528 here we go

Heaviest to Lightest..

G>A>T>C`

doppler equation

The mathematical description of the relationship between the Doppler shift, frequency, Doppler angle, propagation speed, and reflector speed.

how do steroid hormones induce a signaling cascade?

act as first messengers as they perform the initial signaling that influences the nuclear transcription and cytoplasmic translation of physiologically required proteins

what are fallopian cilia used

after fertilization help propel the fertilized oocyte toward the uterus for implantation

tidal volume

amount of air inhaled during normal relaxed breathing

residual volume

amount of air still remaining in the lungs after the ESR is exhaled

in ir spectroscopy signal intensity is dependent on

amount of energy absorbed

Euchromatin has

acetylated histones

glucagon binding

binds to GPCR then activates cAMP secondary messenger cascade

volumetric flow rate of blood is equal to

cardiac output (SV x HR) On a cardiac PV loop, stroke volume is the difference in volume between the beginning and end of ejection.

mesoderm

cardiovascular blood vessels musculoskeletal/bone lymphatic gonads kidney

intensity vs distance

closer you are, higher the intensity, louder the soun *describes energy

cell bodies in pns vs cns

cns-nuclei pns-ganglia

cori cycle

converts lactate to glucose

what leads to contraction of skeletal muscle contraction

depolarization caused by action potential propagation

fraction submerged

displaced volume/object volume= object density/fluid density

steps of muscle contraction that require binding/atp hydrolysis

dissociation of myosin head from actin microfilament conformational change repute of calcium into sarcoplasm

light and heavy chains of antibodies are joined by

disulfide bonds

negative focal length

diverging

TFs have

dna binding domainq

increasing osmotic pressure of PERITUBULAR capillary

draws flooding into the bloodstream and DECREASES urine output

increasing osmotic pressure of FILTRATE

draws fluid back into the nephron and INCREASES urine output

gene flow

due to migration increases genetic diversity small populations with low genetic diversity are more likely to benefit from gene flow and less likelyto be extinct

BRain frequencies and brain

during sleep ,lower than during wakefulness

dynein vs kinesin travel

dynein-->travels toward (-) end of microtuble kinesin-->travels toward (+) end

dynein kinesin modement

dynein: distal site toward nucleus kinesin: nucleus toward distal site

what does the presence of a nonsense mutation of a mutation that results in a polypeptide with only 4 amino acids indicate?

fifth codon MUST be stop codon as it does not code for a residue

ascending loop of henle causes

filtrate osmolarity to decrease

descending loop of henle causes

filtrate osmolarity to increasee

gastrulation

first cell movements formation of primary Germ layers

primary immune response

first exposure to antigen and takes about 20 days to reach full potential

bacterial flagella made of

flagellin

western blot

gel electrophoresis of gene of interest transfer of PROTEIN BINDING membrane(ie nitrocellulose) incubation with ANTIBODIES SPECIFIC to protein of interest

when histones are acetylated

gene expression is increased by disrupting SALT BRIDGES between histones and dna

what causes increase in population

gene flow random mating natural selection

pluripotent stem cells

give rise to only fetal cells (all cell lineages from all three germ layers)

egg and sperm cells are both

haploid cells that contribute an equal number of CHROMOSOMES to a zygote during fertilization

estrogen and menstrual cycle

has a major role in fluid balance and could be linked to bloating and water retention

Base excision repair and nucleotide excision enzymes

have ENDONUCLEASES to remove damaged bases and mismatched nucleotides from MIDDLE of the DNA strand

platelets

have no nuclei; they are cell fragments

intensity of em radiation increases with

higher individual photon energy higher emission rate

more bonds and longer strands means

higher melting temperature

mw and bp

higher mw, higher the boiling point

BP/polarity/m vs retention time

higher the boiling point and more polar, the longer retention time

heat/stability

higher the heat, lower the stability

higher the melting point and protein

higher the melting point, more stable the protein

higher the energy,

higher the temperature

lower the pK,

higher the unhjfolidng cooperatigty unfolding cooperativity

when genes are located near one another on the same chromosomes they are

likely to be inherited together

descending limb of loop of henle

isotonic to interstitium

keto vs enol stability

keto is more stable

epithelial cell organs

kidney intestines bladder

liquid waster

kidney to ureter to urinary bladeer to urethra to outside the body

most product is formed under

kinetic control

irreversible signifies

kinetic control-->least stable (most +∆G)

noncompetitive inhibition

km decreases vmax same

double bond has

1 sigma 1 pi

20:40 ratio

20 db difference-->100

OAA is not involved in the transport

of fatty acids from the cytosol

As a result, the ion with a lower m/q ratio, i

on X, will be observed to have a smaller radius of curvature.

