4.3 4.4
Foreign Relations in the Interwar Years
* France believed that an economically weak Germany was necessary for its security and wanted massive reparations to repair devastated northern France. - Committed to the strict enforcement of the Versailles Treaty against Germany, the French armies actually entered the Ruhr district of Germany in 1923 in order to force payment of reparations. - French foreign policy continued to distrust German intentions even after Locarno. In the late 1920s France began construction of an elaborate series of defenses along the German border, the Maginot line. * German foreign policy in the decades after 1919 was predicated on recovering lost territory on the French border and in the Polish Corridor. - Dawes Plan, 1924 - restructured Germany's war debt (reparations) * Locarno Pact, 1925 - Germany agreed to existing borders; Germany and other European nations agreed to settle all disagreements peacefully * Kellogg-Briand Pact, 1928 - Renounced war as "illegal" except for self-defense; signed by 62 nations but had no real enforcement mechanism * British Commonwealth - at the 1926 Imperial Conference, Britain and its dominions agreed they were "equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations" - These aspects to the relationship were eventually formalized by the Statute of Westminster in 1931 - at this point, the Commonwealth was composed of Great Britain, the Irish Free State (now the Republic of Ireland), Canada, Newfoundland (since 1949 part of Canada), Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. * League of Nations - created by Paris Peace Conference - neither the US nor USSR ever joined (which limited its ability to promote/enforce peace) - Germany joined in 1926 (a kind of reward after the Locarno Pact, in which Germany agreed to abide by boundaries est by Treaty of Versailles) - Failure to take action over the Japanese invasion of Manchuria (1931) was a blow to the League's prestige * Mandate system - established under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations (1919) - A mandated territory differed from a protectorate in that obligations were assumed by the mandate power to the inhabitants of the territory and to the League, which supervised mandates - most of these territories were previously controlled by states defeated in World War I, principally Imperial Germany and the Ottoman Empire. º Class A consisted of Iraq (British), Syria and Lebanon (French), and Palestine (British). The provisional independence of these former Turkish provinces was recognized, subject to administrative control until they could stand alone. By 1949 all former Class A mandates had reached full independence. Class B was composed of the former German African colonies, South West Africa excepted—Tanganyika and parts of Togoland and the Cameroons (British), Ruanda-Urundi (Belgian), and the greater part of Togoland and the Cameroons (French). The establishment of military or naval bases in these regions by the mandatories was forbidden; commercial equality with other nations and native rights were guaranteed. In Class C were placed South West Africa (South Africa), former German Samoa (New Zealand), New Guinea (Australia), Nauru (Australia), and former German islands in the Pacific, north of the equator (Japan). - While fortification of these mandates was forbidden and native rights were guaranteed, these areas were to be administered by the mandatories as integral parts of their empires.
NATO
..., North Atlantic Treaty Organization; an alliance made to defend one another if they were attacked by any other country; US, England, France, Canada, Western European countries
Ruhr Crisis
1922-1923. Germany announced they couldn't pay their reperations, France invades the Ruhr VAlley to collect reperations "in Kind." (leads to Germany printing money causing hyperinflation)
Munich Conference
1938 conference at which European leaders attempted to appease Hitler by turning over the Sudetenland to him in exchange for promise that Germany would not expand Germany's territory any further.
Truman Doctrine
1947, President Truman's policy of providing economic and military aid to any country threatened by communism or totalitarian ideology, mainly helped Greece and Turkey
detente
A lessening of tensions between U.S. and Soviet Union. Besides disarming missiles to insure a lasting peace between superpowers, Nixon pressed for trade relations and a limited military budget. The public did not approve.
Velvet Revolution
A peaceful protest by the Czech people that led to the smooth end of communism in Czechoslovakia.
Marshall Plan
A plan that the US came up with to revive war-torn economies of Europe. This plan offered $13 billion in aid to western and Southern Europe.
