Pale pink or light blue cytoplasm below = a banded neutrophil does not have segmentation of the nucleus They are young neutrophils

mean arterial pressure MAP affecting blood pressure

Size and shape of arterial pulse wave - related to stroke volume Speed of this wave - fast in small arterioles MAP will increase during exercise It is different in different species

MSK diseases dogs

Size/weight - biomechanical forcesGenetic conformation - especially at extremesActivity - high impact/biomechanical forcesDiet - excess/insufficient nutrient intakeObesityTraumaAgeing changesDamage to blood supply to femur causes epiphysis to die - Legg-Calve-Perthes disease

The atrioventricular node what does it do

Slows conduction through the heart of the action potential - allows time for ventricles to fill completely before contraction Small pause in between atrial and ventricular contraction

angiostrongylus vasorum indirect life cycle

Slugs are intermediate host Frogs are para host Dogs are definitive host Zoonotic - animal to human transmission

poiseulles law

Small changes in vessel diameter lead to large changes in resistance and pressure So if blood flow (cardiac output) stays the same and resistance increases then pulmonary arterial blood pressure will increase Because flow = pressure/resistance

Identify the main features of the musculoskeletal system of reptiles

Snakes have a large number of vertebrae and each vertebra have ribs attached to it - the ribs are not anchored to the sternum which allows free movement No pectoral girdle they have an attached muscle that flexes and extends spurs used to hold female while mating Zygosphene and zygantrum in the snake vertebrae are processes that fit together in order to make sure that the snake vertebrae remain together even when the snake is moving this ensures that no damage occurs to the spinal - cord and the snake is still able to move freely

identify the main features of the musculoskeletal system of reptiles?

Snakes have a large number of vertebrae and each vertebra have ribs attached to it - the ribs are not anchored to the sternum which allows free movement No pectoral girdle they have an attached muscle that flexes and extends spurs used to hold female while mating Zygosphene and zygantrum in the snake vertebrae are processes that fit together in order to make sure that the snake vertebrae remain together even when the snake is moving this ensures that no damage occurs to the spinal - cord and the snake is still able to move freely

defence of lungs = sneezing/coughing

Sneeze Reflex Upper respiratory tract Clears nasal passages Cough reflex Lower respiratory tract Clears trachea and bronchi = this is to remove foreign objects or irritants

control of viral gene expression

Some viruses regulate gene expression very tightly Latency helps to explain pattern of disease eg intermittent or delayed

causes of glaucoma

Something going wrong in drainage of the eye

spleen red pulp function white pulp function

Specialised lymph node for blood borne antigens Part of vascular blood system - efferent lymphatics (all pathogens presented in blood) Red pulp : Filters blood and foreign pathogens Removes defective erythrocytes and platelets Stores erythrocytes and platelets White pulp: Macrophages and antigen presenting cells and ageing erythrocytes T and B lymphocytes within the area Immune response to foreign pathogens that are presented through the blood

what is cartilage?

Specialized form of connective tissue Supports and growth template for long bone formation Non vascularized Non innervated

retina blood supply differences in retina

Species different Different arrangement of blood vessels affecting appearance of fundus Holangiotic = retinal blood vessels supply whole retina eg dog cat cow, sheep goat Paurangiotic = retinal blood vessels supply a small focal area of retina eg horse

non-lobulated lung

Species that have non-lobulated lungs also have a collateral ventilation - bronchioles that are running in parallel These channels are normal airways but help to maintain normal ventilation-perfusion relationships in the face of hypoxia So minimise pulmonary vasoconstriction

selective media

Specific nutrients which are beneficial to a particular type of bacteria which you are trying to cultivate, alongside inhibitors for any unwanted bacteria species Enteric bacteria are often resistant to bile salts, so they can be added to dishes when intestinal bacteria are desired Antibiotics can also be used as some bacterial groups will be resistant to certain strains

Describe how the severity of heart disease is assessed

Stage A- patients at high risk of heart disease but have no identifiable structural disorder of the heart- breed associated disease- CKCS- degenerative valve disease, Irish wolfhounds at risk of DCM etc. Stage B- patients with structural heart disease (e.g. murmur), but no clinical signs ("occult" disease). Stage B1- asymptomatic patients with no radiographic or echocardiographic evidence of cardiac remodelling. Stage B2- asymptomatic patients with radiographic or echocardiographic evidence of left-sided heart enlargement. Stage C- mild-moderate- patients with past or current clinical signs of congestive heart failure associated with structural heart disease. Evidence of limitedexercise tolerance- mild. Progressively worsens. Signs evident with mild exercise- moderate. Differentiates patients requiring hospitalisation. Stage D- advanced- obvious clinical signs with minimal exercise- progressively worsens. Obvious clinical signs at rest- progressively worsens- death. Patients with end-stage disease with clinical signs of heart failure that are refractory to ''standard therapy''.

Cardiac output affecting blood pressure

Starling Effect - increasing stretching of heart muscle from increased pre load we will increase contraction - increasing stroke volume Stroke volume x heart rate Sympathetic stimulation : increase heart rate and force of contraction Parasympathetic stimulation : decreases heart rate and slight decrease of force

stuporous

State of unconsciousness with absence of response to any environmental stimuli including pain

confused and distorientated

State of unconsciousness with reduced responses to external stimuli but can be roused by a painful stimulus Alert, with a normal response to environmental stimuli

strabismus

Strabismus describes abnormal static position of the eye This can be predictably generated by lesions affecting the III, IV and VI cranial nerves

pilli / fimbriae

Strands of protein attached to bacteria Made of pilin peptide subunits Considered to function for adhesion Some are virulence factors Some bind to sugars on host cells to aid attachment Some involved in biofilm formation Specific F-pili involved in conjugation

cornea

Stratified epithelium and basement membrane Collagenous stroma Descemet's membrane - basement membrane of the endothelium

Describe the process of secondary haemostasis

Strengthening and reinforcement of the platelet plug Formation of a stable fibrin clot Involves coagulation factors (e.g. factor VIII), several factors are synthesised in the liver in a process that requires vitamin K

the pharyngeal wall

Striated muscles Constriction and shortening Rostral - palatopharyngeal Middle - hypopharyngeal Caudal - thyropharyngeal All insert on roof of pharynx Important in passage for food Dilation Single muscle Stylopharyngeus caudalis functions Swallowing - deglutition Soft palate elevated Palatopharyngeal arch constricts Hypoid apparatus Pulls larynx forward Epiglottis pulled back to protect larynx

What is the relationship between end-diastolic volume and the magnitude of stroke volume?

Stroke volume is the end diastolic volume - the end of systole volume Preload - contractility Dependent on the amount of blood in the ventricles at the end of diastole and the amount of blood left in the ventricles at the end of systole

stroma and bulbar conjunctiva arrangement

Stroma have extensive vascular and lymphatic supplies Bulbar conjunctiva overlies sclera = we will see finer branching conjunctival vessels but these overlie larger episcleral vessels Inflammation in the eye can cause the larger vessels to appear visible

Eosinophis

Strongly associated with allergy, parasites and fibrosis Rarely found in healthy blood Specific granules contain: Major basic protein Eosinophil cationic protein Eosinophil peroxidase Eosinophil derived neurotoxin Enzymes

what causes dysrhythmias

Structural cardiac disease (actual problem with heart eg scar tissue), drugs, toxins, metabolic diseases/electrolyte imbalance, systemic disease - sepsis, neoplasia, sympathetic tone - increased epinephrine release eg pain and fear

physiological dead space

Sum of anatomical dead space and alveolar dead space

Explain the vascular supply to the brain including both venous and arterial structures

Supplied by 5 main pairs of vessels: Rostra cerebral arterial - supply the medial aspect of cerebral hemispheres Middle cerebral arteries - supply lateral and ventrolateral aspects of cerebral hemispheres Caudal cerebral arteries - supply occipital lobes Rostral cerebellar arteries - supply rostral aspects of cerebellum Caudal cerebellar arteries - supply caudal and lateral aspects of cerebellum They are all joined by the arterial circle

aqueous humour

Supplies nutrients and remove waste from avascular tissues of the eye Cornea Trabecular meshwork Lens Anterior vitreous Maintains optical clarity of eye Composition - 98% water, protein, ascorbate, amino acids, oxygen, glucose

List the vascular supply to the distal limb

Supply basically from median artery and divides down Axially artery - brachial artery - medial artery - medial palmar - medial and lateral palmar digital Know where they are

basophil

Surface IgE receptor Specific granules : heparin, histamine, leukotrienes, lysosomes Associated with parasitic infection and allergy Very rare in blood Recruited into tissue Most important function is in immediate type hypersensitivity = cause of allergy

serous membrane - serosa

Surface of inner wall of body cavity is lined by a serous membrane Single layered flat epithelium with thin underlying connective tissue Membrane is named pleura in thoracic cavity and peritoneum in the abdominal and pelvic cavities

suspensory apparatus

Suspension of the pedal bone Collagen fibre bundles between pedal bone and inner aspect of the claw capsule Suspend the weight of the whole animal The supportive cushion system supports the pedal bone and fat cylinders under the pedal bone

Describe the fate of inhaled particles within the upper respiratory tract

Swallowing Trapped in mucus and transported via Mucocilary escalator Stimulation of receptors/reflexes : sneeze or cough or glottis closure Killed Stimulation of immune responses/antimicrobial agents in mucus / secretions

what are the functions of biological rhythms?

Synchronises our activity with external environment External synchronisation - biological clocks internal physical systems allowing organisms to synchronise with rhythms of nature such as cycles of day Internal synchronisation - maintain temporal organisation of endogenous processes by circadian systems

Describe methods of assessing synovial pathology

Synovial fluid is removed by synoviocentesis at the four different aspects of the distal limb it can be removed The colour of the fluid is assessed - should be straw colour/faint yellow with a fluid consistency and be able to stretch across your fingers The protein level should by 25g/l so 2.5 for decimetre - anything above or change in colour shows infection - red/pink shows red blood cells have entered fluid and there is likely to be a rupture present

recognising different antigenic shapes

T helper cell with CD4+ expressed on surface CD3+ element is embedded within T cell itself 2 chains Alpha and beta chain Associated with the CD3+ glycoprotein T cell receptor - recognises peptide of a pathogen Two regions: Regions attached to cell surface towards T helper cell end - constant region Region further to right side need antigen/peptide - variable region CD3+ is used to distinguish a T cell over B cell Transmitting information to generate cytokines and further responses - recruitment / differentiation On antigen presenting side is a MHC-2 = another type of receptor that is associated with antigen presenting cell on how it presents peptide of processed pathogen Binds to T cell receptor Allows it to recognise antigen on complex

How do TLRs not interact with commensals in the body?

TLR receptor expression on basal surface of epithelial cells but not on apical surface that is in contact with the gut lumen and the commensal bacteria. Infection with pathogenic bacteria- barrier injury. TLRs on basal surface come in contact with bacteria or their PAMPs, inflammation.

What is the structure of TLRs?

TLRs are membrane spanning receptors. Extracellular- leucine rich, recognises PAMPs. Cell membrane- transmembrane domain. Intracellular- toll/IL-1 receptors for signalling.

Describe supraventricular premature complexes

Tachycardia A premature P wave (P') interrupts the normal P wave rhythm P' wave then causes an early QRST complex. QRST complex looks normal

Describe supraventricular tachycardia

Tachycardia Runs of more than three consecutive supraventricular premature complexes Rhythm is regular Site of origin is within the atria/junction, outside of the SAN It may be sustained (>30s) or non-sustained (<30s) P'-P' interval is regular, as is P'-R interval if every P' wave is conducted QRS is usually normal

what are the presenting signs of hypoxia

Tachypnoea Increased respiratory effort, tachycardia Patients unable to compensate for hypoxaemia Exhaustion, neurologic or neuromuscular disease Cyanosis Appearance of bluish/purple discolouration of the skin or mucous membranes due to the tissues near the skin surface having low oxygen saturation Hypercapnia An elevation in the carbon dioxide in arterial blood (PaCO2) above the normal range of 35-45mmHg Commonly caused by hypoventilation Other causes : hypothermia, respiratory depression, lung pathology, increase in metabolic carbon dioxide production

why would you take swabs?

Taking swabs from upper respiratory tract Is common technique Essential diagnostic tool for many different upper respiratory tract infections Different pathogens require different swab sites

The roles of each part of conducting zone? bronchi

The Bronchi Are Passageways That Bring Air In and Out of the Lungs. The tubes of the primary bronchi branch off from the bottom of the trachea. These branches subdivide further into secondary and tertiary bronchi and then into the bronchioles.

Explain the effects of exercise and training on the cardiovascular system

The aim is to increase the blood flow to the limbs (or exercising muscle) Achieved by : Increase cardiac output - product of heart rate and stroke volume Pressures can change but due to peripheral vasodilation the overall blood pressure doesn't change too much during exercise Increase oxygen carried in blood - more o2 or red blood cells Horses release of red blood cells from the spleen increases oxygen carriage (but also velocity) Redistribute blood flow - ie to muscles needing it Not GIT

Describe the fate of each of the embryological aortic arches.

The aortic artery divides into the right and left dorsal branches Each branch feeds into a set of arches which are unique to the embryo Most higher vertebrates have 6 pairs of aortic arches Arches 1 & 2 Arches 1 and 2 degenerate completely, the dorsal Aorta that runs between arches 3 and 4 degenerates on both the left and right sides. Arch 3 The third arches form the internal carotid arteries. Arch 4 The left fourth aortic arch contributes to the arch of the aorta. The right fourth aortic arch forms the proximal segment of the right subclavian artery. Arch 5 The fifth aortic arches are never present in the mammal. Arch 6 The proximal segment of the right sixth aortic arch forms part of the right pulmonary artery while the distal segment atrophies. The proximal segment of the left sixth arch forms part of the pulmonary artery while the distal segment forms the ductus arteriosus. These changes occur in the third and fourth weeks of gestation, at which point the foetal circulation begins to resemble that of the adult.

why may bacteriology from swabs not be conclusive?