one faraday is equal to

one mole of charge

racemic mixtures have no

optical activity

central aversion canal

parallel to long axis

imprinted genesq

parent specific manner

dynein

participates in RETROGRADE axonal transport of intracellular cargo (from distal sites toward nucleus)

phosphogluconate involved in

ppp

in complete absence of o2

pyruvate converted to lactate in cytoplasm and not transported to mitochondria to be converted to acetyl coa

g cells

release gastrin which stimulates parietal cell activity

binding interactions

release heat two have negative ∆H

the metabolic fate of carbon atoms in pyruvate precursors is most commonly

released as co2

positive sense ssRNA viruses (except retroviruses)

replicate their genomes by encoding their own viral RNA dependent RNA polymerase

peptide bond

resonance stabilized planar structure exhibiting partial double bond character rotation about bond is restricted

hypoventilation causes

respiratory acidosis

morula at

32 cell stage

speed of sound in air

343 m/s

precursor to tca

3C pyruvate

first ionization vs second ionization

second ionization energy is always greater than first for neutral atoms

na k pump uses

secondary active transport

proline is the only amino acid that has

secondary amine instead of primary amine

osteoclasts

secrete acids that break down mineral components of bone releasing calcium and phosphate into the bloodstream

acinar cells

secrete digestive enzymes in pancreas

parietal cells

secrete hcl and intrinsic factor which aids in vitamin b12 absorption

mucous cells

secrete mucous

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

secreted by the anterior pituitary acts on the adrenal cortex stimulating the release of cortisol

PROGESTERONE

secreted by the corpus luteum in response to LH maintenance of the endometrium

sigma bonds compared to

sigma bonds are lower in energy, more stable, and subsequently higher dissociation energies

what are protein domains directed toward secretory pathways?

signal sequence domain

Distillations

simple (bp <150°C and >25°C apart), fractional (bp <25°C apart), and vacuum (bp >150°C).

small Ka signfifies

strong conjugate base has large Kb

homodimer and sds

that both preservation and disruption of the quaternary structure results in a single gel band.

Cori Cycle

the cycle of lactate to glucose between the muscle and liver during anaerobic exercise connects glycolysis and gluconeogenesis

an object with the same density as water is stationary and suspend in a container filled with water. ignoring the effects of fluid friction, what will happen to the object when a downward Force is momentarily applied

the object will sink with a constant velocity

half-life of radioactive material

the time it takes for half of all the radioactive nuclei to decay into their daughter nuclei

linear polarization

the vibrations of the electric fields in each of the waves arePARALLELto each other

histone acetylation can be analyzed by

western blotting

maternal transmission is not possible during

y linked transmission

dipolar ion

zwitterion

Cells walls gram positive vs gram negative

Gram positive: thick made of peptidoglycan and lipotechoic acid Gram negative: thin made of peptidoglycan and LPS

when a will a particle experience a Force

if particle has component perpendicular to initial velocity

when does current stop?

if there is no voltage across the resistor or if the resistance if infinite

What are the benefits of MCH to Natural selection, gene flow, random mating

increased MHC,increased ability to fight infection, increased fitness

what leads to increased overall strength of binding

increased number of non covalent interactions or decrease in number of repulsive interactions

increase in what would lead to decreased ethanol production in yeast

increased partial pressure of oxygen

WHAT causes deviations from ideal gas behavior

increased pressure

glycogen phosphorylase regulation

inhib: ATP stimulate:GLUCAGON, AMP, EPI

G6P dehydrogenase regulation

inhib: NADPH stim: NADP+, INSULIN

glycogen synthase regulation

inhib: insulin, G6P stimulate: EPI, GLUCAGON

epi and norepi (catecholamines) inhibit____and promote_____

inhibit: glycogenesis and promote: glycogenolysis

what is more polar: alcohol or ketone?

alcohol

If this were a series circuit in which the current flows through only one path,

all flow would stop by blocking one element. Parallel circuits have more than one path through which current can flow.