Fascist Italy
A. Causes for the rise of fascism in Italy 1. In the early 20th century, Italy was a liberal state with civil rights and a constitutional monarchy. 2. Versailles Treaty (1919): Italian nationalists were angry that Italy did not receive any Austrian or Ottoman territory, (Italia Irredenta) or Germany's African colonies as promised. • Prime minister Vittorio Orlando angrily left the Paris Peace Conference before it was completed 3. Economic problems in 1919 caused nationwide strikes and class tension 4. Wealthy classes fearful of communist revolution looked to a strong anti-communist leader 5. By 1921 revolutionary socialists, conservatives and property owners were all opposed to liberal parliamentary government. B. Benito Mussolini 1 fought in World War I 2 formed group called "Blackshirts" • membership made up of disgruntled and unemployed workers, many of whom were war veterans • group created a philosophy that came to be known as "fascism" 3 March on Rome (1922): Mussolini & the Blackshirts took control of Italian government a. Mussolini demanded resignation of existing gov't and his own appointment by the king. b. Large group of Fascists marched on Rome to threaten the king to accept Mussolini's demands. c. Government collapsed; Mussolini received right to organize a new cabinet (government). d. King Victor Emmanuel III gave him dictatorial powers for 1 year to end nation's social unrest. C. Corporate State (syndicalist-corporate system) was the economic basis for Italian fascism. 1. "Everything in the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state." 2. By 1928, all independent labor unions were organized into government-controlled syndicates a. Established organizations of workers and employers; outlawed strikes and walkouts. b. Created corporations which coordinated activities between worker-employer syndicates. c. Authority from the top, unlike socialist corporate states where workers made decisions. D. Mussolini created a dictatorship 1. Right to vote was severely limited. 2. All candidates for the Italian parliament were selected by the Fascist party. 3. Gov't ruled by decree. 4. Dedicated fascists put in control of schools. 5. Mussolini's Fascist policies & actions - undermined parliamentary democracy - abolished all parties except his Fascist party - censored press - glorified the military & imperial conquest º formed an alliance with Nazi Germany (Axis), and later with Japan º invaded Ethiopia and Albania 6. Italy never truly became a totalitarian regime a. Mussolini never became all-powerful b. Old power structure of conservatives, military, and church remained intact. • Mussolini never attempted to purge conservative classes. • He propagandized and controlled labor but left big business to regulate itself. • No land reform occurred c. Did not establish ruthless police state (only 23 political prisoners executed between 1926-1944) d. Racial laws not passed until 1938 and savage persecution of Jews did not occur until late in WWII when Italy was under German Nazi control. 7. Women a. Unlike Russia's more modern approach to gender issues, Italy's social structure emphasized a traditional role for women • This also became the case in Nazi Germany b. Divorce was abolished and women told to stay home and procreate. c. In an attempt to promote marriage, Mussolini decreed a special tax on bachelors in 1934. d. By 1938, women were limited by law to a maximum of 10% of better-paying jobs in industry and gov't E. Accomplishments under Mussolini 1. Internal improvements made such as electrification and road building; Mussolini reorganized and centralized Italy's railway system 2. More efficient government at the municipal (city) level. 3. Suppression of the Mafia (which was especially strong in southern Italy and Sicily) 4. Improvement of the justice system (except for "enemies of the state") 5. Lateran Pact, 1929 - helped restore good relations with the Roman Catholic Church a. Vatican recognized as a tiny independent state; received $92 mil for seized church lands b. In return, Pope Pius XII recognized legitimacy of the Italian state. F. Fall of Mussolini - Italy declared war alongside Nazi Germany in World War II - Mussolini eventually overthrown and, later, captured and executed
Cold War
A. War-time conferences 1. Tehran Conference, 1943: USSR was guaranteed to be the only power to liberate eastern Europe 2. Yalta Conference, 1945: a. Stalin pledged to allow democratic elections in eastern Europe (but later reneged) b. Germany would be divided into four zones controlled by U.S., France, Britain and USSR c. After war, the Soviets dominated their zone and did not allow the reunification of Germany 3. Potsdam Conference, 1945: a. U.S. president Harry Truman demanded free elections in eastern Europe but Stalin refused b. Stalin wanted a "buffer zone" between Germany and USSR for protection against a future war B. Different world views 1. Soviet point of view: a. Democracies were traditionally hostile towards communism and the USSR • e.g., Archangel expedition during WWI; non- recognition by U.S. until 1933 b. U.S. & Britain did not open a western front in Europe early enough in WWII; millions of Soviet soldiers died fighting the brunt of Nazi armies alone until mid-1944. c. The US and Britain froze Russia out of the atomic bomb project. d. US terminated lend-lease to Moscow in May 1945 but gave Britain aid until 1946. e. Soviets sought a "buffer zone" for the Soviet western border especially in Poland 2. U.S. point of view: a. Stalin seemed intent on creating "spheres" of influence in eastern Europe b. Stalin broke pledges at Yalta; refused to allow reunification of Germany c. Winston Churchill's "Iron Curtain" speech in 1946 alerted Americans to a future conflict with the USSR •"From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia; all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject, in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and in some cases increasing measure of control from Moscow." d. U.S. wanted democracy spread throughout the world with a strong international organization to maintain global peace C. Partition of Germany 1. USSR, U.S., Britain & France each occupied a part of Germany and theoretically would allow for German reunification once she was no longer a threat. 