The bacteria of the respiratory tract : Exist in mixed populations and may be present whether disease is there or not so therefore bacteriology from swabs may not be conclusive

factors that can impact on host defence

The balance can be tipped in favour of disease by: environmental factors, intercurrent disease, environmental change

structure of vascular tree

The blood is sent "in parallel": each tissue receives fresh blood from the heart and not from other tissues

Compare the skeleton of the distal limb between different species

The different species have difference in ray patterns The cow and pig have different numbers of meta carpal bones The dog has 1-5 and the horse has 2-4 the ox 3-4 has and the pig has 2-5

Describe the functional groups of muscles that control laryngeal function and their effect on airway resistance

The extrinsic laryngeal muscles (the thyrohyoid and the sternothyroid) change the position of the larynx in the neck by raising or lowering the thyroid cartilage During respiration the larynx widens the diameter of the airway via abduction of the true vocal folds, exponentially decreasing airway resistance while maximizing flow = by the intrisic laryngeal muscles

oestrus ovis (sheep/goat) = bot fly

The fly is like a bee in size Larval stage will mature to maggot and will live mainly in sinuses in sheep Causing irritation as bodies covered with minute spines and obstruct airways They drop on the ground forming pupae and another fly will form from this Myiasis - infection of live tissue with maggot It is less common due to antiparasitic drugs like ivermectin Nasopharyngeal Myiasis Fly deposits larvae in or around nostrils of host Pathology associated with mucous membranes in nasal cavity and sinuses - ' Strike ' in rabbits and sheep

strabismus

The inability to align both eyes, often referred to as 'cross eyed'

suspensory apparatus

The interosseous in the horse is also known as the third interosseous muscle as third digit or the suspensory ligament (SL) Forms part of the suspensory apparatus of the fetlock joint

The roles of each part of conducting zone? larynx

The larynx (voice box) is the area that connects the throat to the windpipe (trachea). Without it, we would hardly be able to sing or speak. It also keeps food and drink out of the windpipe.

Consider two major mucosal sites that have a highly vascularised blood supply and pose routes to infection of the blood and then systemic sites ?

The lungs alveoli Infection in the lung may be a route to get into oxygen supply The gastrointestinal tract Blood supply is there for the uptake of nutrients Infection of the mucosa of the GI tract posses a risk for further systemic infection Here the blood goes to the liver and spleen which is why we get a few infections from GI tract which spread to liver and spleen

Explain the function of the Na+/K+ ATPase, sodium, potassium and calcium channels

The membrane is very permeable to Na+ Movement of potassium out of the cell is due to the force of diffusion as potassium is concentrated within the axon - electrostatic pressure forces potassium inside Na+ diffuses into cell due to negative charges in axon NaK pump pushes sodium out of the axon continuously (energy by ATP)A smaller amount of K enters cell in exchange for sodium

What is the effect of osmolarity/water potential on bacterial growth?

The membrane of bacteria is semi-permeable Bacteria need to balance their water potential to excessive movement of water in or out of the cell. Bacteria accumulate or loose solutes to balance the water potential across the membrane. Bacteria prefer to maintain a slight positive pressure- an inflow of water which is resisted by the cell wall.

Construct a logical approach to performing nerve blocks in the horse

The nerve block should be carried out palmarly first and then abaxially 15 minute wait time after each nerve block injection to ensure sedation is full If the lameness is still present at palmar but redundant at abaxial then the lameness can be isolated to a site below the fetlock joint but above the back of the foot.

physiological nystagmus

The oculovestibular response demonstrates a physiological nystagmus. If the head is rotated from side to side there should be an induced nystagmus visible rather than just "doll's eye" movement of the eyes with the head.

nasal vestibule

The opening of the nasal cavity Contains the opening of the nasolacrimal duct Visible just inside ventral surface Receives nasal gland secretions in dogs

palpebral response

The palpebral response can be elicited by gently touching the region of the medial canthus of the eye and demonstrating an active blink. Afferent nervous supply is the TRIGEMINAL nerve Efferent nervous supply is the FACIAL nerve

effect of the SNS on the lungs

The parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) releases the hormone acetylcholine to slow the heart rate.

Explain how the structure of the equine foot relates to its weight-bearing function

The pedal bone is suspended by the suspensory ligament and fat cushioning below P3

The roles of each part of conducting zone? the pharynx

The pharynx acts as a passageway for food on its way to the stomach and for air on route to the lungs. The mucosal epithelium in the pharynx is thicker than elsewhere in the respiratory tract as it has to protect the tissues from any abrasive and chemical trauma caused by food

portal system main advantage of this

The portal system : few organs are connected 'in series' they obtain their blood from the venous outflow of another organ so 'second hand' blood The main advantage to this is transports a solute from one place to the other without dilation in the general circulation

ferritin

The primary intracellular iron - storage protein keeping iron in a soluble and non-toxic form which releases iron in a controlled fashion. It is a buffer against iron deficiency and iron overload

primitive development vs later development

The primitive development : atria, SA valves, AV valves, semilunar valves Later development - two ventricles, truncus arteriosus into Ao and PA and vena cavae

what happens when a base is added to the body

The respiratory rate is reduced and carbon dioxide is retained

mediastinum structure and contents

The space between the left and right pleural sacs Midline of thorax, extends from the thoracic inlet to the diaphragm Contains = heart, thymus, portion of oesophagus, trachea, blood vessels and nerves

What parts of the brain stem control pain pathwyas?

The spinothalamic tract for pain and temperature sensation All information relayed from the body to cerebrum and cerebellum traverse the brainstem The ascending pathways from body to the brain are sensory pathways

the theory of recapitulation fish, amphibians and reptiles

The stages of the mammalian heart goes through during embryological development are evident in the CV systems of fish, amphibians and reptiles

outline the three stages of haemostasis

The stages run one to the other and feedback to each other. Primary- initial response to endothelial damage, local vasoconstriction, formation of the platelet plug. Secondary- strengthening and reinforcement of the platelet plug, formation of a stable fibrin clot. Tertiary- removal of fibrin by fibrinolysis, restore vessel patency (i.e.open/unblocked).

what is exercise physiology

The study of short and long term adaptations In response to exercise that can encompass physiology of : the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, muscular systems, biomechanics, thermoregulation, haematology, nutrition and water

swinging light test

The swinging light test allows you to test the integrity of both the direct and consensual PLR pathways in an easy manner. In a darkened room swing the light rapidly from eye to eye stopping for several seconds on each eye.

what is the sympathetic nervous system effect on heart

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) releases the hormones (catecholamines - epinephrine and norepinephrine) to accelerate the heart rate. Increased cardiac contractility, reduced venous capacitance and peripheral vasoconstriction

Describe the main features of the pad and claws of the dog and cat

The toenail, or claw, emerges from the end of each toe. The foot also has cushiony pads for each toe and two larger pads farther up the paw Rough surface to pads. Dogs' toenails have a blood supply or quick, but the end of the nails are dead tissue. Dogs perspire through their pads. Pads provide both traction and shock absorption Dogs have scent glands on the bottoms of their feet that allow them leave a mark that can be seen and sensed by other animals. A dog's claws are fairly strong. They help the dog to run and maneuver, to dig and they do offer some protection. cats There are five digits, or toes, on each front foot, and four on each back foot - dewclaws on front which is useful for hunting Sweat comes from cat paws if stressed there not great for cooling the body down Act as shock absorbers and sensors as have more many nerve receptors

Describe the main features of the pad and claws of the dog and cat

The toenail, or claw, emerges from the end of each toe.The foot also has cushiony pads for each toe and two larger pads farther up the paw Rough surface to pads. Dogs' toenails have a blood supply or quick, but the end of the nails are dead tissue. Dogs perspire through their pads. Pads provide both traction and shock absorption Dogs have scent glands on the bottoms of their feet that allow them leave a mark that can be seen and sensed by other animals. A dog's claws are fairly strong. They help the dog to run and manoeuvre, to dig and they do offer some protection. cats There are five digits, or toes, on each front foot, and four on each back foot - dewclaws on the front which is useful for hunting Sweat comes from cat paws if stressed there not great for cooling the body down Act as shock absorbers and sensors as have more many nerve receptors

Nasotracheal Arthropods of Animals

The tongue worm - Linguatula serrata The bot fly - Oestrus ovis The nasal mite - Pneumonyssus caninum

The roles of each part of conducting zone? trachea

The trachea serves as passage for air, moistens and warms it while it passes into the lungs, and protects the respiratory surface from an accumulation of foreign particles.

umbilical vein fetal role and remanant

The umbilical vein carries oxygenated, nutrient-rich blood from the placenta to the fetus, Fibrous cord called the round ligament of the liver - ligamentum teres hepatis

Describe the components (epidermal-dermal and endochondral) of the chelonian shell and its relationship to the axial skeleton?

The vertebral column forms the under the surface of the carapace it is made up of dermal and endochondral bone - metabolically active with blood and nerve supply, turtle shell attached to axial skeleton it is formed of scutes which are the epidermis

retroviruses - group VI

The viral RNA is reverse transcribed into a complimentary DNA cDNA This integrates into the chromosome of the host cell by viral integrase enzyme This is termed proviral DNA The integrated DNA then produces RNA and protein using normal cell machinery

anatomical dead space

The volume of the conducting airways not available for gaseous exchange

three rules for paranasal sinuses

There are seven individual sinuses Appreciate that all paranasal sinuses drain via a common ostium - the single drainage angle Understand that the seven sinus spaces are arranged in two groups which drain via their own individual nasomaxillary apertures 2 rostral group 5 caudal group

Anatomy of the ribs

There is a dorsal bony part and a cartilaginous ventral part articulating at a costo-chondral junction Head with 2 articular facets (for articulation with vertebrae) Neck Tubercle with facet (for articulation with transverse process of the more caudal vertebra) True ribs - articulate directly with the sternum False ribs - articulating indirectly through connection of the cartilage with that in front - costal arch Dog = 13 (9 sternal, 4 asternal), Cat = 13, Cow = 13 - 8S,5ASternal

Describe the differences in the great vessels of the heart in the pig compared to the dog

There is a left azygous vein which branches off the caudal vena cava. The left and right common carotid arteries branch later off the brachiocephalic trunk resulting in a section of the brachiocephalic trunk called the bicarotid trunk.

palmar digital nerve block what nerve are these branches of what are the palpable landmarks for this technique how should you check you're not in a vessel what structures are desensitised with this block ?

These nerves are branches off of the median nerve, which splits in the medial and lateral palmer nerve respectively, and then once it reaches the digits it is termed as the dorsal and medial digital branches. The vascular bundle as well as the vein can be palpated in the pastern region abaxial to the flexor tendons. Aspiration before injection; attempt to suck some blood back through the needle and if there is none then it is successful. All structures of the hoof aside from the distal coronary band.

Abaxial sesamoid nerve block What nerve are these branches of? What are the palpable landmarks for this technique? What structures are desensitised with this block?

These nerves are still branches of the median nerve, specifically the medial palmer nerve again. The vascular bundles and associated nerves can be palpated over the pastern joint with the sesamoid bones as they run over their abaxial surface. Structures below including the digits are desensitised, excluding the dorsal aspect of the pastern.

benzodiazepines (BZDs)

They activate a specific receptor that facilitates inhibitory GABAergic transmissioneg alprazolam, lorazepam, diazepam and oxazepamenhances the response to GABA as it facilitates the opening of GABA-activated chloride channels

classification of viruses

They are grouped together based on similarity of genome sequence

What are toxins?

They are proteins formed as a precursor then cleavage by a proteases lead to activation They are defined by antigenic types Some target species correlation for toxin antigen types Potentially fatal The toxins act at very low doses

Specify the anticonvulsant drugs mainly used in the treatment of epilepsy in small animals Drugs with Increased inhibitory function

They restore the balance predominantly by facilitation of inhibitory activity Benzodiazepine, barbiturates Potentiates endogenous GABA Vigabatrin GABA transaminase inhibition causing GABA build up Gabapentin Triggered GABA release from presynaptic terminal Bromide Increased hyperpolarization - ion competition with chloride through channels Imepitoin Partial agonist at GABA-A receptor

What is the role of autorhythmic cells

They spontaneously generate APs and undergo slow depolarization until threshold is reached - these occur most rapidly in the SA node Monocytes can be divided into working cells with resting Vm or pacemaker/autorhythmic cells with unstable Vm Vm = membrane potential

manifestations of osteochondrosis

Thickened cartilage Radiographically evident defect in subchondral bone contour as can't see cartilage May heal on its own Intra-articular cartilage fragments (OCD) May ossify within the joint after separation Subchondral bone cysts May follow on from ischaemic chondronecrosis lesion Can also be secondary to trauma

Describe the radiographic appearance of interstitial pattern in the lungs and the two types

Thickening/infiltration of supporting tissues. Diffuse (unstructured/fine structured)- all tissue- fibrosis (old age), interstitial oedema, interstitial haemorrhage, under-inflation/under-exposure. Nodular- neoplasia, metastatic disease, tumours- mist- can still see the outlines of the cardiac silhouette and lungs. Cancerous cells arrive in interstitial tissue and will show few respiratory signs.

Describe the concept of upper and lower motor neuron lesions

Thinking of UMNs as central motor neurons and LMNs as peripheral motor neurons may facilitate understanding as to where lesion is sited from what dysfunction has been caused neurological RAT SIGN Reflexes, Atrophy and Tone UMN reflexes - normal to increased, atrophy - disuse: mild generalised, tone - normal to increased LMN reflexes - decreased to absent, atrophy - neurogenic : severe, specific muscles, tone - decreased to absent

competitive antagonist

This binds to receptor in the agonist binding pocket Surmountable Reversible Affectively blocking agents

what do chemical signals that are relased by cells that have been damaged by injury or invasion do?

This causes dilation of local blood vessels Increases the blood flow to the injured area Causes the redness and heat associated with inflammation Makes it an unfavourable environment for microorganisms Eg histamine, prostaglandins and cytokines

what is agar

This is a solid culture medium which fixates the bacteria so they can grow in separate colonies. It also contains various nutrients which are essential for bacterial growth. Contains organic nitrogen, vitamins, carbohydrates, nitrogen and salts

perfrom a musculoskeletal examination of the equine distal limb

This is all about flexing and extending the specific joints of the horse whilst being careful of your safety and the horses pain levels. It is used frequently in lameness examination particularly flexion tests where the horses joint eg fetlock is held in a flexed position for roughly 30-60 seconds and then put down gently and immediately followed by trotting up the horse. This will give clearer recognition of lameness as it will be more visible

how would you isolate to single bacteria-isolates on a solid media?

This is requires to be able to fully describe a bacterium. It is carried out on sterile media using aseptic techniques and the loop should be flamed.

erythrocyte breakdown

This is showing erythrocyte breakdown The body tries to recycle as much products as possible Phagocytosed by the macrophage and broken down into globin and haem part Amino acids are then returned to blood stream Bilirubin excreted in bile Iron for production of erythrocytes

What parts of the brain stem control respiration?

This is within the lower half of the brain stem as the respiratory centre is located in the medulla oblongata

M mode ultrasound

This measures movement along a single plain Single plan against TIME Used to assess cardiac function Contractility Valve movement

fibrous cardiac skeleton

This separates atria and ventricles They are electrically isolated through each other - only way through is via AV bundle Ossa cordis in some species Bits of fibrous skeleton ossify getting a bone

Most important tests in potentially septic foal?