to determine percentage of population that meets specific criteria

all individuals with relevant trait must be considered out of total population evaluated

fibrinogen

involved with clotting

primary active transport requires

atp hydrolysis

mitochondrial dna functions

atp production generation heat production etba oxidation in fatty acids

neuronal communication

axon-->synapse-->dendrite-->soma

lactose

b 1,4 galactose + glucose

Order of Synthesis for precursors of steroid hormones

isoprene-->monoterpene-->squalene-->cholesterol

when water reabsorption increases what happens to the urine

it becomes more concentrated

immune dendritic cells

langerhans

smaller the protein

larger the migration

principle quantum number

larger the number, higher the energy level, and larger the RADIUS

movement through phospholipid

lateral migration

right shift on oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve

less affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen

stronger the promoter

less dna/histone methylation, more mRNA made

every amino acid can be converted to glucose except for

leucine and lysine through gluconeogenesis ex. glycine converted to glucose via deamination

only ketogenic amino acids

leucine lysine

lymph enters circ system by

levels of veins not ARTERIES

incident angles greater than critical angle

light is reflected back into water

Endosomal pahtwy

berings at endocytosis vesicles-->early endosomes-->late endosomes-->lysozome fore degradation

celluluse

beta 14

type of linkage that cannot be cleaved in the hbuman. body

beta glycosidic linkage

weak acid ionization constant

between 0 and one but closer to 0

bonds occurring in the secondary structure of protein

between backbone amide hydrogen and oxygen of carbonyl

bonds and priority

between identical atoms btriple bonds have higher priority than double bonds which have higher priority than single bonds

potential energy of a particle is the difference

between the total energy and the final KE

chromatic aberration

light with higher frequency refracts more and has higher apparent lens power ie. blue light bends more than red light

heavy and light chain of constant region

light-binds tightly to constant region of heavy chain heavy-cellular recognition variable)

kinetic enolate

bulky base (LDA) low temperature(-78C) -->less stable less substituted product

lymph flow rate is proportional to

capillary pressure so if capillary pressure elevated, the lymph flow rate is going to increase

urea cycle: ammonia is converted to urea by

carbamoyl phosphate synthetase l

G

carbonyl

U

carbonyl

genetic recombination:

composed of independent assortment and crossing over increases genetic diversity *further apart two genes are more likely they will recombine

synaptonemal complex

composed of proteins connects two homologous chromosomes tightly along their lengths

pitot tube

determine velocity of air by measuring pressure differential, one side has stagnant air so cross out KE P1 = P2 + 1/2 ρv^2

sympathetic response on breathing

dilates airways bronchioles

adding water to buffer

dilutes buffer but DOES NOT affect equilibrium

blood flow during sympathetic nervous system

directed toward brain and skeletal muscle

diverging lens are whereas converging lens are

diverging lens are concave whereas converging lens are convex

correct myopia

diverging(concave) lens because focal length is too short

how does histone acetylation promote transcription

modifies chromatin structure

according to grahams law of effusion/diffusion

molar mass of a molecule is INVERSELY proportional to the rate of diffusion/effusion of that molecule

number of moles in sample taken from stock

molarity of stock x sample volume when 2 samples form different stock solutions are mixed, the molarity of the sample mixture equals the total number of moles transferred/total mixture volume

normality equation

molarity x n(n=number equivalents)

deshielded

downfield(left)

bottlenecks

drastic reduction in population size that occurs as result of disaster reduces the genetic diversity of population

when dealing with lens and mirrors first thing to do is

draw perpendicular normal angle of incidence

once equivalence for

each acidic protein in acid compound ex-->h2so4-->2 equivalence points

functionality of uv spectroscopy

molecules with pi electrons or nonbonding electrons can be excited by uv light to a higher energy antibonding orbital

Radioactivity and bands

molecules without radioactive atoms such as 32P or 3H do NOT show visible bands

activity of protein

moles/time

the thick dense bands in western blots

more protein and higher affinity

higher effective nuclear charge,

more stable it is

higher osmotic pressure

most concentrated

inhalation

negative pressure breathing

ddNTP

only H ON C-3 instead of OH so prevents elongation because the phosphate group will be unable to attach

when glycerol reacts with three fatty acids, which carbons have stereocenter

only carbon 2

+∆H

endothermic temperature decreases

thermodynamic stability of dsDNA is affected by

ph, ionic strength of solution, length of dna strands

removing valence electron from halogens

from larger halogens requires LESSS energy than re moving valence electrons from smaller halogens

midbrain

function in hearing sion and sight

stabilizing selection

phenotypes narrowed toward an average homogenous phenotype selecting against extreme phentype results in decreased diversity

Nucleosides contain no

phosphate

enveloped viruses

phospholipid bilayer absence of fluorescence

sphingomyelin

phospholipid with sphingosine backbone NOT part of viral envelope

decreased glycogen degradation can be stimulated by

phosphorolysis of glycogen

gamma decay emitss

photon

in order to break a bonding relating to photon energy

photon energy must be larger than bond energy

gamma decay emits

photon from nucleus

rods and cones are examples of

photoreceptors

what is efferent component

preganglionic component

On a cardiac PV loop, an area represents

pressure × volume and is equal to the amount of work involved.