2. Germany was to pay heavy reparations to USSR in the form of agricultural and industrial goods. 3. Soviets dominated their eastern German zone a. Did not want a revitalized Germany that could once again pose a threat. b. Stripped East Germany of much of its resources as reparations payments for the war. 4. U.S. and western Europeans believed the German economy was vital to the recovery of Europe 5. 1949, West Germany became an independent country when US, France and Britain gave back each of their zones • Federal Republic of Germany - led by Konrad Adenauer (1949-1963) 6. 1949, East Germany formally established - Democratic Republic of Germany led by Walter Ulbricht (1950-1971) • Ulbricht's communist regime was heavily influenced by Moscow D. "Containment": By 1947, the US pledged to prevent the further spread of communism 1. George Kennan (U.S. ambassador to USSR) wrote a memo to President Truman in 1946 claiming that the USSR was out to disrupt the American way of life. 2. Truman Doctrine, 1947 - Established the U.S. policy of containment that would last four decades. - U.S. gave aid to Greece and Turkey that helped those countries defeat communist insurgencies. - U.S. pledged economic and military aid to countries resisting communism 3. Marshall Plan, 1947-1951 E. Berlin Airlift (1948-49): Soviets attempted to remove the Allies from Berlin by cutting off access to the city. 1. Berlin had been partitioned into four sections, just as the whole of Germany had been partitioned after the war. • The city was located within the Soviets' eastern zone. 2. Stalin ordered that all roads leading into West Berlin be blocked by Soviet troops. 3. Crisis became one of the high tension points of the Cold War • Many thought the conflict could escalate into World War III 4. U.S. organized a massive airlift of 277,000 flights into the city, carrying food, medicine and other necessary supplies. • At its peak, a flight landed every 45 seconds. 5. After 11 months, the Soviets agreed to lift the blockade in 1949 F. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) formed in 1949 1. Founded in response to the Berlin Crisis. 2. Collective security organization consisted of the democracies in Europe, U.S. & Canada to prevent against Soviet expansion in Europe. • If any of the 12 member nations were attacked by the Soviets, the other nations would come to its defense. 3. In response to West Germany joining NATO in 1954 the Soviet Union formed the Warsaw Pact in 1955 • Similar to NATO in that it provided for collective security for Eastern Bloc countries controlled by the USSR 4. NATO remains intact today, having grown to 26 countries, although its mission is being redefined now that the Cold War is over. G. 1949, Communists in China led by Mao Zedong won the Chinese revolution 1. Established "Peoples Republic of China" ("Red China") 2. Terrible blow to the U.S. policy of containment; the world's most populous country was now communist H. 1949, Soviets successfully tested an atomic bomb 1. The U.S. no longer had a nuclear monopoly 2. Much of the knowledge necessary for the Soviets to build the bomb came from espionage on the U.S. atomic program.
Battle of Britain
An aerial battle fought in World War II in 1940 between the German Luftwaffe (air force), which carried out extensive bombing in Britain, and the British Royal Air Force, which offered successful resistance.
Warsaw Pact
An alliance between the Soviet Union and other Eastern European nations. This was in response to the NATO
Dadaism
An artistic movement that had a purposely nonsensical name, expressing its total rejection of previous modern art.
European Union
An international organization of European countries formed after World War II to reduce trade barriers and increase cooperation among its members.
new countries created with the fall of the USSr
Austria, Czechoslova, Hungary, and Yugoslavia
Vaclav Havel
Czech dramatist and statesman whose plays opposed totalitarianism and who served as president of Czechoslovakia from 1989 to 1992 and president of the Czech Republic since 1993 (born in 1936)
Jean Paul Sartre
French writer who developed existentialist thought after WW II in literature and philosophy. Worked in the French Resistance movement in WW II, battled for abortion rights in the 1950s, denounced the French war in Algeria, supported Castro, and declined the Nobel Prize in the '60s - very much a man of action. Controversial - especially in West - but much followed in rest of world as a modern-age philosopher. Books, No Exit, The Flies, The Ways of Freedom. Define ourselves by choices we make. We are responsible for ALL our actions.
Nazi Germany
Germany as ruled by Hitler and the Nazi Party from 1933 to 1945, a fascist state dedicated to extreme nationalism, territorial expansion, and the purification of the German state.Under Hitler's rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist totalitarian state which controlled nearly all aspects of life.