Thoracic radiography Maternal antibody transfer test Blood culture for bacteria

major fetal vessels and what do they do

Three key shunts Ductus venosus Foramen ovale Ductus arteriosus a passage or anastomosis between two natural channels such as blood vessels

three to five components of frontal sinus

Three to five components: Unconnected drain into ethmoidal region Cattle (5): One larger caudal compartment (green) leads to cornual process and pneumatises the horn. Dogs (3): Lateral compartment largest. May include the zygomatic process. Pig: Very extensive cavity.

Describe tests used to assess tertiary haemostasis

Thrombin clot time- assesses the ability of added thrombin to convert fibrinogen to fibrin. Tertiary haemostasis. FDPs/D-dimers- latex agglutination test, tertiary.

Describe the disorders of primary haemostasis

Thrombocytopenia- abnormally low platelet count- decreased production, increased destruction/consumption. Reference: 150-400 x109/L (dogs), <100: thrombocytopenia, 50: haemorrhage may beinduced- injury/surgery, <30: spontaneous haemorrhage Thrombocytopathy- abnormal platelet function, e.g. von Willebrand's disease- deficiency in von Willebrand factor- more common in some breeds such as Rottweilers, might want to test with BMBT prior to surgery. Vascular defects

vascular ultrasound

Thrombus in the jugular vein Maturing and developing Normal blood is more grey Dependent on flow speed

thymic education

Thymic education Begins during foetal life Continues for first couple months of life Thymus involutes (shrinks) = the lymphoid tissues become replaced by adipose and connective tissue This displaces a lot of lymphoid tissue so thymus is no longer active for thymic education

owl hearing adaptations

Tightly packed rim of facial feathers collect and direct sounds to external auditory meatus Left and right external auditory meatuses are different size and shapes helping the nerve system localise sounds Hearing Asymmetry enables precise pinpointing of prey Intensity and timing of sounds Horizontal and vertical planes of sounds established

What is the function of the cardiovascular system?

To deliver oxygenated blood to the tissues and to remove carbon dioxide

toxocara

Transmission can happen in utera from placenta to unborn pups or suckling milk or by ingesting larvated egg Paratenic host High zoonotic infection - human are accidental host and non-permissive host can cause ocular larva migrans

Define the functional role of the heart in the mammalian circulatory system and the major anatomical features of this organ that ensure optimisation of that role

Transport = Nutrients, waste, oxygen and carbon dioxide, heat and hormones Protective = Carries WBC and Ig Homeostasis = pH, ions, fluid volume Pressure

normal ECG dog - P wave

Travels towards apex of the heart Positive deflection within leads More lead two Once atrium have depolarised Conduction gets conducting through AV node through bundle branches and then into the Purkinje fibres = Has to happen in normal manner to give normal depolarisation and contraction of myocardium

what has increased bovine lungworm in the UK

Treatment is anthelmintic treatment eg ivermectin Increased reliance of anthelmintics instead of vaccination compromises the build up of immunological responses Survival of L3 on pasture due to climate change

true lungworm vs nontrue longworm

True lungworm: residing tissue for adults are lungs - find their habitat in the lung Nontrue lungworm: worms which have only a lung phase but which not lungworms - residing tissue for adults are not lungs (commonly intestine)

turbinates

Turbinates - further subdivisions Delicate scrolls in three groups : Ectoturbinates Within the frontal sinus 6 in dogs, 20-30 in horses Endoturbinates In nasal cavity , 6 Attached to cribriform plate caudally Maxilloturbinates In nasal cavity , paired, attached to wall of maxilla Forms the ventral concha

VQ mismatch consequence

Two different areas of the lung Top part is an area of high VQ ratio And the bottom part of low VQ ratio When blood splits into the area it splits unevenly Larger amount goes through the area of low VQ The blood flowing through the area of high VQ because there is not much perfusion and lots of ventilation - 98% The blood flowing the through area of low VQ is opposite - 80% What happens when they come back together ? Many more blood cells that are saturated to 80% than there are to 98% The mean would be 89% but that's not what happens Weighted much more to the 80% as many more Roughly 85% saturation

reciprocal apparatus

Two tendinous cords cause united movement of the stifle and hock The tendons are =Peroneus tertius (front) =Superficial digital flexor (back) Anytime we're going to extend the stifle pulley structure acts on tarsus Flexion of stifle - bend of femur and pull up the hock and metatarsus Allows powerful extensor muscles sited proximally to act upon the distal limb Due to the interaction of muscles and tendons the stifle and the hock joint can only be flexed or extended simultaneously. This mechanism together with the stifle locking mechanism is responsible for the passive stay apparatus.

List the two types of cutaneous pain and relate their speed and quality of effect to the type of endings and axons which mediate them

Two types of pain - fast and slow A fibres = fast conduction, myelinated, well localised sharp pain tend to be larger in diameter C fibres = slow, unmyelinated, dull aching pain, not well localised

hearing in reptiles

Tympanic membrane level with skin in most species (Not snakes, chameleon) 1 middle ear bone : stapes (columella) that connects the tympanic membrane to inner ear Vibrations : air or ground = tympanic membraneà = stapes(columella) = perilymphatic fluid (inner ear)

phagocytosis

Types of white blood cells that are attracted to damaged areas: - Neutrophils - Monocytes They are said to be phagocytic : they remove bacteria and debris by engulfing or swallowing them

UMNs vs LMNs

UMNs are the manages and may be considered as the 'central motor neurones' due to their location LMNs are the workers and may be considered as the 'peripheral motor neurones'

Cannot get oxygen to the lungs causing hypoxia

URT obstruction Depends on severity as to whether the oxygen is reduced or can't get to lungs Pneumothorax Air has reached the lungs but escapes between the space between the lung and chest wall Tracheal collapse

corneal ulcers

Ulcer - discontinuity or break in bodily membrane Corneal ulcer - break in continuity of corneal epithelium with exposure of underlying stroma Causes Lid lesions Eyelash lesions eg ectopic cilium Trauma - lacerations, abrasions, foreign body Dystrophies/degenerations Infections Keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS) Decemen's membrane can bulge up which is extremely serious there are many different types of ulcers

ultrasound of the lungs

Ultrasound cannot penetrate gas Nothing in between pleura and lung surface unless there is effusion can identify lung space, pleura and pleural space Inflammation of pleura will appear roughened

fate shunt 1 : ductus venosus

Umbilical cord is ligated as placenta detaches There is no blood in umbilical vein therefore the ductus venosus sphincter constricts The blood is diverted through the liver Remnant = ligamentum venosum No ventilation, equals no clearance Changes in prostaglandin levels due to breathing - vasoconstrictor levels high (noradrenaline) which facilitates constriction of shunts

summary of journey of vagus up to abdomen

Vagus gone from brain out through jugular foramen In the neck it has joined our vagosympathetic trunk Carried on through trunk sympathetic system disappeared Vagus carries on into the thorax where the laryngeal nerve leaves to the larynx Vagus goes through oesophageal hiatus from the thorax to the diagram into abdomen

polymerase enzymes

Viral replications - needs to exploit normal cell processes They are enzymes that replicate viral genetic material to produce mRNA (protein) and genomic nucleic acid Provided by cell Provided by virus Virus supplies polymerase if not provided by cell

how are positive sense ssRNA viruses produced?

Virus RNA can act directly as mRNA- so genome is directly infectious. RNA translated to produce a single polyprotein. Protein cleaved by viral proteases. Genome replicated by viral polymerase via negative sense strand template. e.g. picornaviruses- foot and mouth virus

How are negative sense ssRNA viruses produced?

Virus RNA cannot act directly as mRNA. Virions contain (and genome encodes for) RNA dependent RNA polymerase Generates +ve sense mRNA Genome also replicated by viral RNA polymerase, via +ve sense intermediate Typically replicate in the cytoplasm (there are exceptions) E.g. orthomyxovirus- influenza A has segmented genome with 8 segments which encode different proteins

use of stains on bacteria

Visualisation of microorganisms requires stains as they are translucent. Stains can allow separation into specific groups for diagnostic purposes (image 1 of infected urine sample) A counter stain is a second stain used to contrast parts not retaining the first stain (images 3+4). Some capsules block stains and lead to a halo effect (image 2)

Energy supply diagram

We work on ATP. Pyruvate and lactate which goes through adaptive phosphorylation generating ATP As soon as there is not enough oxygen to generate it Not enough energy made and is relatively inefficient and generates lactate

6 yr old labrador

We're not worried about oxygenation in the Labrador The pH is a little low Carbon dioxide most deviated from normal Is it acute or chronic? We're looking at the magnitude of change The carbon dioxide has gone up by 30 We can look down the table and see this is a acute problem

Rabies virus - nucleic acid? - how spread incubation period what type of neurological infection do they cause?

What nucleic acid type are Rabies viruses? Single stranded RNA genome of negative polarity encased in a ribonucleoprotein complex How are they spread? Replication occurs in the cytoplasm Newly synthesize nucleocapsids acquire envelopes from the plasma membrane as virions bud from the cell Incubation period time between infection and signs of neurological involvement is between 14-90 days What type of neurological infection do they cause? Encephalitis

pharmacokinetics

What the body does to the drug or movement of drugs within the body Plasma concentration of particular drug Want to be in level of effectiveness but not toxic

pharmacodynamics

What the drug does to the body The action of the drug: Almost always targets protein eg enzyme or ion channel what is the response? Might be to reduce inflammation The response will have a dose element to it - smaller dose smaller response

limbus

Where cornea, sclera and bulbar conjunctiva merge Source of stem cells for the cornea Tenon's capsule = connective tissue sheath that connects bulbar conjunctiva to underlying sclera. Binds everything together Episclera = dense, highly vascular fibrous layer, binds Tenon's capsule to sclera The cornea is slightly larger horizontal than vertical Thickness is 0.5-0.8mm

gular flutter in birds

Where the base of the beak attaches to the neck : gular skin Featherless area Used as a flap or a pouch Results in the heat loss from the mucous membrane lining the throat - flutter Can account for 35% heat loss

alveolar wall

Which layers does oxygen diffuse through to reach the lung capillaries? The walls of the alveoli share a membrane with the capillaries That is how oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse Oxygen diffuses across the respiratory membrane from the alveoli into the blood Therefore carbon dioxide can diffuse across the respiratory membrane from the blood into the alveoli Which cells produce surfactant? Type II alveolar cells They are also called pneumocytes This substance lowers surface tension which keeps the alveoli from collapsing after exhalation makes breathing easier

what causes airway inflammation

With prolonged exposure to irritants we get narrowed airways with increased smooth muscle constriction and increased resistance

what happens when acid load is being added to the body

Within the blood it combines with carbonate making carbon dioxide which stimulates the chemoreceptors to increase respiration and carbon dioxide is breathed out

myocardium depolarises

Within the ventricles tends to depolarise from endocardium to epicardium Inside out Happens initially at the apex of the heart Resultant dipole points in direction of apex of the heart Gives a R wave in ECG

mast cells

Within tissue, role in inflammation Response to allergens - release histamine

how do viruses hijack host cell machinery to form viral replication factories to enhance viral propagation?

[specialised membranous compartments] - increase local concentration of host and oral factors required - protected environment shielding viral RNA and proteins from degradative environment - coordinates different processes of the viral lifecycle

What do capillary endothelial cells provide?

a barrier of entry of materials to the brain/CNS from blood - also known as BBB prevents cells, toxins and pathogens from entering the brain regulates transport of molecules into and out of the CNS

what happens to hypoxic tissues (from a lack of oxygen)

a carbohydrate (2,3 - diphosphoglycerate) is released = that facilitates release of oxygen from erythrocytes

antiviral immunity

a combination of innate and adaptive immune response mechanisms that works to eliminate viral infection

partial agonist

a drug that binds to a receptor and causes a response that is less than that caused by a full agonist in between full agonist and antagonist = equally partial antagonist in the presence of agonist

define fear and anxiety

a feeling of apprehension in response to an object or circumstance with respect to their proximity or presence apprehensive anticipation of future danger or misfortune accompanied by a feeling of dysphoriaAnxiety can provide protection:Freezing or immobilityEscape or avoidanceAggressive defenceSubmission or appeasement

explain the concept of a spinal segment

a portion of the spinal cord that gives rise to a pair of spinal nerves, where each is attached to the spinal cord at the dorsal and ventral rootsThere are 31 segments due to the 31 pairs of nerves exiting the spinal cord through the intervertebral foramen

T cell receptor

a protein complex that transmits information from outside the cell to the inside Binds with MHC 1 or MHC 2 (major histocompatibility complex) receptors on other cells

define emotion

a strong or instinctive feeling related to ones circumstances, mood or relationships with others

antigen

a substance that when introduced into the body stimulates the prodcution of an antigen toxins, bacteria, foreign blood cells and the cells of transplanted organs

what are CAMP tests used for?

a test to identify group B β-hemolytic streptococci (Streptococcus agalactiae) based on their formation of a substance (CAMP factor) that enlarges the area of haemolysis formed by the β-haemolysing elaborated from Staphylococcus aureus Which streptococci is used to identify? Haemolytic

Describe the cardiac events occurring at the sections of the venous pulse:

a wave- due to active atrial contraction leading to backwards blood flow into neck veins c wave- due to impact of the carotid artery adjacent to the jugular vein and backwards transmission of a positive wave in the right atrium produced by the right ventricular systole and the bulging of the tricuspid valve into the right atrium. x descent- due to continued atrial relaxation. v wave- due to passive atrial filling (venous filling). y descent- due to opening of tricuspid valve and subsequent rapid inflow of blood from right atrium into the right ventricle leading to a sudden fall in right atrial pressure.