receptor mediated endocytosis inhibitory drug

prevent inward budding which prevents ligand from entering cdell

if protein does not fold it only participates in

primary structure which is characterized by COVALENT CARBON NITROGEN LINKAGES to peptides

primary oocytes vs secondary oocyte

primary-arrested prophase 1 secondary-metaphase 2

glutamate

principal excitatory NT of CNS NOT directly involved in neuromuscular transmission

Ach degradation

process by which muscle fiber contraction is terminated

urea cycle

processes nitrogen from amino acids for excretion

snRNA

processes pre-mRNa in nucleu regulation of transcription factors or RNA polymerase 2 maintains telemeres

maximum value of static friction is

proportional to NORMAL FORCE which is perpendicular fore one surface exerts on another

henrys law constant

relates solubility of gas to pressure of that gas above the solution

magnetic field lines show

relative STRENGTH and DIRECTION of field

whzt is a characteristic of euchromatin

relatively open uncoiled dna

secretin

regulates pH signals for pancreas to release bicarb and enzymes after chyme gets to small intestiune released in duodenum

muscle lining of bladder detrusor muscle is

smooth muscle

internal urethral sphincter

smooth muscle, involuntary control

Long-lived memory cells

remain in lymphoid tissues for a long time and can recognize the antigen more rapidly in the event of a future infection (Choice D)

SSBPs prevent

spontaneous reannealing of unwound single stranded dna

reduction of disulfide bond

requires 2 electrons and nadh provides this

what chains yield the highest fluidity?

short chains with double bonds

fastest reannealing time sequence

shortest sequence with highest salt concentration allowed to cool in solution closest to physiological ph

synaptic knobs (axon terminal) contain

NT vesicles waiting to be exocytosed

as more protein becomes saturated with ligand

additional ligand is unable to induce more binding

GLUT 4 are only found in

adipose and muscle tissue

arterioles and GFR

afferent arteriole constriction-->decrease GFR efferent arterioles dilation-->decrease GFR

secondary immune response

after first exposure to antigen and takes about 5 days to reach full potential

the function of what brains structure is altered by systemic desensitization

amygdala -systemic desensitization uses increasingly proximal stimuli to gradually reduce fear response amygdala is responsible for fear

· Which amino acid is neutral, but zwitterionic at pH 7, despite possessing two nitrogen atoms in its formula? ·

asparagine, glutamine, tryptophan

action potential starts at the

axon hillock

lipase vs bile

bile emulsifies fats; produced in the liver--makes fats soluble and increase their surface area lipase hydrolyzes lipids produced in the pancreas

proximity and recombination frequency

closer genes are together, lower the recombination frequency

clathrin protein

coated vesicles

way of decreased energy production (ATP SYNTH

decoupling movement of protons down their concentration gradient from ATP synthase

terpenes

derived from 5 c isoprenes cholesterol synthesis and steroid hormone precursors

histone deacetylation effect

down regulation of transcription/gene expression

endosomes life

early and late that joint LYSOSOMES--primary and secondary enzymes don't exist

reducing sugars require

free anomeric carbons and contain hemiacetal or hemiketal in cyclic form

alkali metals and alkaline earth metals

get oxidized to become metal cations

psychoactive drug with lowest dependence rate

hallucinogen

increase in water conservation results in

higher urine osmolarity and lower blood osmolarity

in vitro vs in vivo

in vitro: useful for ability to isolate variables in vivo: useful required to confirm the behavior of molecules in a biological setting

how to increase rate of electroplating?

increase current

Ionic radius trend

increase down a group decrease across a period

gastrin

increase hcl production released in stomach

left shift on LW burk plot signifies

increase in [S]

naming explosion

increase in infants vocabulary

effective nuclear charge is

increased by more protons decreased by more electrons and more orbital rings

nucleophilicity polar protic solvents

increases down the periodic table

ionization energy trend:

increases lower left to upper right

extracellular vs intracellular space

intracellular space has antioxidants which generate reducing environment SO extracellular space favors formation of disulfide bridges

graphically RLS

is one with largest energy barrier

during fatty acid synthesis NADPH

is oxidized to NADP+

totipotent stem cells

least specialized cells can give rise to both placental and fetal cells

as concentration of products increases

left shift, decrease in cell potential, delta g becomes more positive

spherical aberration

light closer to the edges bend more and has higher refraction than light at center-->creates blurry images

how does linear light becomes unpolarized?

light vertically polarized passes through horizontal polarizer

circular polarization

light with certain pigments or highly specialized filters constant amplitudee but changing direction; helical orientation

antiparallel strands

linked by 180 degrees beta turns

Dna ligase

links Okazaki fragments catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of a new DNA fragment to the 5' end of a growing chain.