German Invasion of Poland
Germany desired living space and barrier from Soviet Union. Invades Poland and World War II begins.
Mikhail Gorbachev
Head of the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991. His liberalization effort improved relations with the West, but he lost power after his reforms led to the collapse of Communist governments in eastern Europe.
Post WW1 Democracy in Western Europe
I. Great Britain A. Wartime trend toward greater social equality continued, helping maintain social harmony. 1. Representation of the Peoples Act (1928): women over 21 gained the right to vote. (Representation of Peoples Act of 1918 had given women over 30 the right to vote). 2. Yet, the concentration of wealth in Britain was more geared towards the top than any other European country • Top 1% owned 2/3 of the national wealth B. Unemployment was Britain's biggest problem in 1920s: about 12% 1. Did not recover from economic losses suffered during WWI 2. 1926, General Strike: support of miners who feared a dramatic drop in their low wages swept the country. a. The strike eventually failed b. Gov't placed new restrictions of strikes in 1927 C. Growth of social welfare 1. After WWI, the gov't provided unemployment benefits of equal size to the unemployed and supplemented those payments with subsidized housing (200,000 units), medical aid, and increased old-age pensions. 2. Labour party rose as a champion of the working classes and of greater social equality and took power briefly in 1924 (9 months) a. Led by Ramsay MacDonald b. Labour Party came to replace the Liberal Party as main opposition to conservatives. • Liberal party's traditional 19t h century support of free trade no longer seemed as relevant c. Conservatives regained power by framing the Labour party as pro-communist when it officially recognized the Soviet Union 3. Conservatives under Stanley Baldwin (1867-1947) ruled Britain between 1924 and 1929. • Showed the same compromising spirit on social issues: female suffrage, expanded pensions to widows, orphans and the elderly. D. The Irish Question 1. After Easter Rebellion (1916) the extremist Sinn Fein faction gained prominence in Ireland. 2. Prompted a civil war between the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and the Black and Tan, England's special occupation forces there. 3. October 1921, London created the Irish Free State, from which Northern Ireland withdrew (to remain part of the United Kingdom) 4. In 1922, Britain granted southern, Catholic Ireland full autonomy after failing to suppress a bitter guerrilla war. E. British response to Great Depression 1. after 1929: abandoned gold-standard, reorganized industry, increased tariffs, reformed finances, cut gov't spending, balanced budget (although unemployed workers received barely enough welfare to live on) b. Economy recovered considerably after 1932. c. Years after 1932 actually better than in the 1920s. d. Like the U.S., Britain came out permanently from depression due to rearmament for WWII
Age of Anxiety
I. World War I resulted in an end to the ww1-end of old order A. End of rule by the Hohenzollerns (Germany), Hapsburgs (Austria), & Romanovs (Russia) B. Democracies in Europe remained intact or took root. 1. France & Britain remained democratic 2. Germany became a democracy -- Weimar Republic 3. New state of Czechoslovakia was democratic C. 1920s, communist totalitarianism took root in Russia and fascism emerged in Italy; fascism in Germany in the 1930s D. Political crises in the 1920s were followed by the Great Depression beginning in 1929 and then the road to World War II in the 1930s. E. The new world in the aftermath of WWI created an "age of anxiety" 1. World War I was a staggering blow to Western civilization 2. Many people felt as if the world they knew had been turned upside down and they had little control to change things for the better. 3. People saw themselves living in an age of continual crisis • rejection of the belief in progress that had dominated Euro thought since the days of the Enlightenment
Beer Hall Putsch
In 1923 the Nazis attempted to overthrow the government in Munich. It was a total failure, and Hitler received a brief prison sentence during which time he wrote Mein Kampf.
Spanish Civil War
In 1936 a rebellion erupted in Spain after a coalition of Republicans, Socialists, and Communists was elected. General Francisco Franco led the rebellion. The revolt quickly became a civil war. The Soviet Union provided arms and advisers to the government forces while Germany and Italy sent tanks, airplanes, and soldiers to help Franco.
Prague Spring
In 1968, Czechoslovakia, under Alexander Dubcek, began a program of reform. Dubcek promised civil liberties, democratic political reforms, and a more independent political system. The Soviet Union invaded the country and put down the short-lived period of freedom.