ACTH function

acts upon adrenal cortex after it has entered the blood and causes release of corticosteroid eg cortisol referred to as an axis - all of these glands are connected in function

what are the advantages/disadvantages of synaptic transmission?

advantages does not involve change in chemical concentration schemical messenger across short synaptic cleft no dilution in general circulation system reacts quickly disadvantages specificity hardwiring is expensive possibly vulnerable

animals experiencing pulmonary disease

alpacas, cattle, horses, Bos taurus cattle, Horses and humans have intermediate effects. European breads of cattle, pigs and black headed turkeys are most sensitive sheep, goats, rabbits, guinea pigs dogs, cats and South American camelids are resistant

effect of noradrenaline on a1-a2 and b1-b3

alpha 1 Blood vessels Constriction Agonist: Phenylephine Antagonist: Prazosin, phentolamine alpha 2 Blood vessels Constriction/ relaxation Pre-synaptic Inhibition of NA release Agonist: clonidine Antagonist: Yohimbine, phentolamine beta 1 HEART Increased heart rate Increased contractility Agonist: Dobutamine, Isoproterenol Antagonist: Atenolol, propanolol beta 2 Blood vessels Relaxation Airways Relaxation Agonist: Salbutamol, Isoproterenol Antagonist: Propanolol beta 3Metabolic effects

Neurotransmitters examples principles

amino acids (aspirate, glutamate, GABA), acetylcholine, monoamines, neuropeptide Packaged in to vesicles Presynaptic membrane depolarises due to action potential Voltage dependent channels opening Allows calcium in which triggers fusion of vesicles in presynaptic side Which leads to neurotransmitter release Binding at post and pre synaptic sides Deactivation

pneumothorax

an accumulation of air in the pleural space and is a frequent cause of dyspnoea in cats and dogs. Causes an increase in intrathoracic pressure and collapse of the lungs causes blunt trauma, penetration wounds, infections, ruptured lung abscess

Ectotherm

an animal that is dependent on external sources of body heat

Endotherm

an animal that is dependent on or capable of the internal generation of heat

what are adherent junctions?

anchoring - cells must bind to each other and to connective tissue to assure tissue cohesion

beta blockers

antagonists to B1 receptor and cAMP They try to slow the process and try and block neuroreceptors or adrenoreceptors Propranolol / esmolol

how does antibiotic use lead to increased antibiotic resistance?

antibiotics are an environmental stress selection pressure get rid of all bacteria with low level of resistance If the remaining bacteria are not eliminated by immune system they will continue to grow and the next generation is highly resistant

recurrent (or caudal) laryngeal nerve (XI)

ascends the neck after leaving the vagus innervation of all laryngeal muscles except - cricothyroideus

left atrium

beginning Not on the left it is dorsal and caudal Underneath the tracheal birfurcation Pulmonary veins enter into the left atrium in groups of 2 or 3 sites

Temporomandibular joint

between condylar process of mandible and madibular fossa of temporal bone

how does benzodiazepines work

bind to a regulatory site on the receptor which is distinct from the GABA binding siteIncreases the want for GABA for the receptor by acting allosterically

Somite

blocks of mesoderm located on either side of neural tube in developing embryo

spectral doppler

blood flow can be assessed using different techniques = pulsed wave which records velocity from a single location = continous wave records velocity along a specific line = colour flow doppler records velocity in a specific area flow is proportional to pressure difference

invasive measurement of measuring the arterial blood pressure

blood into an artery (dorsal metatarsal artery), tubing filled with saline going to transducer measuring the pressure in the dogs artery

what does oxygenation of the arterial blood in the tissues reflect

blood pressure, heart function (contractility and heart rate), lung function and breathing

If D.immitis infection in cats predominantly presents as lung disease what other diagnostic tests may we need to do?

bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) is a valuable diagnostic tool for the evaluation of cats with lower respiratory tract disease

describe how a limb bud forms

bud grows cells differentiate cartilaginous structures appear proximal structures develop first starts with proliferation of skeletal precursors from the lateral plate and muscle precursors from somites cells accumulate under ectoderm which creates a bulge = limb bud thickening of the ectoderm at tip of limb bud is controlled by apical ectodermal ridge (AER)the distal part of mesenchyme extends the limb bud by proliferation under control of AER - progress zone

caudal colliculus

builders bum Auditory information coordinates head/ear/neck muscles to orientate the animal's head towards sound source Responsible for coordination

what is the blood pressure monitored by

by baroreceptors and chemoreceptors located in carotid sinus and aortic arch and the information integrated in the medulla oblongata Baroreceptors sensitive to stretch Chemoreceptors sensitive to pO2 and pCO2 changes

how can arterial pressure be measured?

by sphygmomanometer (non invasive) in dogs, cats, pigs and horses and invasive methods (direct) with fluid filled catheter

panniculus response

can be stimulated by a gentle pinch to the skin resulting in a twitch of the cutaneous trunci muscle In the dog this is demonstrable from the level of the scapula to the pelvi

pulmonary hypotension summary

can result in the development of pulmonary oedema as fluid gets pushed from those capillaries that are under pressure into the alveoli. The pulmonary hypertension can back up causing thickening of right ventricular myocardium - right ventricular hypertrophy and then if we begin to get dilation and poor contractility causes right sided heart failure. Cerebral oedema due to vasodilation in response to hypoxia. Hypoxia also triggers the kidney to release EPO increases RBC numbers. Can also see prevention of maturation of the foetal to adult circulation

protein buffers when there is an increase in pH - becomes more alkali

carboxyl group - dissociate and act as a weak acid releasing H+, becomes carboxylate ion -COO eg histidine and cysteine amino acids are important H+ donors

Identify and describe the bones and joints in the distal limb

carpal - metacarpal joint, metacarpo-phalangeal joint (fetlock), proximal interphalangeal joint (pastern) and distal interphalangeal (coffin)

The vagus nerve

carries all the parasympathetic supply to thorax and abdomen 10 the cranial nerve exists as a series of rootlets from lateral surface of medulla oblongata Exit - exits skull through jugular foramen with cranial nerves XI an IXAlso picks up fibres from CN XI which are destined to be in recurrent laryngeal nerve sensory supply ear skin and larynxGut distention, pain, blood pressureTaste (caudal tongue/cranial larynx) motor supply Parasympathetic organs and glandsMotor to larynx and pharynx

function of the peripheral nervous system?

carry impulses or messages to and from the Central Nervous SystemNerves outside of skull and spinal protectionIncludes all cranial nerves except optic nerves

feline heartworm

causes acute lung injury in cats

drug targets for antibiotics?

cell wall synthesis, cell membrane function, nucleic acid synthesis, protein synthesis

hindlimb adaptations in horses?

coiled spring shape providing forward impulsion of the horse, Stay apparatus It is a stifle locking mechanism Reciprocal apparatus Suspensory apparatus The animal needs to be ready to run works with reciprocal apparatus Rigidity of leg without using muscular force medial patella ligament allows patella to become locked over the trochlear ridge stifle becomes locked in extension - holding hock as well

fetal lungs

collapsed, unnecessary, have high resistance pulmonary artery won't be pumping blood to it due to it being high resistance

what are gap junctions? what is controlled by gap junctions? what are the physical properties of gap junctions? what do gap junctions allow? what are gap junctions essential in?

communicating - cells must communicate with each other what is controlled by gap junctions? cells from the body must communicate efficiently which is controlled by gap junctions - adjacent cells communicated what are the physical properties of gap junctions? aqueous channels allowing small molecules to pass between two adjacent cells what do gap junctions allow? movement of ions and movement of metabolites and intracellular signlaling molecules such as cAMP what are gap junctions essential in? embryonic development

arterioles

composed of smooth muscle cells, these cells can contract diminishing the radius of arterioles Decrease in the radius results in a corresponding increase in blood pressure The contraction of the arterioles regulates the blood pressure and they provide the resistance to blood flow

two main types of asexual spore:

conidia formed on conidiophores and sporangiospores formed on sporangiophores in dermatophytes (skin infecting fungi) you get macroconidia and macroconidia

what is the epitenon?

connective tissue sheath which defines the tendon unit

submucosa

contains numerous mixed seromucinous glands which decrease in number in the lower trachea,

Apoptosis

controlled death of cells

function of central nervous system?

controls the function of the body and mind Spinal cord Evolution causes limbs to become detached at the skull Muscles can move during evolution but the nerve connections remain the same - some can take odd routes to maintain this Adaptation for running over land/endurance is the lack of movement in the head and neck in order to conserve energy

cortisol

corticosteroid hormone that is produced by adrenal cortex in the adrenal gland It increases blood pressure, blood sugar levels and has an immunosuppressive action

Define the main divisions of the peripheral nervous system?

cranial nerves spinal nerves autonomics

what is the main supply to distal hindlimb?

cranial tibial artery which continues as the dorsal metatarsal artery

what are the characteristics of the process of somitogenesis (how is it formed but not process)?

cranio-caudallyregular and coordinatedsynchronous with neuralationappear at same time

closes the glottis

cricoarytenoideus lateralis

what is the critical point to sleepfull ness/wakefullness

critical point is switch in this mechanism of the level of activity of the inhibitory neurones in the locus ceruleus and dorsal raphe nucleus

horner's syndrome

describes a dysfunction of the sympathetic nervous supply to the eye. Ptosis, Miosis (excessive constriction), Enophthalmos Ipsilateral excessive sweating Angle of eyelid Ipsilateral dry nose is an indicator for Horner's Syndrome in a cow

pressures in anatomy and thorax transpulmonary

difference between alveolar pressure and intrapleural pressure

what microscopic examination can be completed with blood smears

differential leukocyte counts, erythrocyte and leukocyte morphology, presence of any abnormal cells and parasites, platelet counts, send with EDTA sample for blood analysis, cheap

location and function of SDFT?

distal end of P1 it splits and inserts on P2 flexes proximal and middle phalangeal joints and stabilises joints

hemiwalking

dog is hopped sideways on both fore - and hindlimbs This test is more difficult for the dog and may demonstrate more clearly subtle changes on single limb hopping

what is acidosis caused by?

due to ATP hydrolysis which causes post race panting

dura meter pia meter arachnoid meter

dura meter Intracranially adherent to periosteum of skull Tough layer mainly made of dense connective tissue seen around spinal cord pia meter thin layer adherent to underlying brain / spinal cord = blends with arachnoid arachnoid meter Fine layer pressed up against dura mater with fine whispy filaments which extend to and blend with pia mater

acute respiratory acidosis

eg an opioid user and horse under anaesthesia consequence of both these scenarios carbon dioxide increases and pH has dropped obesity hypoventilation syndrome: obese individuals they fail to breathe deeply enough and the overriding result is they end up retaining carbon dioxide Displaces oxygen and are chronically hypoxemic - low o2 and high co2

crura/crus

elongated body structure especially one that occurs in the body as a pair

describe the mechanism of formation of synovial joints in a developing limb

endochondral ossification gives rises to the bones and joints of limbeach limb bud continues to grow and elongateareas of mesenchyme within the bud begin to differentiate into hyaline cartilage that will form models for each of the future bonessynovial joints will form between adjacent cartilage models in the joint interzonecells at centre of joint interzone undergo apoptosis to form joint cavityhyaline cartilage is retained

where is it found and what are the properties of elastic cartilage

epiglottis, larynx, external ears, external auditory canals Higher proportion of elastic fibres within the ECM

role of stress is as behavioural sensitisation: what is sensitisation?

example of non-associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus

what are all afferent fibres to the cerebellar cortex

excitatory

dipoles

exist within the myocardium It is a negative and positive charge separated by a short distance Current flows between the poles as consequence of ion movement

immunological memory

exposure of an immunologically primed animal to the same antigen which leads to the activation of memory cells, which were established during the primary immune response. An enhanced immune response is the outcome

Osteochondritis :

extension of lesions to the articular surface causing inflammation of the joint - can be caused by small fissures/fractures

fast fibres vs slow fibres

fast form monosynaptic connections which go to straight down to alpha motor neurones which connect to rest of muscle fibres Produce impulses proportional to rate of change of length of intrafusal muscle fibres slow polysynaptic responses Produce impulses proportional to the tension within the intrafusal muscle fibres responding to change in length

which peripheral nerve is tested by the patellar reflex

femoral

Identify the main synovial structures of the distal limb

fetlock pastern and coffin joint To the rear of the coffin joint there is the synovial membrane of the coffin joint and tendon sheath

spino(cervico)thalamic tract

first order neurone synapses in dorsal horn of spinal cord which synapse with second order neurones they decussate to go up spinothalamic track up the spinal cord third order neurones arise from contralateral thalamus which then ascends to cortex

what is lymph

fluid from the blood moves into spaces surrounding cells of the tissue - interstitial fluid It is similar to plasma Contains more lymphocytes than are present in blood It contains pathogens, cell products and cell debris too from the body

Three vector model of behaviour

for instance bird song Input vector - bird singing State vector - is it a male singing or a female if it is a female it will switch to approach or attack Output vector - the attack or approach

what do the endocardial cushions form and what is the cardiac anomaly that results from endocardial cushion developmental failure

form the mitral and tricuspid valves. These are the valves that separate the atria (top collecting chambers) from the ventricles (bottom pumping chambers). ostium primum defect. The failure of the endocardial cushions to fuse results in an abnormally low position of the AV valves and an abnormally high position of the aortic valve.

what comes before formation of neural tube?

formation of notochord what is the formation of notochord? Prenotochordal cells invaginate and move craniallyIntercalate in endoderm = notochordal plateCells detach = notochord

Erythropoiesis

formation of red blood cells from stem cells in the embryo: yolk sac, liver (lesser extent the spleen), shift to bone marrow in later foetal stage After puberty : primarily in marrow of membranous bones

what is somitogenisis

formation of somites-

development of the lens

forms as out budding of neuroectoderm making lens placode and then lens vesicle forms Posterior cells elongated forming primary lens fibres

where is it found and what are the properties of hyaline cartilage most common type ,

found in most bone - forming sites, joint surfaces, tracheal rings, larynx and nose

sacral vertebrae characteristics?

fused together to form sacrum / sacral bone Dorsal spinous processes Hasn't got transverse processes as that's where it fuses with pelvis Between each vertebrae there are holes - intervertebral foramen - hole to allow the nerves to come out

ataxia

general inability to move in a coordinated way

what are endocrine (ductless) glands?

glands that lack a duct system - no connections to external or internal surfacesproduce hormonesnear blood vesselshigh diversity in morphology

how can a vet help with husbandry

good welfare biosecurity and breeding, medical prevention - vaccines, no prophylactic treatment and medical treatment - drugs and therapy

why has cattle lungworm increased?

he treatment is anthelmintic treatment eg ivermectin There is also a (Huskvac) this irradiated L£ larvae and was a protective response against L4 = response protects against development of adults which produce eggs Increased reliance of anthelmintics instead of vaccination comprises the build up of immunological responses - even in vaccinated animals Survival of L3 on pasture may have improved due to climate change - causes it to be warmer

what controls heart rate and rhthym and force of contraction

heart rate and rhythm Post ganglionic fibres go to the SA Node and the AV node - in the walls of the heart positive chronotropic effect force of contraction Post ganglionic fibres also go to myocardium This controls the force of contraction Positive inotropic effect

guttural pouch

horse Pharyngeal opening of the auditory tube (arrow) Connecting tunnel between nasopharynx and middle ear Space between base of skull, atlas, pharynx and oesophagus Divided into 2 cavities by the stylohyoid bone Function - not sure maybe to do with cooling of blood importance Fungal disease Vascular and neurological condition Bacterial disease S equi var equi Entry into the pouch maybe required Viborg's triangle only useful if distended Can be achieved with an endoscope or without

paratenic host

host used to host the parasite without any further development eg rodent, cat or dog lungworms