thyroid is involved in

lipid metabolism

smooth er

lipid synthesis and detoxificaiton

pyruvate dehydrogenase cofactor

lipoic acid

chylomicrons stick to side of capillary walls where

lipoproteins lipase

gas chromatography phases

liquid stationary gas mobile

increase solubility of liquid and gas

liquid:increase temp gas:decrease temp

When given a percentage and asked to convert to ppm

literally move decimal four places to the right

mechanical digestions of lipids occurs in

liver

GLUT 2 are only found in

liver and pancreas

Loop of Henle Length

long loops of henle maximize H2O absorption -maintains high [salt] in medulla, which facilitates H2O resorption from descending limb

what could happen to renal anatomy to be better at concentrating urine

longer loop of henle

lysosomes thriving environment

low ph--work in low ph

membrane fluidity

lower the fluidity, slower its lipids move and slower recovey

shorter the amino acid sequence

lower the molecular weight and faster the migration through the gel

pK K and unfolded

lower the pK higher the K more [unfolded]

lowering the pH of solvent and m/z value

lowering the pH of solvent-->increases proton concentration-->greater # multiply charged molecules-->greater signal intensity for smaller m/z values

according to roalts law the addition of any solute to a pure liquid

lowers the fp and vp

which boiling point distills first?

lowest boiling point distills first

eukaryotic flagella made of

microtubules

positive test charge

move in direction of field lines travels from high potential to low potential

cerebellum

movement and proprioception

Mechanism of transcription (RNA polymerase, promoters, primer not required)

1. 1. Chain Initiation: RNA polymerase binds to promoter (TATA box) of dsDNA (closed complex). Double stranded DNA template opens up (open complex) 2. 2. Chain Elongation: nucleoside triphosphates (AUGCs) adds corresponding to the DNA template. No primer is required. RNA elongates as RNA polymerase moves down DNA template. RNA made from 5' to 3' direction 3. 3. Chain Termination: 2 ways that transcription can terminate: 1. 1. Intrinsic termination: specific sequences called a termination site creates a stem-loop structure on RNA that causes RNA to slip off template. 2. 2. Rho (ρ) dependent termination: a protein called the ρ factor travels along the synthesized RNA and bumps off the polymerase

in standing waves

nodes--->displacement=0 antinodes-->maximum amplitude

electronegativity trend

nometals are more electronegative than metals

Viral capsid structure

non covalent proteins(promoters) one or 2 protein coding genes NOT made of lipids envelope-->lipid rich

best solvent for halting enzymatic activity

nonpolar solvents

chloroform and ethyl acetate are examples of

nonpolar solvents

coordination nbumber

number of coordinate bonds

the number of incident photons ONLY affects

number of electrons

outbreeding vs inbreeding

outbreeding(non relative) increases heterozygosity whereas inbreeding(relatives) decreases heterozygosity

glycolysis rate limiting enzyme

pfk1

Dielectric constant

polarizable substances that can be inserted between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor to increase its capacitance.

incident angle

the angle between the incident ray and the normal-angle between refracted ray and normal is greater than 90 degrees

polyadenylation

poly a tail protects against transcript degradation by enzymes ACHIEVED BY STOP CODON NOT involve din translation nor transcription

do is always in lens equation

positive

gay lussac

pt

2 arteries that carry deoxygenated blood

pulmonary and umbilical

2 veins that carry oxygenated blood

pulmonary and umbilical

R state

relaxed state, high oxygen

calcitonin

secreted in response to high blood calcium levels and decreases the amount of osteoclast activity decreasing blood calcium

antibiotic resistance genes in plasmids are used to

select BACTERIA with gene of interest

directional selection

select for trait of one extreme over other

dichotic listening tests measures

selective attention

stabilizing selection

selects average moderate trait against extremes

heart rate regulation

self depolarizing clusters in sa and av node

motor neurons vs sensory neurons

sensory neurons-enter spinal cord dorsally motor neurons-exit spinal cord ventrally

catalytic triad

ser his asp

Placing multiple resistors effect

series: increases total resistance parallel:decreases total resistance

involved in regulation of mood and hunger

serotonin

diaphysis

shaft of bone

during telophase

the nuclear envelope reforms

EDGs and h nmr

the number of EDGs closer in proximity to a proton is proportional to the: -shielding and - the distance upfield(to the right)