The Hungarian Revolution and the Prague Spring
Krushchevs policies caused problems hungry want to to be destalinised in July 1956 the Stalinist leader fell from power students and workers attacked the secret policeman Soviet leaders
Fall of the Soviet Union
On Christmas Day 1991, the Soviet flag flew over the Kremlin in Moscow for the last time. A few days earlier, representatives from 11 Soviet republics (Ukraine, the Russian Federation, Belarus, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan) met in the Kazakh city of Alma-Ata and announced that they would no longer be part of the Soviet Union. Instead, they declared they would establish a Commonwealth of Independent States. Because the three Baltic republics (Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia) had already declared their independence from the USSR, only one of its 15 republics, Georgia, remained. The once-mighty Soviet Union had fallen, largely due to the great number of radical reforms that Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev had implemented during his six years as the leader of the USSR. However, Gorbachev was disappointed in the dissolution of his nation and resigned from his job on December 25. It was a peaceful end to a long, terrifying and sometimes bloody epoch in world history.
Chechnya Conflict
The Chechen-Russian conflict (Russian: Чеченский конфликт, Chechenskiy konflikt) is the centuries-long conflict, often armed, between the Russian (formerly Soviet) government and various Chechen nationalist and Islamist forces. Formal hostilities date back to 1785, though elements of the conflict can be traced back considerably further.[3][4] The Russian Empire initially had little interest in the North Caucasus itself other than as a communication route to its ally Georgia and its enemies, the Persian and Ottoman Empires, but growing tensions triggered by Russian activities in the region resulted in an uprising of Chechens against the Russian presence in 1785, followed by further clashes and the outbreak of the Caucasian War in 1817. Russia only succeeded in suppressing the Chechen rebels in 1864. During the Russian Civil War, Chechens and other Caucasian nations lived in independence for a few years before being Sovietized in 1921. During the Second World War, the Chechens saw the German invasion as an opportunity to revolt against the Soviet regime. In response, they were deported en masse to Central Asia where they were forced to stay until 1957. The most recent conflict between Chechen and the Russian government took place in the 1990s. As the Soviet Union disintegrated, the Chechen separatists declared independence in 1991. By late 1994 the First Chechen War broke out and after two years of fighting the Russian forces withdrew from the region. In 1999, the fighting restarted and concluded the next year with the Russian security forces establishing control over Chechnya.
The cold war in the 1980s
The Cold War (1979-1985) refers to the phase of a deterioration in relations between the Soviet Union and the West arising from the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979. With the election of British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in 1979, and United States President Ronald Reagan in 1980, a corresponding change in Western foreign policy approach towards the Soviet Union was marked with the abandonment of Détente in favor of Reagan's anti-communist policies towards the USSR, with the stated goal of dissolving Soviet influence in Soviet Bloc countries. During this time the threat of nuclear war had reached new heights not seen since the Cuban Missile Crisis. In response to the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, US President Jimmy Carter announced a US-led boycott of the Moscow 1980 Summer Olympics. In 1984 the Soviets responded with their own boycott of the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, California.
Third Reich
The Third Republic of Germany which began Hitler's rule in 1933 and ended with his defeat in 1945
Anschluss
The union of Austria with Germany, resulting from the occupation of Austria by the German army in 1938.
economic conflict in yogoslavia
USSR wanted as much reparations as possible (25 per cent) of German indusrial equip from western zones. It was not delivering enough food to west. Zones and was secretive about taking from the SOVIET ZONE in which US and UK stopped sending supplies
Boris Yeltsin
Was the first President of the Russian Federation from 1991 to 1999. The Yeltsin era was a traumatic period in Russian history—a period marked by widespread corruption, economic collapse, and enormous political and social problems. In June 1991 Yeltsin came to power on a wave of high expectations. On June 12 Yeltsin was elected president of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic with 57% of the vote, becoming the first popularly elected president in Russian history. But Yeltsin never recovered his popularity after endorsing radical economic reforms in early 1992 which were widely blamed for devastating the living standards of most of the Russian population. By the time he left office, Yeltsin was a deeply unpopular figure in Russia, with an approval rating as low as two percent by some estimates.
revolutions of 1989
a series of revolutionsto end communism in Poland, Hungary, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Albania (the Eastern Bloc
Maastricht Treaty
a treaty created in 1991 that set strict financial criteria for joining the proposed monetary union, with it single currency and set 1999 as the start date for its establishment.
Margaret Thatcher
leader of conservatives in Great Britain who came to power. Pledged to limit social welfare, restrict union power, and end inflation. Formed Thatcherism, in which her economic policy was termed, and improved the British economic situation. She dominated British politics in 1980s, and her government tried to replace local property taxes with a flat-rate tax payable by every adult. Her popularity fell, and resigned.