Describe the structure and function of the wings of the bird

humerus, ulna, radius, manus (semi-fused 3 fingered hand) consists of the carpal bones the carpometacarpus and digits Humerus has large pneumatic foramen Radius and ulna are bowed apart to aid in forces of flight the ulna has primary flight feathers attached

Why does oedema occur?

if we have increased (outward) filtration pressure caused by an increased arterial pressure and venous pressure. Which could be due to obstruction of vessels locally and generalised increase in venous pressure A decreased - inward - absorption pressure will also cause oedema the only time we see this is with a fall in plasma COP, protein loss, reduced protein synthesis

contractility?

impacted by the sympathetic nervous system, the force by which the ventricles contract - determines how much blood is left in the ventricles at the end of systole (ESV)

difference in species in distal limbs?

in horse interosseous is entirely tendinous but in dog and cat it is muscular different ray patterns as abaxial digits lose contact with the ground in faster animals that are adapted for speed reducing muscle mass different numbers of metacarpal bones interossei III and IV fused in cow - separate and insert on corresponding digits in cows there is also a dorsal common digital artery in forelimb and dorsal metatarsal arteries in hindlimb stump of axial palmar artery bleeds profusely and must be ligated

Compare and contrast the anatomy of the distal limb in different domestic species

in horse interosseous is entirely tendinous but in dog and cat it is muscular different ray patterns as abaxial digits lose contact with the ground in faster animals that are adapted for speed reducing muscle mass different numbers of metacarpal bones interossei III and IV fused in cow - sepearate and insert on corresponding digits in cows there is also a dorsal common digital artery in forelimb and dorsal metatarsal arteries in hindlimb stump of axial palmar artery bleeds profusely and must be ligated

where is the palmar digital nerve block and where does it desensitise?

in pastern region neurovascular bundles can be palpated abaxial to flexor tendons desensitises hoof structures other than dorsal coronary band

Laryngeal hemiplegia

inadequate gas exchange due to collapse of the larynx -roaring Treated surgically Hence importance of pre-sale endoscopic examinations Camel are nose breather - have specialized inflatable diverticulum of the soft palate

glaucoma

increased intraocular pressure which damages the optic nerve = cloudy painful red eyes Intraocular pressure depends on volume of aqueous present on ocular rigidity Constant production and drainage of aqueous by ciliary body Glaucoma = raised intraocular pressure Blinding - damage to optic nerve heard disrupting microcirculation and axoplasmic flow within retinal ganglion cell axons Pain Treatment is challenging

What is Eisenmenger's syndrome?

increased right ventricular pressures and therefore right-to-left shunting during systole may occur; Right-to-left shunting allows deoxygenated blood to enter the systemic circulation, resulting in arterial hypoxaemia and cyanosis. A hole between the chambers in the heart

adenosine what it does

increases potassium efflux and decreases calcium influx negative chronotropic effect and reduced AV node propagation short acting treatment for SVT hyperpolarises the action potential - negative chronotropic effect slowing the heart rate

starling effect

increasing stretching of heart muscle leads to increased contraction

pKa

independent of concentration and is the tendency to dissociate into H+ and A- Tells us how much a substance is dissociating in a solution pKa - the pH at which 50% of the molecules are ionised - ie there are equal numbers of ionised and non-ionised

what happens in the response to haemorrhage in adrenal glands

indirect effects sympathetic stimulation of adrenal gland causes release of adrenaline (epinephrine) in blood ionotropic and chronotropic effects

dacryocystitis

infection of the tear ducts, often clinically important in rabbits which suffer with teeth issues which can cause blockages and therefore infections. It can often cause chronic ocular discharge.

what are lipid rafts?

interaction between lipids generate rafts that are more ordered and tightly packed than the bilayer and float freely in membrane and very important for signalling

what factors may increase the possibility of d.immitis in cats becoming an important pathogen in the future in UK?

introduction of exotic infection with improted rescue pets or with pet returning from endemic areas abroad climate change / global warming = increase in vector population and adult mosquitoes are able to live longer

chemoreceptors

involved in homeostasis they control the ventilation rate to change acidity by increasing or decreasing the removal of carbon dioxide they are contained in the respiratory centres and detect pH levels in the blood and send signals. present in brainstem, cerebellum, hypothalamus and midbrain - medulla

what is the components of the lens?

is 35% proteins and 65% water - soluble proteins - cystallins and insoluble proteins - albuminoids

macconkey agar

is a selective and differentiating agar that only grows gram-negative bacterial species; it can further differentiate the gram-negative organisms based on their lactose metabolism. It contains bile salts (to inhibit most Gram-positive bacteria), crystal violet dye (which also inhibits certain Gram-positive bacteria), and neutral red dye (which turns pink if the microbes are fermenting lactose). Salmonella sp. E.coli Both will grow well

micropthalmos definition - Globe size (normal/ enlarged/ reduced) Globe position (normal/ protruding/ sunken) Appearance of eye itself (normal/ abnormal)

is a severe developmental disorder of the eye in which one or both eyes are abnormally small and have anatomic malformations. abnormal sunken Abnormal

Apical ectodermal ridge

is a structure that forms from the ectodermal cells at the distal end of each limb bud and acts as a major signalling centre to ensure proper development of a limb

what is stereotypic behaviour?

is repetitive behaviour induced by frustration, repeated attempts to cope and/or CNS dysfunction the criteria to define are: =Repetitive =Invariant =No function

enophthalmos definition - Globe size (normal/ enlarged/ reduced) Globe position (normal/ protruding/ sunken) Appearance of eye itself (normal/ abnormal)

is the posterior displacement of the eyeball within the orbit due to changes in the volume of the orbit (bone) relative to its contents (the eyeball and orbital fat), or loss of function of the orbitalis muscle. Normal sunken Normal

why is cell signalling important?

it allows for coordination of a wide variety of processes including: movement metabolism - differentiated cell types specialised for metabolic processes growth - unrestricted growth would disrupt functional and structural integrity (cancer)development immune response - involved in activation and recruitment of neutrophils for cytokine production which stimulates other cells

why does haemoglobin bind to nitric oxide as well

it is a neurotransmitter that causes dilation Permitting maximal tissue perfusion for supply of oxygen/removal of waste products

retina in reptiles

it is avascular +/- conus papillaris is lizards and some snakes - thin highly vascular tissue which supplies the nutrition to the retina More rods in nocturnal Fovea centralis gives better vision in lizards Lizards on left and snakes on right Sub spectacular space

benefits of a micro-flora

it is bacteria that lives inside the intestine Commensals do interact with the immune system and allow the development of key cell types and immune tissues Neonates maternal antibodies protect the neonatal animal from infection by the commensals

what is the corpus callosum

it is the largest commisure biggest connection between the two hemispheres

alveolar ventilation

key importance and is the amount of fresh gas getting to the alveoli (tidal volume-dead space) x respiratory frequency

neutrophils oxygen independent

killing occurs in sites of poor blood flow or at abscesses Lysozyme = hydrolyses glycopeptide coats of many bacteria Cathepsin Hydrolytic enzymes

knuckling

knuckling or paw repositioning test is the easiest and often most sensitive test to demonstrate altered proprioception in the dig If a weight bearing/pain free paw is placed with the dorsum on the ground then there should be a rapid return to normal positioning

What is chylothorax

leakage of Chyle into thoracic cavity as thoracic duct has split - not common Often linked to underlying conditions such as heart disease, blood clots, heart worms or tumours

hydrostatic pressure

left ventricle driving blood Plasma exerts a pressure against the inner capillary wall and promotes the formation of tissue fluid Net filtration pressure (OUT of vessel) - forces fluid out of vessel

necrosis

lethal cell injury or accidental cell death in organism CAUSED BY Injury, infection, cancer, infarction, toxins, inflammation WHAT HAPPENS DURING NECROSIS They swell because the ability of plasma membrane to control passage of ions/water is disrupted Internal organelles eg mitochondria also swell Cell contents leak out leading to inflammation of surrounding tissues - failure of membrane integrity

annular ligaments

local thickenings of fascia which stabilises tendon

clinical findings of oedema

localised or generalised fluid in skin - pitting fluid within i/s tissue in a body system eg lungs Free fluid in body cavities : pleural fluid - cat - heart failure, ascites - dog - R heart failure, cattle and horses develop 'brisket' oedema in the heart failure

location and function of extensor tendons of digits?

located on dorso lateral aspect and innervated by radial nerve extension of digits

what happens as erythrocytes age?

lose sialic acid residues from the surface (exposing galactose moieties that induce their phagocytosis) which become more fragile and may become swollen due to failure of normal membrane function and may become swollen due to failure of normal membrane function

What does chyle contain and where does it drain?

lymph from the digestive system Contains protein coated lipid droplets called chylomicrons Drains into lymphatic capillaries known as lacteals in small intestine Lacteals return chyle to chyle cistern - the origin of thoracic duct

RBC morphology Cell size MHC HIGH NORMAL MHC LOW

macrocytic normocytic microcytic

location and function of common digital extensor - forelimb

main extensor of digits tendon of insertion split to number of functional digits in species inserts on extensor process of P3

facultative parasite

may survive in absence of host eg opportunistic

what happens in the response to haemorrhage in medulla oblongata - autonomic effect of heart

medulla oblongata = cardiovascular centre neural stimulation of the heart = direct effects to the heart = autonomic

brain stem function and fibres

medulla oblongata and pons function : Location of important regulatory centres Respiratory Blood pressure Heart rate Several cranial nerves emerge and have nuclei here Balance Hearing Swallowing Masticatory musculature salivation fibres pass through efferent and afferent

innervation of the horn

most arise from trigeminal nerve - the 5th cranial nerve of the head Cornual nerve - all animals: Located halfway between lateral canthus and horn base - along ridge of frontal bone Cornual branch of infratrochlear nerve: Located between medial canthus and medial horn base - 90% of animals Frontal nerve (15% of animals) Frontal sinus nerve (5% of animals) - within sinus Cutaneous branches from 1st and 2nd cervical vertebrae - caudally

basis of differentiation of fungi

moulds and yeasts Size appearance Colour Surface elevation depressions Other patterns moulds Examination of spore structures From culture or clinical sample Features of vegetative hyphae Presence absence of septa Hyaline (colourless) or dematiaceous (pigmented) Hyphal structures (spiral, racket shapes)

what is the natural route of flow of CSF?

moves into the third ventricle and then into fourth ventricle then either down spinal cord canal or passes out going out lateral apertures

topography of the trachea birds

much longer trachea than mammalian (2.7x times longer, 1.29x wider) Increased tracheal dead space: Compensate for this - slower and deeper breathing rate compared to mammals - 1/3 of the rate

What are the three types of neurones

multipolar Typical neurone, single axon and multiple dendritesUsually motor neurons and interneuronesA collection of nerve cell bodies inside the CNS is called a nuclei and in the PNS it is termed a ganglion bipolar Uncommon, single dendrite and axonFound in sensory pathways unipolar Typical in sensory neuronsSingle process leaves cell body and divides into two, acting as a dendrite and an axon

what do somites contain and what does this allow?

multipotent cells these diffeerntiate to become different sorts of tissue where the multipotent cells are found in the somite determines its fate

which receptor organ is used to initiate a myotatic reflex

muscle spindle

what does mesoderm form?

muscles, organs of circulatory, respiratory, skeletal, reproductive, excretory systems

which peripheral nerve is tested by the biceps reflex

musculocutaneous

R wave in the ECG

myocardium depolarieses result dipole in direction of the apex of the heart

activation of metabotropic receptors - G protein

name meaning is they require steps that the cell expend metabolic energy receptor located close to G protein neurotransmitter binds with receptor the receptor activates a g protein the g protein activates an enzyme that stimulates the production of a chemical called a second messenger (neurotransmitter is first messenger)second messenger molecules travel through cytoplasm causing nearby ion channels to open by attaching to them takes longer but last longer

skeletal muscle?

narrow spindle shaped fibres several nuclei within each cell at periphery distinct transverse striations within cytoplasm

immediate emergency treatments required for a septic foal

nasal oxygen keep warm rehydration/fluid therapy keep in sternal recumbence

explain the origins of the neural tube and how it differentiates

neural tube expands to form thick lateral walls with thin bands of tissue at the top and bottom forming roof and floor platesindentation of the neural canal delineates dorsal and ventral columns within the intermediate zonealar plate - sensory neuronsbasal plate motor neurons - somatic or autonomicboth these plates give rise to dorsal and ventral horns of spinal cord

affect of ACh on nicotinic and muscarinic receptors

nicotinic nAChR Muscle Ganglion CNS Agonist: nicotine Muscarinic mAChR M1 Neural M2 HEART Decrease heart rate Decreases contractility Agonist: muscarine Antagonist: atropine M3 Glandular/s mooth muscle

capillaries

no collagen or elastin, relatively low blood pressure because: = Capillaries are fragile so high pressure would tear = Very permeable high pressure would force fluid out

what are tight junctions?

occluding - cells are invovled in the control of what enters the body

C3b main role

opsonisation and phagocytosis Can bind to microbial surface and tag it for phagocytosis Complement receptors expressed on phagocytes

what are the functions of the midbrain/mesencephalon?

optic reflexes regulation of motor functions eye movement arousal

what is simple couboidal and columnar epithelium associated with?

passive transport across cytoplasm simple cuboidal : thyroid, lung, kidney, ovary, ducts and secretory of many glands simple columnar : intestine, female reproductive tract and many exocrine glands

persistent (chronic) infection

pathogen is detectable for the lifetime of host

What are the two main factors that determine end-diastolic volume?

preload and stroke volume Preload dependent on venous return of blood, central venous pressure Preload controlled by the filling of the heart and the venous return

what is virus entry dependent on?

presence of appropriate cellular surface receptors

Osteochondritis dissecans (OCD):

presence of dissecting osteochondral flap - fragments can fall off

what is the rate of airflow proportional to

pressure difference

defence of lungs = prevention of entry

prevent entry The head position encourages drainage of the respiratory tract = head lowers to eat The nares : size, position, distribution of hairs within Nasal cavity : narrow passages, turbulence, particle deposition

three categories of buffers

proteins, phosphate and carbonic acid-hydrogen carbonate can also be grouped dependent on location in the body intracellular buffers, proteins and phosphates or extracellular buffers - bicarbonate and haemoglobin

Identify the location of the synovial structures and the main sites for synoviocentesis in the distal limb =

proximal axial base or distal four different spots for removal

right heart

pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs

left heart

pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body

Why can rRNA be sequenced to group pathogens?

rRNA has conserved regions which are species specific and allows bacteria to be grouped into species. They can then be grouped further by comparing non-conserved regions.