Stem cells

totipotent-least specialized; fetal + placental; all cell types Pluripotent-fetal only (all 3 germ layers) Multipotent-most specialized; multiple cell types

enzymes that hydrolyze specific peptide bonds in the pancreas

trypsin chymotrypsin carboxypeptidase

when asked how many nucleotides are needed for an #amino acid sequence

#amino acids x 3 + 3(stop codon)

size of ions

->protein>+

adenine and thymine both have how many h bond acceptors and donors

1 acceptor and 1 donor

guanine h bond acceptors and donors

1 acceptor and 2 donors

hemiacetal formation

1 eq OH and aldehyde4

the more conjugated the compound,

the lower the energy of the transition and the higher wavelength of absorbance

H zone

thick filaments only

what happens when a site is blocked in prokaryotes

translation inhibited because a site prevents the binding of incoming aminoacyl TRNAs

integrins

transmembrane proteins that adhere exctracellular matrix and cytoskeleton have alpha and beta channels

chromatid

two identical copies of chromosome joined by centromere

NAD precursor

vitamin b3 niacin

change of energy of photon is inversely proportional to

wavelength

number rounds of beta oxidation

#C/2 -1

activation of g protein

activities of the adenylate cyclase and the protein kinase A, and level of cAMP are all increased.

when dealing with doppler effect what does not change when Doppler shift occurs

actual velocity

fatty acid synthase requires

acyl protein carrier

to extract amine

add STRONG ACID to protonate amine to turn into salt to extract

to extract carboxylic acid

add WEAK BASE to deprotonate and turn into salt to extract

How to precipitate dna upon extraction?

add a organic hydrophobic solvent

3' tail

adenine bases helps with transcription termination for RNA polymerase increases half life of mRNA protects for degradation promotes translation by ribosomes regulates nuclear export

epi is released by

adrenal medulla

slow twitch fibers

aerobic metabolism more mitochondria less glycolysis than fast twitch

sensory

afferent-sensory impulses towards CNS

which of the following techniques will be best separate the produ teen components of blood group antigens from the carbohydrate component for an extraction wishwadichloromethane washing

affinity chromatography of the aqueous phase with stationary antibodies

agonists v s antagonists

agonists promote upstream effects of receptor . whereas antagonists prevent downstream effects of receptor

indexes of refraction

air: 1 glass:1.3 water:1.5

transgenic mice are useful for studying

dominant gene effects because the number of gene that are inserted into genome can't be controlled

genetic drift

effect of genetic drive increases as population size decreases

If a homogeneous catalyst cannot be separated from the products at the end of a reaction then the products will be contaminated with the catalyst.

In order to obtain the volume of solution necessary to provide a given amount of solute in moles, one needs to take the number of moles and divide by the solution concentration in molarity.

cofactor regenerated by lactate synthesis

Nad+

archaea

No peptidoglycan produce by binary fission circular chromosomes

moles of electron

Q=nF--> n=Q/F

every Amino acid has what configuration except for

S configuration except for cysteine

3 phosphorylated amino acids

S, Y, T

mRNA has same sequence as

SENSE strand of genomic dna

Cardiac output

SV x HR

anticodons are perfectly complementary to

only first 2 SE in codon(first 2 bases in codon)

nucleotide composition

pentose sugar nitrogenous base 1 to 3 phosphates

hydrolytic peptides synthesized and secreted from

pancreas, small intestine, stomach

calcitonin produced by

parafollicular c cells

equipotential lines are always

perpendicular to electric field lines

parallel vs antiparallel beta

parallel cannot be linked by 180 degree beta turns where ANTIPARALLEL can

electrical force depends

particles charge strength of E field

volkmann canal

perpendicular to long axis

whenever we're dealin with osmotic concentration we're dealin with

passive diffusion of water

maintaining resting membrane potential

passive transport Adenosine triphosphate membrane selective permeability

categorical perception

phenomenon of perception of distinct categories when there is a gradual change in a variable along a continuum

Gabriel Malonic ester synthesis

phthalamide deprotonated by KOH SN2 nucleophilically attack on alpha carbon of malonic acid alkylation Hydrolysis of ester and imide Decarboxylation with heat non stereoselective product-alpha amino acid

fundamental frequency: k

pipe open at both ends: f=velocity/2L L=WL/2 Pipe closed at one end: f=velocity/4L L=WL/4

frequency of sound is associated with

pitch and they have a direct relationship so a high frequency has a high pitch and this affects resonance