which peripheral nerve is tested by the triceps reflex

radial

what are the four physical processes of heat exchange

radiation, convection, conduction and evaporation Conduction - transfer of heat by two objects that are in direct contact with one another Convection - transfer of heat to the air surrounding the skin Radiation - transfer of heat via infrared waves which occurs between any two objects when their temperatures differ Evaporation - transfer of heat by the evaporation of water

mast cells

rapidly release their granules (contians histamine, proteoglycans, serine protease) and inflammatory mediators into the interstitum and can react quickly

properties of non specific nuclei

receive less functionally distinct afferent input connect with wider area of cortex, including associative and limbic regions

function of the enteric nervous system?

regulates digestive tract motility, secretion, and blood flow - controls the gut Network of two layers of cells within the walls of the gut; own pacemakers & intrinsic activity Influenced but not controlled by autonomic system - operates automatically and autonomously Inner and outer network of ENS nerves in GIT lumen to set intrinsic rhythms

dub ventricular diastole

relaxation of ventricles Results in ventricular filling Semi-lunar valves closing

What is acute inflammation

repair of the damage and removal of infection that is normal response to most forms of injury/infection that takes a matter of days example infection by microorganims, hypersensitivity, burns and irritants

afterload

resistance to ventricular ejection, pressure in whole system rejecting ejection

explain the process of endochondral ossification

responsible for majority of skeletal growth during foetal development bones initially formed from cartilage and cartilage is then replaced by bone provides mechanism for growth whilst weight bearing Cartilage found in physis that is involved in endochondral ossification Cartilage continually being formed Shunted by cartilage cells coming behind them Bone forms Primarily responsible for growth in length

when is the parasympathetic nervous system activated?

responsible for the body's rest and digestion response when the body is relaxed, resting, or feeding. It basically undoes the work of sympathetic division after a stressful situation.

how is perfusion affected by posture

s V/Q less at base of lung — more blood flow than ventilation V/Q higher at apex — more ventilation than blood flow With exercise — V/Q more even throughout lungs Why might a ventilation/perfusion mismatch occur when you are carrying out abdominal surgery on an animal such as a horse? dorsal recumbency may cause lungs to compress and can affect perfusion

visceral pain components? i

s very poorly localised little evidence of somatotropy Can travel in sympathetic fibres Large overlapping receptor fields Responds to stretch, ischaemia, dilation and spasm

which peripheral nerve is tested by the cranial tibial reflex

sciatic

Proprioception

sense of the position and movement of body segments and it relies upon the presence of receptors embedded in skeletal muscle, tendons, joint capsules and ligaments

activation of ionotropic receptors

sensitive to acetylcholine (Ach)Ach binds to alpha subunit and opens the channel for Na+ in and K+ outwhen these channels are open sodium ions enter the cell and depolarise the membrane

positive sense

sequence can code directly for virus protein

what is the inflammatory response and function

series of local cellular and vascular responses which are triggered when the body is injured or invaded by antigen prevent the spread of microorganisms or antigen to other areas, to dispose of any cellular debris and to begin the healing process

function of the thalamus

serves as a relay station for information destined for higher centres - cerebral cortex

epidermis

single layer of growing cells with keratin layer above it

vocal fold

slightly stiffer elastic ligaments and pass between the arytenoid cartilages and the laryngeal floor They rund caudodorsally with the ligament positioned medially and vocalis muscle laterally Fat surrounds the vocalis muscle - the vocal folds form part of the glottis and secrete mucus = they are used for vocalisation

what are cytokines?

soluble proteins or glycoproteins produced by cells that are important signalling molecules especially in inflammation in the inflammatory response : when damaged cytokines are produced which stimulate resident cells (mast cells) and recruit neutrophils (produce cytokines too) acute phase reactants produced and chemokines are released - they are basically singalling beacons that tell the neutrophils and monocytes wehre the areas of infections are or the areas of inflammation and they migrate along chemokine gradient

four types of pain

somatic pain Pain experienced from skin, muscle, bone damage/disease visceral pain Pain experienced because of organ pain (abdominal or thoracic) neuropathic Pain caused by a lesion or disease of the somatosensory nervous system (in contrast to nociceptive pain) pain windup Wind-up is a frequency-dependent increase in the excitability of spinal cord neurones, evoked by electrical stimulation of afferent C-fibres

normal lung appearance

sound does not penetrate normal aerated lung only visualise smooth, freely gliding surface minimal fluid in pleural cavity

what are the functions of virus proteins?

strucutal proteins encode = capsid which protects the nucleic acid = envelope of glycoproteins mediate recognition of host cells and entry non structural proteins = mediate replication of genome accessory proteins = special functions usually restricted cell types

what is the SCN?

suprachiasmatic nucleus Primary pacemaker entrained to solar time by retinal afferents Maintains and synchronises tissue-based clocks in major organ systems by a blend of endocrine, autonomic and behaviour cues

where do the sympathetic neurones enter after exciting the spinal cord? where do the sympathetic nerves travel to?

sympathetic trunkwhich runs along parallel to the vertebrae one on either side so there are two sympathetic trunks The head: via the cranial cervical ganglion The neck: via the cervicothoracic ganglion The thorax: via the middle cervical and/or cervicothoracic ganglia The abdomen: via splanchnic nerves then coeliac, cranial mesenteric or caudal mesenteric ganglia The pelvis: via a splanchnic nerve then the caudal mesenteric ganglion Then onwards to the target organ via other nerves.

SIRs

systemic response to an array of severe clinical insults

what is pulse pressure equal to

systolic - diastolic Difference between pressures high pulse pressure does not equal high MAP and therefore does not mean good tissue perfusion

what creates a pressure waveform?

systolic ejection of blood blood vessels accommodate the increase in pressure - have some compliance but when the stretch stops there will be a slight rise in pulse pressure helps to maintain pressure

output vector

the aspects of a response behaviour or motor pattern which are generated by the animal and able to be observed and often specific to a particular species for example birdsong, grooming, resting and locomotor habits

what is atrial diastole?

the atria relax, allowing them to fill with blood again

Mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH)

the average amount of haemoglobin per red blood cell that is measured in picograms Derived from total haemoglobin divided by red blood cell count

protein buffers when there is an decrease in pH - becomes more acidic

the carboxylate ion -COO and the amino group NH2 can act as weak bases and accept H+ this forms the carboxyl group - COOH and amino ion -NH3

spine manipulation

the cervical spine in the dog is a high movement region and you should be able to demonstrate a good range of movement in both flexion/extension and laterally. Dogs head all the way to spine

doppler ultrasound

the change in frequency that occurs when sound is reflected by a moving objectThink of it as a train Closer louder Can apply to blood or myocardium - tissue Doppler As the object moves towards the frequency of the sound will be higher than an object moving away from us identifies velocity of blood flow (and direction)

tactile placing

the dog is brought up the edge of a table whilst blindfolded When the limbs touch the table they should be accurately placed onto the table

paper slide

the dogs limb is placed on a piece of paper which is then pulled laterally If a weight bearing/pain free paw is moved outside the body the limb should be rapidly and accurately retuned to a normal position

Alveolar ventilation (VA)

the exchange of gas between the alveoli and the external environment, and it can be calculated by multiplying the breathing rate with the tidal volume minus dead space, making it less than the minute ventilation.

Why is foetal circulation different

the fetus 'breathes' amniotic fluid as the lungs are not inflated which means the pulmonary artery does carry oxygen fetal blood is oxygen poor - hypoxemic fetus swims in amniotic fluid - stable temperature fetus is fed parenterally - umbilical cord

intermediate host

the host in which parasite asexual reproduction occurs

definitive (final) host

the host in which parasite sexual reproduction occurs

What is infection?

the invasion and or colonisation by and subsequent multiplication of pathogenic microorganisms (pathogens) in a bodily part of tissue which can produce subsequent tissue injury and progression to overt disease through a variety of cellular or toxic mechanisms Could be direct damage to a tissue for example

Vital capacity (VC)

the maximum volume of air that can be expired after maximum inspiration, making it the total of the inspiratory reserve volume, the tidal volume and the expiratory reserve volume.

what is gastrulation?

the process where by three primary germ layers are established in the embryo forming endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm

Respiratory rate (f)

the rate at which breathing occurs, usually measured in breaths per minute.

What is packed cell volume (PCV)?

the ratio of the volume occupied by packed red blood cells to the volume of the whole blood

pleura and pleural cavity

the serous membrane around each leg pleural sacs formed from two pleural membranes around each leg pleural cavity the narrow space between the parietal and viscera pleura = Contains a small amount of serous fluid spread over pleura surface Establishes adhesion with thoracic wall Facilitates smooth movement Lung follows movements of diaphragm and thoracic wall Sub-atmospheric pressure

what is epidemiology?

the study of distribution and determinants of health-related states

Minute ventilation (VE)

the total volume of air entering the lungs in inspiration in one minute, the total being breathing rate multiplied by tidal volume.

minute ventilation

the volume of air inspired or expired per minute TIDAL VOLUME X FREQUENCY OF BREATHING

Dead space (V0)

the volume of air inspired which is not taking part in gas exchange, due to either remaining in the conducting airways or reaching alveoli which are poorly perfused.

Functional residual capacity (FRC)

the volume of air left in the lungs after passive exhalation, making it the total of the expiratory reserve volume and the residual volume.

Residual volume (RV)

the volume of air remaining in the lungs after fully exhaling, after exhausting the expiratory reserve volume as well.

Inspiratory capacity (IC)

the volume of air that can forcibly inspired after a normal, passive inspiration, and it is the total of the tidal volume and the inspiratory reserve volume.

minute volume

the volume of air that enters and leave the lungs each minute (ie tidal volume x respiratory rate)

tidal volume

the volume of air that enters and leaves the lungs with each breath

Vestibular dysfunction understandable

there is a peripheral vestibular apparatus on each side of the head for a reason peripheral components as primarily excitatory, so that the loss of one side will lead to relative hyperactivity from the other side. Tonic activity from both sides of the head generally keeps us all from falling over constantly. In the normal patient, rotating the head to one side will stimulate the vestibular system on that side. This will lead to a jerk nystagmus with a fast phase to the direction the patient is being turned.

why do erythrocytes not have organelles?

they gain their energy from anaerobic metabolism so don't need mitochondria this avoids consumption of any oxygen they are carrying no nucleus - division stem cells instead this increases the space for haemoglobin and allows bio concave shape all derived from stem cell division

How do therapy drugs work in the CNS?

they have to get the right concentration Eg for antibiotics to be effective they need to reach the right concentration in the CNS Selection on a drug with relevant penetration of CNS can be very important

what are tendon sheaths?

thin walled double layered fluid filled tubes surrounding stretches of tendons Enclose tendons like tubes protecting them from pressure and reducing frictions

What is the largest lymphatic duct?

thoracic duct from the cisterna chyli drains into cranial vena cava takes away everything /lymph from the head travels dorsal from aorta and returns lymph to vena cava

what do somites form?

three different types of connective tissue - dermatome, myotome and sclerotome

total ventilation

tidal volume x respiratory frequency tidal volume increases when animal exercising

haematology why do we do it

to rule out other causes of dyspnoea. Eosinophilia and hyperproteinaemia may be seen in some asthmatic cats.

where is the syrinx located? in birds

tracheal birfurcation Both the lateral and medial surfaces are lined by tympani form membrane - this vibrates as air rushes through which creates sound = muscles along side adjust the tension which adjusts the noise that is produced when they vibrate

what is synaptic transmission?

transmission across a neuron relies on electrical charge instead of a change in chemical concentration although the communication between different neurons is reliant on a chemical messenger which moves across the cleft (neurotransmitter)

how to prevent VQ mismatch? and example

treatment with oxygen example of VQ mismatch as a result of pulmonary embolism: Pulmonary artery splits into multiple areas of the lungs If it a clot forms the area is blocked and perfusion is blocked Area of high ventilation perfusion (as low perfusion) Blood normally going to this area has to go somewhere else Low VQ in multiple other areas as perfusion has to go elsewhere as much more perfusion everywhere else Would ultimately end in low oxygen in the blood

hat are helical fibres?

triple helical collagen molecules laid out in staggered pattern creates a banding pattern seen in collagen fibrils helical arrangement assists with tendon elasticity

truncus arteriosus and bulbis cordis becoming aorta and pulmonary artery

true septation Get development which is all triggered by cardiac jelly and blood supply Develop two blobs of tissue right at the base from the Bulbis cordis and Truncus arteriosus (bulbar cushions) These cushions forms a septum which moves up and grow towards each other Waste development Aorta and pulmonary artery stay but wrap around each other

nicotinic antagonist

tubocurarine / pancuronium As an antagonist it blocks nicotinic receptors at the neuromuscular junction muscle relaxant in anaesthesia

what is the width of the eyelid opening controlled by?

two opposing muscle groups Eyelid closing Orbicularis oculi - facial nerve - VII Eyelid opening Levator palpebrae superioris - oculomotor nerve - III Muller muscle (smooth muscle) - sympathetic innervation Several other muscles with innervation from facial nerve - VII Sensation to eyelids = branches of ophthalmic and maxillary nerves from trigeminal (V)

what airways does the mammalian lung contain

two types of airways - conducting and - respiratory conducting begins as a system of cavities (nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses and nasopharynx) which begin the cleansing, warming and moistening of the air drawn in through the anterior nares (nostrils) It is the sections of the respiratory tract which do not directly participate in gas exchange and instead simply allow bulk flow of air to areas which are responsible for gas exchange Represented by the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs and alveoli respiratory the organs allow the airflow during ventilation. They reach from the nares and buccal to the blind end of the alveolar sacs. There are specific regions with various organs and tissues to perform specific functions Upper : nose, nasal cavity and pharynx = the conducting which serve to conduct, clean, warm and moisten the air = nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles Respiratory parts = located within the lung - respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs and alveoli Lower : larynx, lungs, bronchi and bronchioles air sacs (alveoli

Peripheral vestibular disease

typically display head tilt, spontaneous (resting) nystagmus, strabismus, and ataxia. Falling and rolling may also be observed. have preservation of strength and have normal proprioceptive positioning responses. Because there is no brain involvement, there will be no alteration of consciousness.

variable in CSF = total WBC count cisternal and lumbar normal finding change due to bacterial infection?

under 6 microlitres indicates infection, inflammation, or bleeding into the cerebrospinal fluid Some causes include abscess or encephalitis

mucosal surfaces

upper respiratory tract, intestinal tract, oral cavity, rumen (in ruminants), superficial reproduction organs both sexes

pulse oximetry

use 2 wavelengths of light to measure oxygenate haemoglobin, measures pulse rate/strength too Tells us how well the haemoglobin is saturated with oxygen Sends two different wave lengths of light across the pulsatile bed and the amount of oxyhaemoglobin is calculated at those two different wave lengths and presents percentage saturation on our device

Biochemical Separation

used for isolation of one member by working through tests

colour flow doppler

uses PW doppler in multiple location Sample multiple areas within one area Limited by aliasing : when blood becomes turbulent / green/yellow - useful in regurgitation (murmurs) BART Blue away from probe Red towards the probe

direct ELISA

uses antibodies to detect specific antigen in sample, there are two different approaches based on the size of the antigen measure antigen concentrations in various different types of samples, eg cytokines, canine rheumatoid factor, hormones (ie pregnancy or ovulation testing)

what is preload dependent on ?

venous return of blood central venous pressure low venous return = ventricular filling reduced and stroke volume reduced high venous return = ventricular filling increased and stroke volume increases

What does the sclerotome contribute to?

vertebral and rib cartilage - vertebral and rib cartilage, tendons, blood vessels, meninges, vertebral joints and smooth muscle of dorsal aorta

apply biomechanical principles to the locomotion of the racing greyhound running surfaces

very important to the tendon - muscle units act as springs however the muscle becomes stiffer when fatigued the load is then overtaken by tendons

iatrogenic

vet causes the problem ie visiting unhealthy animal then moving over to healthy animals without changing PPEs

phototransduction

visual pigments (photopigments) Found inside membrane sacks of rods and cones. They consist of a protein (opsin) and a derivative of vitamin A

prazosin - a1 antagonist

what has happened to NA's effect on ABP/HR Noradrenaline can act on alpha and beta receptors In the presence of prazosin the heart rate increased to the same level so there are no a1 receptors present Blood pressure

Define a neurotransmitter and name the major classes of neurotransmitters

what is a neurotransmitter Must be synthesised in a neuron and required enzymes must be present Must be released in sufficient quantity to release a postsynaptic response They need to be inactivated or removed Exogenous administration should mimic the action of the exogenously released neurotransmitter major classes of neurotransmitter - amino acid - biogenic amines - small molecule neurotransmitters - neuropeptides

signs of lower airway disease

wheezing coughing expiratory dyspnoea

atrioseptum defect

when foramen ovale is not shut

shunt function in stress

when stressed pumps straight towards essential organs and is able to do this by moving away from non-essential organs

Explain the resting membrane potential and the action potential

when the neuron is at rest its cytosol along the inner membrane is negatively charged compared with the charge of the outside - 65 to - 70 mV (+ outside - inside)action potential is when the membrane is depolarised caused by a positive charge applied to the inside of the membrane

respiratory alkalosis (acute)

when the pH has gone up carbon dioixde decreases due to an increase in breathing/ventilation caused by : CNS disease, pregnancy, over enthusiastic ventilation and pain overtime (chronically) renal compensation excretes carbonate ions which may be effective in dogs

grey matter

where the cell bodies sit including :Neurones. Synapses. Dorsal horn - sensory neurons Lateral horn (Th-L only) - autonomic neurons Ventral horn - motor neurons

API strip

which has lots of small wells with different culture media that assess different reaction when inoculated with the bacteria LHS range of specific assays/reactions RHS assess ability to ferment different compounds The wells are scored for if they react then this code is read off on an interpretation table

What happens to heart rate as we increase ACh

will cause the heart to become tachycardia as we have a lot of cholinergic receptors in the heart We need to protect the receptors in the body by using atropine from too much Ach It is an antagonist at the receptor so Ach can replace antagonist from receptor

bronchealveolar lavage (BAL) why do we do it

with the cat under GA, warm saline is instilled into the bronchi via a sterile urinary catheter. The fluid from the bronchi is then suctioned out and submitted for culture and sensitivity and cytological examination. Bronchial cytology is variable, with predominant cell types including eosinophils, neutrophils and macrophages. These are not pathognomonic for feline asthma however, as eosinophils can be found in normal cat airways. Culture and sensitivity helps to rule out infection.

Left-sided peripheral vestibular lesion

you would then expect a fast phase nystagmus away from the lesion side (i.e., to the right), a head tilt to the left (same side as the lesion), and potentially falling/rolling to the left side as well. It is also common to observe an ipsilateral ventrolateral strabismus or eye deviation due to interference with ascending vestibular pathways (i.e., MLF).

Koch's postulates

1884 1. The organism must be found in all animals suffering from the disease, but not in healthy animals. 2. The organism must be isolated from a diseased animal and grown in pure culture. 3. The cultured organism should cause disease when introduced into a healthy animal. 4. The organism must be re-isolated from the experimentally infected animal.

4 factors influencing lung development

4 factors that influence lung development Intra thoracic space - size available for lungs to develop in Intra uterine space - size of uterus, amount of amniotic fluid Foetal breathing movements - frequency and intensity Lung liquid production - how much is produced Affect any of these = underdeveloped lungs - neonatal support is needed

lifecycle of toxocara canis

4 possible scenarios 1. Typical way Faecal oral route of transmission Infected larvae ingested - L1/L2 Develops in small intestine 2. Alternative route Absence of right host Paratenic host used - mouse Infection can be acquired when the dog ingests paratenic host - embryonated eggs L2- adult in dog intestine 3. Development in pups = memory gland L2-L3 ingested in pups Puppy under 5 weeks Large number of larvae in muscles L3 ingested by suckling pups Hormonal changes cause reactivation of larvae which migrates into pups via transplacental migration 4. Development in pups - transplacental migration of L2 to foetal liver neonatal lung

what are the limits to the length-tension relationship

: excessive stretching, Laplace's law : more wall tension is required to generate the same internal pressure in a large sphere then it does in a small one. Enlarged hearts makes it harder for the muscle mechanically to empty the chambers Seen in dilated cardiomyopathy in dogs

how do the tears drain?

= Drain into two cuniculi which join with the lacrimal sac = that then forms nasolacrimal duct goes down to nasal punctum -The nasolacrimal duct (also called the tear duct) carries tears from the lacrimal sac of the eye into the nasal cavity. The duct begins in the eye socket between the maxillary and lacrimal bones, from where it passes downwards and backwards.

diagnostic tools for respiratory tract - bronchoalveolar or tracheal wash

= commonly used to asses the respiratory health of race horses Bronchioalveolar wash (endoscope) The cells have surfactant on top it looks frothy and opaque showing how many white blood cells you have Tracheal wash (natural u-bend in equine trachea - endoscope) Transparency Colour (number WBCs, RBCs) Viscosity (mucus)

minimal media

A basic salts based growth media often with a single carbon source. (Simple salts buffer, metal salts and a carbon source other supplements added as required, only really used in research as it allows strict control of the exact content of media)

microhaematocrit

A capillary that we will fill with blood and then centrifuge which separates into plasma, buffy coat (beige or buff colour, white cells and platelets), erythrocytes This measures the ratio of the volume occupied by packed red blood cells to the volume of the whole blood = packed cell volume or PCV

membrane attack complex

A central effector mechanism of complement and innate immune response The endpoint of all 3 activation pathways MAC or terminal complement complex Composed of C5B, C6, C7, C8 AND C9 Forms a pore in membrane which opens the bacterial cell cytosol Dramatic loss of cellular homeostasis Disrupts proton gradient (signalling) Penetration of host lysozyme and other proteases

what happens at birth

A change in pressure in the right atrium and increase in pressure in LA We want blood to go into the lungs now Septum secundum and septum primum tightly appose - close intra-atrial septum

The anion gap

A construct used in metabolic acidosis as clinicians Enables us to work out if the body has had some additional acid added to it Adding up all the cations in the body (sodium and potassium) and subtract the anions (chlorine and bicarbonate) The normal anion gap is ~17 mmol/L This gap sometimes get bigger which tells us that there has been an addition of acid to the body Helps us to make a decision as a clinician - diabetic ketoacidosis or when patients get poisoned= helps us to figure out what the cause is

Nutrient media

A medium with all the basic (general) requirements for growth but without specific supplements. (Often meat/yeast extract so a complex mix of peptides, ions and biochemical intermediates & salt)

nutrient media

A medium with all the basic (general) requirements for growth but without specific supplements. (Often meat/yeast extract so a complex mix of peptides, ions and biochemical intermediates & salt)

selective indicator media

A mix of extra nutrients as well as inhibitors for unwanted bacteria alongside indicators to locate the desired bacteria

What is commensalism?

A relationship in which one organism benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed fungi and protozoa can be involved in complement too as well as bacteria

brachycephalic mesocephalic dolicephalic

A relatively broad, short skull with the breadth typically 80% of the length. = Pug, French bulldog, King Charles Spaniel, Chow chow, Pekinese A head of medium proportions to neither extreme, with a broader back skull compared to the muzzle. = Springer spaniel, Border Collie, Beagle, Dalmation The heads are long and narrow, with an extended slim muzzle. =whippet, rough collie, german shepherd, great dane

host recognition of pathogens

A specific combination of PAMPs is expressed by each pathogen PRR repertoire is different for each cell type of immune system PRR distribution and levels change in response to infection Receptor pathways have been shown to interact with each other - complex signalling network

host recognition of pathogens involves several levels of complexity

A specific combination of PAMPs is expressed by each pathogen PRR repertoire is different for each cell type of immune system PRR distribution and levels change in response to infection Receptor pathways have been shown to interact with each other - complex signalling network

blood volume and viscosity affecting blood pressure

A sufficient amount is required to overfill the arterial system Viscosity : blood is 5 x more viscous than water Increase viscosity increases resistance and more work for heart

label the thoracic radiograph

A- aorta B- caudal vena cava C- trachea- deviating away from the vertebral spine- heart enlargement would push it up D- left cura of the diaphragm E- right cura of the diaphragm F- heart G- cranial lung lobe H- liver

Diastasis diastole

AV valve open Ventricles continue to fill with blood Followed by atrial systole

Cardiac enlargement

AV valves leak more, oxygen needs go up, oxygen supply goes down, cells die- not replaced, scar tissue forms contractility falls further

Rapid ventricular filling diastole

AV valves open Ventricles relax causing their pressure to fall below their respective atrial pressures The AV rapidly open and passive ventricular filling begins Ventricular filling is normally silent - third heart sound S3 is normally heard during rapid ventricular filling

Atrial Systole systole

AV valves open Semilunar valves closed As the atria contract the pressure within the atrial chamber increases which forces more blood flow across the open AV valve Rapid blood flow into ventricles

haemodynamic theory

Abaxial movement of the lateral cartilages under load creates negative pressure Blood vessels inside the lateral cartilages are well developed in horses with good feet Blood vessels on axial side of lat.carts in horses with poor feet The idea is as the pedal bone drops inside the foot there is a negative pressure above the pedal bone which sucks blood from out of the laminae into the blood vessels As the foot is lifted off the ground the pedal bone rises and pushes blood out into the veins No heart in the foot so blood needs to get up the leg the theories of blood are above Internal structural support of the foot : cushions, blood 'pump, multiple theories, sensory nerves - proprioceptive function Static pressure taken through the laminae

factors influencing ventilation lung compliance

Ability of lungs to be stretched Elasticity of tissue in the lungs and thoracic cage Surface tension in alveoli Which structures contribute to elasticity of the lungs? Coiled collagen fibres Lung elastic fibres Intercostal muscles, joints and pleura of the thoracic cage Pathology Reduced lung compliance Scar tissue in lungs or pleura Increased lung compliance Can aid inspiration but if prolonged can reduce elasticity of lung

What is the journey that a drug takes?

Absorption (stomach/small intestine) Distribution (blood) Act on target Metabolism (liver/lungs) Excretion (GI tract/kidney)

Nicotinic agonists

Acetylcholine Nicotine (CNS, ganglion) Suxamethonium (succinylcholine) nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) - They are found in the central and peripheral nervous system, muscle, and many other tissues of many organisms.

Bronchoconstriction Parasympathetic Nervous System

Acetylcholine binding with muscarinic receptors - does the opposite or adrenaline M3 receptors Decrease cellular cAMP Increased mucus secretion Contraction of bronchial smooth muscle M1 receptors - increased mucus secretion

neuromuscular junction with nicotinic receptors present process

Ach will be released : affecting respiratory centre and ganglion Presynaptic nicotinic receptors operates on positive feedback : Facilitating further ACh release from presynaptic side

stages of learning and memory

Acquisition Registering information into a buffer for analysis Encoding Processing of information come to be stored Consolidation Short-term to long-term memory; creating stronger representation Storage Result of acquisition and consolidation to create a permanent record Retrieval Use of stored information to perform a learned behaviour

Microglia

Act as phagocytes, eating damaged cells and bacteria, act as the brains immune system specialized macrophages that are mobile and control inflammation

ANS innervation of the heart

Act on the atrium - noradrenaline Causes it to contract more quickly or with more contraction Ach - largely effects heart rate - slowing

Adrenal cortex and CRH

Adrenal cortex secretes hormones eg stress hormones - glucocorticoids like cortisol When stressed brain stimulates hypothalamus to release corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) CRH then carried to the anterior pituitary gland via portal system and stimulates adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) to be released = causes release of corticosteroid eg cortisol

Adrenal medulla Nerve fibre Neurotransmitter Designation Receptor

Adrenaline (Epinephrine) Adrenergic α and/or β

use of adrenoreceptor agonist?

Adrenaline = cardiac arrest, anaphylaxis (allergic reactions) Not ideal as you will have problems with blood flow but best for allergic reactions Salbutamol = asthma bronchi will dilate β2 Xylazine, medetomidine = sedative analgesic lowering the blood pressure α2 Act in the periphery in the CNS mainly a postsynaptic effect Usually used in minor surgeries for instance

Dictyocaulus spp. (lungworms)

Adult nematodes found in the trachea and bronchi causing parasitic bronchitis Deposition of eggs/newly hatched larvae may lead to parasitic pneumonia D. viviparus (cattle, camelids and deer) - boot shaped spicule, male has copulatory bursa and female will be bigger (two ends in male there is another structure) D. filaria (sheep and goats) D. arnfeldi (donkeys and horses)

treatment of heartworm disease in dogs

Adult worms Melarsomine dihydrocide Microfilarie Ivermectin, milbemycin Use of adulticides Dead worms may induce significant inflammatory immune reactions This can lead to pulmonary thromboembolism (clot in pulmonary artery) Disseminated intravascular coagulation Probably some embolisation is expected following adulticide treatment Increased exercise can cause pulmonary rupture and increase severity of heart worm disease

Describe the impact of nutrition and respiration of bacteria- types of chemoheterotroph

Aerobe- uses oxygen aa a terminal electron acceptor. Strict aerobe- need oxygen to grow. Facultative anaerobe- can use oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor or switch to use other acceptors. Anaerobe- cannot use oxygen, has to use other terminal electron acceptors. Strict anaerobe- will not grow in the presence of oxygen, as molecular oxygen is a potent oxidiser and these bacteria do not have the protective mechanisms against it. Bacteria can switch different systems on and off depending on availability.