GH and LH are secreted from

pituitary gland

proteins compared to dna

proteins are generally smaller than dna and are loaded on HIGHLY CROSSLINKED POLYACRYLAMIDE GEL

pancreas produces

proteolytic enzymes

to make a poor leaving group a better one

protonate it

pH<pI

protonated and positive charge

at low pH (proteins

protonated, becoming positively charged migrating away from anode toward cathode

keratinocytes

provide water impermeability and strength to skin

Cholesterol at High temperatures

provides Rigidity and stabilize membrane

semilunar valves:

pulmonary: right ventricle to pulmonary artery aortic: left ventricle to aort

increasing hydrostatic pressure of BOWMANS CAPSULE

pushes fluid into glomerular capillaries and DECREASES urine output

Boyle

pv

if there is a leak in vacuum distillation apparatus, what happens?

the boiling point increases

during gene cloning, plasmids do what and must have

replicate independently of the genomic dna of bacteria must have: restriction site, origin of replication, antibiotic resistance gene

lytic life cycle

replicate rapidly and release progeny via lysis of ho=oxy

o2 converted to water

requires 4 electrons-->2 nadh

simple squamous

endothelium, capillary and alveolar walls

epiphyses

ends of long bone

Z lines

ends of sarcomeres

noncoding RNA

functional rna molecules that is not translated into protein mostly involved in transcription and translation

interphase consists of

g1 s g2

what does hyperpolarization cause

inhibition of action potential initiation in the POST SYNAPTIC neuron

dependent variable that determines michalius mentor graph is

initial velocity

titin

located at the ends of myosin and bound to the z lines

centrioles

located in center of centrosomes and move to opposite ends of cell

Lewis base has

lone pairs

fatty acid components

long hydrocarbon tail head composed of carboxyl group

half life of isotope proportionality

longer lasting isotopes are more abundant in nature and MORE stable

type 2 A

lots of myoglobin fast contractile velocity high Force but not as h9gh resistance to fatigue as type 1 long term anaerobic

type 1

lots of myoglobin for oxygen storage slow contractile velocity produce small amount of force but high resistance to fatigue aerobic metabolism

Glycolysis vs Gluconeogenesis activation

low energy-Glycolysis high energy-gluconeogenesis

magnitude of frictional force between block and incline

mgsintheta

when reuptake of norepi of is into th nerve terminal is blocked

more NE in the synapse and it can continue to stimulate the adrenergic receptors on the membrane of the tissue supplied by the neuron

what does decreased ach degradation allow

more ach molecules to remain in the synapse

heat capacity influenced by

more bonds in a molecule and more IMFs between molecules, greater heat capacity

farther migration in gel

more compact

low hydrophobic index

more hydrophilic

high hydropathic index

more hydrophobic

mass spectrometry trend

more mass, less deflection

smaller the focal length,

more powerful the lens and larger the diopter

in reverse hi=h hihplc what elutes firstq

most polar compound faster

higher the melting point

most saturated(most c and hs)

dynein plays role in

motility of cilia

uniform magnetic fields created by advanced medical imaging most likely comes from?

motion of electrons along a circular pathway

limbic system

motivation and memory

ectoderm

nervous skin lens of eye mouth

PNS derived from

neural crest cells

slow-adapting neuron

neuron fires at the beginning of the stimulus and calms down after a while

what type fo cells do not undergo mitosis

neurons rbcs cardiac muscle cells

what effect does histone ACETYLATION have

neutralizes positive charge on positively charged amino acids

diamag

no lone pairs

constant velocity signifies

no net acceleration and no net force

constant velocity indicates

no net force

blood type o

no surface antigens b and a antibodies

prophase

nuclear envelope disintegrates chromatin condenses

telophase

nuclear membrane reforms chromosomes decondense cytokinesis continues

charged protein vs salt concentrations

the more charged proteins require higher salt concentrations for elution

conjugation proportionality

the more conjugated, the greater the wavelength absorbance and the lower the wavenumber

electron electron repulsion vs electron affinity

the more electron electron repulsions the less electron affinity

the higher temperature isa with +∆H and +∆S,

the more likely ∆G is negative

if waste products are not filtered by Bowmans capsule

they are actively secreted from peritubular capillaries into nephron

as positively charged proteins move toward the cathode

they become deprotonated and lose negative charge.

why are noble gases unreactive

they have a full valence shell

when hydrophobic resides are buried on interior of proteins

this prevents water from forming solvation layers

when ligand binds to transmembrane protein

this signifies must be able to migrate laterally through phospholipid component of cell membrane

self reactive T cells are normally eliminated in the

thymus

calcitonin is synthesized in the

thyroid gland

nuclear localization signal/domain

typically have positively charged arginines or lysine

spermatogenesis and oogenesis both involve cells that and males vs females

undergo meiosis 1 and 2 oogenesis in females -begins in female embryo and ends at menpause spermatogenesis in males -does not begin until puberty -continues throughout mans life

unequal crossover vs nondisjunction

unequal cross over is individual genes, not chromosomes nondisjunction is chromosomes, not individual genes

compounds have color because

unfilled orbitals

paramag

unpaired electrons

paramagnetic atoms

unpaired electrons that align PARALLEL to magnetic field

shielded

upfied(right)