Explain the spatial segregation of information pathways within the spinal cord

Afferent and efferent regions Organised as afferent and efferent regions Sensory top - dorsal part of grey matter Bottom half motor - ventral part of grey matter Efferent = motor and afferent = sensory

in what circumstance is the sympathetic NS activated?

After the amygdala sends a distress signal, the hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system by sending signals through the autonomic nerves to the adrenal glands. Under conditions of stress

two main types of receptor drugs?

Agonist : drugs that bind to receptor and activate them Adrenaline Antagonist : drugs that bind to receptors but do NOT activate them Ranitidine Antagonists block the effects of agonists

Explain the effects of exercise and training on the respiratory system

Aim is to get more oxygen in and to get rid of excess carbon dioxide Increase respiratory rate Increase tidal volume There is a tipping rate where ventilation keeps on going but oxygen uptake to muscle starts to plateau - VO2 max No more oxygen going in but exercising is continuing so you will begin to produce lactate

middle ear

Air filled cavity in temporal bone containing ossicles transferring tympanic membrane vibrations to inner ear Ossicles Malleus, incus, stapes They act as levers to transmit the sound wave vibrations Tympanic bulla Resonant cavity Eustachian tube opening Auditory tube Connects middle ear with pharynx The purpose is to equalise the pressure on the two sides of the tympanic membrane Guttural pouches are§ out-pouching Function is to transmit the fluid to inner ear Increases pressure and reduces amplitude of vibrations through the ossicles Stapes pushes on fluid in inner ear

Describe the radiographic appearance of pneumothorax

Air in plural space outside of lung, looks much blacker, heart not touching sternum anymore.

functional division of the lungs and air sacs

Air sacs - gas movement Poorly vascularised and not involved in gas exchange Move air around Lungs - gas exchange Just there for gas exchange Stiffer than mammalian due to cartilage Unidirectional flow

describe the higher order processing of visual information

All information comes from ganglion and projects to surrounding areas (17,18,19) Area 17 Novel forms of visual fields: Simple cells - mapped with spots of light Complex cells - respond to bars of light or an edge specific orientation Hypercomplex cells Integrated response bilaterally - from both eyes and brought together in area 17 Cells tend to be organised in columns of similar fields Doesn't really do colour

What occurs to the valves at the end of ventricular diastole

All valves are closed until pressure in the ventricles exceeds pressure in the aorta/pulmonary artery.

In a sandwich ELSIA, what would happen there was no washing steps after the detection antibody was added to the well?

All wells, including the negative control wells, would show uniform overdevelopment

functions of conduction system

Allow more rapid conduction of action potentials than is possible through contractile muscle cells = Enables entire ventricular myocardium to contract simultaneously To delay impulse transmission between atria and ventricles = Allowing them to fill Only connection between atria and ventricles

stained smears

Allows looking at bacteria in blood abscess and bacteria Not many stains are species specific Gram stain = gram positive and gram negative bacteria

In what direction will blood flow across the following structures in an adult? Patent ductus arteriosus

Allows portion of oxygenated blood from the left heart to flow back into the lungs by flowing from the aorta to the pulmonary artery

What is oedema?

An excessive accumulation of interstitial fluid, may be free fluid in cavities. Localised or generalised Caused by an increase in hydrostatic pressure, damaged vessels, decrease in blood protein. Starling's forces out of balance- increased (outward) filtration pressure, decreased (inward) absorption pressure- leaky vessels.

reduced systemic oxygen to the lungs causing hypoxia

Anaemia Heart disease Oxygen in blood and if the heart is not pumping sufficiently will not get to tissues Hypovolaemia Not enough blood volume to support circulation Extreme vasoconstriction Periphery is shut down so you can send blood to major organs Sepsis

anaemia

Anaemia - condition in which the capacity of the blood is to transport oxygen is reduced Reduced number of circulating erythrocytes Reduced amount of haemoglobin per erythrocyte

Congenital hydrocephalus

Animals are born with water that takes over the brain Disruption of CSF containing system Expansion of the ventricles due to obstruction and back up of CSF and/or loss of CNS tissue (pressure atrophy or necrosis or hypoplasia) Genetic defect - unknown

urease test

Another pH based indicator test Urease breaks down urea to carbon dioxide and ammonia Indicator in the slope of solid media is more red the more alkaline it is A more yellow result the more acidic

what is serotyping?

Antibodies are used and attach to surface structures. The reaction between an antibody and antigen is extremely specific and so agglutination of bacteria with the antigen to the antibody occurs in the sample, showing a positive result. Defining closely related bacteria using antibodies which bind known antigens of those bacteria

name the openings in the diaphragm for? aorta and thoracic duct?

Aortic Hiatus - the most dorsal opening, contains the aorta, azygous vein and thoracic duct.

Rapid Ejection systole

Aortic and pulmonary valves open - AV valve remains closed Pressure in ventricles will exceed that of the aorta and pulmonary artery So ventricles contracts Ventricular ejection Blood leaving ventricles Goes into the aorta and pulmonary arteries from left and right ventricles

Describe the appearance of the trace through one cardiac cycle on a Wiggers diagram

Aortic pressure- increased during systole, decreasing during diastole. Ventricular pressure- high increase during systole which peaks at the middle and reduces to a steady low value during diastole. Left is higher than right. Atrial pressure- steady low pressure, slight decrease at the end of diastole and a slight increase at the start of systole.

Explain the structure of motivated behaviour

Appetitive- various initial motor patterns that bring the animal into a situation where it was likely to encounter a "stimulus". As if the animal had an "appetite for the stimulus". Phase I: No evidence of "stimulus" (e.g. prey, food) - non-directed. Phase II: Stimulus detected (e.g. smell, sight of prey, food), eventually chasing and capturing prey/ finding food - directed Phase III: Consummatory (killing prey, eating) Phase IV: "Satiation" Consummatory- stereotyped, expected response to a stimulus which achieves what it was sought out to do - performances satisfies the 'appetite' of the animal Feedback may result in more flexible behaviour. But generally the flexibility and variability of behaviour decreases as you go through the phases.

Describe the different types of platelet granules

α (alpha)- most numerous. Growth factors- insulin-like growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, transforming growth factor beta (TGFb). Von Willebrand factor. P-selectin,thrombospondin, fibronectin. Platelet factor 4 (heparin-binding chemokine). δ (delta or dense)- contain ADP or ATP, calcium, serotonin γ (gamma)- similar to lysosomes, contain hydrolytic enzymes- breakdown λ (lambda)- contents involved in clot resorption

Adrenoreceptors and examples of localisation

α1-Receptor: blood vessels (vasoconstriction) α2-Receptor: blood vessels, nerve terminals (autorecepors) - inhibition of transmitter release β1 receptors: heart (tachykardia), increased force β2 receptors : blood vessels (vasodilatation), bronchi (bronchodilatation), liver (glycogenolysis) β3 receptors : fat (lipolysis)

• Sympathetic innervation (release Of NA)

• Noradrenaline • Increase HR . cardiac (could be a or • Vasoconstriction (could be a or • NO baroceptor reflex • Isoprenaline • Increase HR. cardiac output in heart) • Reduced BP: Vasodilation ("adrenoceptor in vasculature) • Prazosin (a1 antagonist) • No effect HR (a 1 adrenoceptors do NOT control HR) • Block NA indtned increase in blcx»d pressure (a 1 adrenoceptors Induce Vas o co • No effect isoprenaline — confirms selectivity of prazosin

What function do the arachnoid villi perform?

Act as one-way valves for the flow of CSF into venous blood and hydrostatic pressure is the main stimulus that causes these valves to open Permit the one way flow of CSF from subarachnoid space to venous circulation

basal ganglia

Basal nuclei- caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus Functions are caudate nucleus and involved in motor regulation Parkinson's is a disease affected by faulty basal ganglia

bipolar cells

Between photoreceptors and ganglion cells Gating of information

What is the significance of this in relation to slaughter techniques?

Can cause issues when ritual slaughter is concerned as take longer for loss of consciousness from slashing neck - animal welfare issue venous drainage Unlike other regions of the body, venous drainage in the brain does not follow the arterial supply. The veins of the brain are valveless and drain into the dural venous sinuses The dorsal sagittal sinus (superior in humans) lies in the falx cerebri and divides at its caudal end into the transverse sinuses which sit in the tentorium ceribelli

explain concept of lateral inhibition

Depending on whether the light hits the edge of the cell or the middle of the cell the cell reacts differentlyIf it hits both no response at all Opposite reactions between hitting middle and hitting edgeIt improves edge detection and localisation

inner ear

Encapsulated in temporal bone - made up structures that contribute to both hearing and balance Cochlea\ Three coiled, fluid filled canals They are stimulated by soundV estibulum and semi circular canals 3 fluid canals : uppe Encapsulated in temporal bone - made up structures that contribute to both hearing and balance Cochlea Three coiled, fluid filled canals They are stimulated by sound Vestibulum and semi circular canals 3 fluid canals : upper, middle and lower Upper and lower canals are filled with perilymph Middle canal filled with endolymph Higher in potassium Has a positive electric potential Sensory cells sit on basilar membrane in middle canal Hair cells and microvillir, middle and lower

endotherms vs ectoderms for stable body temperature

Endotherms, such as birds and mammals, use metabolic heat to maintain a stable internal temperature, often one different from the environment. Ectotherms, like lizards and snakes, do not use metabolic heat to maintain their body temperature but take on the temperature of the environment.

transmission risk of TSE

Fall into two groups with regard to transmission Very hard to transmit between susceptible hosts All human TSEs BSE MSE Transmitted through medical procedures or through ingesting of contaminated food Readily transmitted Scrapie in sheep / goats CWD in cervids Transmitted through direct contact and environmental reservoirs

To where does fluid flow into from the fourth ventricle?

From the lateral ventricle to the third ventricle through the interventricular foramen

Imepitioin (pexion)

GABA receptor partial agonist so slightly different from benzodiazepines Less side effects

describe functional arrangement of ganglion cells

Ganglion cells in dark and light and along edgesSpikes on each ganglion cell show which cells are having greatest response Ones on the edges Cells will fire when lights hit themOff centre and on centre ganglion cells On centre will fire when centre of circular area is illuminated and the periphery is dark Problem is they only fire for certain amount of time Illumination period followed by suppression period causing you to not register anymore Suppressed when periphery is lit up Off centre which fire most when periphery is illuminated and centre is dark

metencephalon

Hind brain Cerebellum Balance Coordination of movement Arousal (outgrowth of pons) Pons Part of brainstem

negative feed back

Input from CNS Environmental stimuli Sensory cells around third ventricle Internal stimuli - salt concentration etc The stimuli both stimulate processes in the hypothalamus Circadian rhythm Episodic secretion Negative feedback control Short loop Long loop ACTH reaches adrenal cortex and stimulates release of cortisol

cataplexy

Lack of orexinergic control activates a nucleus in the pons that inhibits lower motor neurons

transduction in hair cells

Movements will affect stretch sensitive ion channels at the tip of the sensory hairs Tip links connecting cilia open the K+ channels As the hairs get pushed against tectorial membraneLeads to depolarisation Opens the voltage gated Ca2+ channels open Influx of calcium causes release of neurotransmitter by exocytosis

fluid in the endolymph function

Provides a structure for utricle and saccule Produces fluid that flows in semi-circular canals

association cortex

Receives information rates it against other information it has and previous experience and responds with an appropriate response

paleocortex

Related to olfactory sense large part of olfactory system (sense of smell) Quite prominent in the domestic rabbit

Henderson-Hasselbach Equation

Relates to the pH, the pKa and the ratio of the concentrations of the proton acceptor (A-) and the proton donor HA species in a solution Clinical implications of this equation and helps understand why drugs work in specific circumstances

role of retina

Rods = identify shapes of objects in low light levels (topic vision)Cones = detect colourThey have different sensitivity ranges and different distribution within retina

TSE confirmatory tests

TSE confirmatory tests Western blots or ELISAs PrPSc is highly resistant to proteases TSE negative = no bands TSE positive = three bands All confirmatory tests are post mortem Can test lymphoid tissue: humans- tonsil, appendix ovine RAMALT and third eyelid

What is the ARAS

The ascending reticular activating system main brain structure that maintains wakefulness and arousal

blood supply to the brain

The blood supply to the brain comes from the cerebral arterial circle (aka Circle of Willis), which lies ventral to the hypothalamus. In the dog and horse, blood supply to this structure comes mainly from the basilar artery The arterial circle is joined caudally by the internal carotid In other species, the arrangement is more complicated, and in the ox, blood enters the arterial circle via maxillary artery and vertebral artery pathways.

what is the vestibular system made up of?

Two functional units - semi circular canals and otolith organs = utricle and saccule Cupula = gelatinous mass which sits within semi circular canal Sensory hair cells in it which are similar to those in the ear Deviating the hairs causes depolarization = transmission of info Fluid deviates the cupula to one side distorting the hair cells Transmission of info If fluid stops moving cupula returns to initial position

What happens to your thermal set-point when you have the 'flu' or Covid -19

When fighting an influenza infection, the body may raise its temperature to make it difficult for the virus to replicate. This abnormal increase in body temperature is known as a fever. A fever is part of the immune system's response to an infection and is a typical flu symptom

base

a proton acceptor decreases H+ concentration in solution

acid

a proton donor increases the H+ concentration in solution

buffer

a substance (solution) that resists change in pH when small amounts of acids or alkalis are added

what are deep cerebellar nuclei neurons?

all excitatory to nuclei of pyramindal and extrapyramidal systems these nuclei are inhibited by Purkinje cells and excited by collaterals of afferent fibres.

amacrine and horizontal cells

allow for integration at retinal level

peduncles

allows information to transfer allow fibres to enter/leave cerebellum rostral - visual reflexes, efferent and afferent middle - afferent only caudal - afferent and efferent, sleep and balance

archicerebelllum = 1

balance and equilibrium developed in fish first

three vesicles of brain

forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain

where is the sleep centre believed to be

in the hypothalamus (vl POA - ventral lateral pre-optic area)

what are the components of the epithalamus?

largely the pineal gland = its function is to produce melatonin and plays a role in circadian and seasonal rhythms paraventricular and habenular nuclei - it is the most dorsal part of diencephalon - rostral to mid brain

histamine in arousal system

maintains wakefullnessanti-histamines make you sleepy but newer ones do not reach the brain

thermoneutral zone

the range of ambient temperatures without regulatory changes in metabolic heat production or evaporative heat loss

What is the location and components of the diencephalon

the thalamus and hypothalamus are the principle structures and the main subdivisions are the epithalamus, thalamus and hypothalamus it is between the telencephalon and mesencephalon and is part of the forebrain

what is acidity directly related to?

to the concentration of H+ where the concentration is kept constant