Fatty acid odd chain number acetyl coa

(#C-3)/2 produce propionyl coa in additon to acetyl coa

microfilament and z line

(-) end is anchored in the z line and actin monomers are prevented from being added or subtracted to that enD

Salvation shell

DECREASES entropy

if process such as hydroxymethylation decrecreaeses Iin acidity the fastest, this mans

DEPROTONATED MORE READILY (DECRASING NEGATIVES SLOPE

Exonuclease activity allows

DNA polymerases to remove and replace incorrect nucleotides at either END of DNA strand

magnetic fields effect on particles

DO NOT change velocity but DO change direction

magnetic fields and work

DO NOT do work on charged particles

ping pong/double replacement machanism

DO NOT have ternary complex

unlike viruses bacteria

DO NOT require host tissue

X linked recessive inheritance

Dad affected-->all daughters carriers Mom affects-->50z% daughters carriers 50% sons affected more common in males than females

Heterochromatin has

Deacetylated histones

% object fraction submerged

Density object/Density fluid=Volume submerged/Volume object total

eukaryotes vs prokaryotes

*CHROMOSOMES: -Eukaryotes - 46 linear chromosomes (humans), -Prokaryotes - 1 circular chromosome (haploid) *REPLICATION ORIGIN: -Eukaryotes - Several ORiCs, therefore several replication bubbles -Prokaryotes - One ORiC, and since they have a single circular chromosome, the replication bubble formed is going to make the entire thing look like the Greek letter Theta (why it is called Theta Replication). *TRANSCRIPTION: -Euk - Monocistronic (one transcript, one polypeptiden nucleus). In nucleus. Post transcriptional modifications: splicing, 5' methyl/guanine cap, poly A tail (termination). -Prok - Polycistrionic. In cytoplasm. No post transcriptional modifications. Transcription and Translation occur at the same time. Rho dependent termination (hairpin loop so pol falls off DNA)

carbonic anhydrase

*pulmonary capillaries / lungs: -HCO3- (bicarbonate ion) flows in; Cl- ion flows out -CO2 flows out -carbonic anhydrase acts in reverse direction (HCO3- --> CO2) *peripheral capillaries / RBCs: -HCO3- (bicarbonate ion) flows out; Cl- ion flows in -CO2 flows in -carbonic anhydrase acts in forward direction (CO2 --> HCO3-)

Endothermic reaction

+ ∆H negative trend line on vant Hoff graph absorbs heat from surroundings products have more energy than reactants

actin polymer

+-->bound to atp promoting faster growth - -->bound to adp promoting slower if any polymerization

Emf vs ∆G

+Emf=spontaneous -Emf=nonsponaneous

To analyze whether one gene regulates another

, researchers can assess variables of interest (eg, cell growth, apoptosis) using engineered cell lines in which one of the target genes is expressed and the other gene of interest is silenced and then reintroduced.

filtrate flow

- Afferent arteriole (Bowman's capsule) - Proximal convoluted tubule - Descending loop of Henle - Ascending loop of Henle - Distal convoluted tubule - Collecting duct - Ureter - Bladder - Urethra

hormonal regulation with menstrual

- FSH during follicular phases helps to secrete estrogen - Low levels of estrogen inhibit GnRH, FSH, and LH - Increased estrogen stimulates LH - This sudden surge in LH causes ovulation, LH stimulates corpus luteum to secrete estrogen and progesterone- Estrogen and Progesterone inhibit GnRH, FSH, LH

lac operon

- Lac Z encodes an enzyme that splits lactose into two monosaccharides (encodes beta galactidose)- Lac Y is a membrane embedded transporter helps to bring lactose into the cell (encodes a permease)- Lac A encodes the transacetylase enzyme

gel electrophoresis

- to + smaller fragments migrate further DNA ladder

ribosome-protein complex path

--:rer-->golgi--plasma membrane-->out of cell

passive expiration without ATP-->

-->>elasticity of pulmonary tissue

most protonated alcohols pka

-2 to -3d

which of the following is a claim made in the passage but NOT supported by evidence, explanation or example?

-look for answer cho ices that fall at the end of passages or at the end of paragraphs -very often the item that has no support will be at the end of a thought before the author transitions to something different

If a sample of DNA underwent four rounds of replication, what percentage of the total DNA present would be comprised of the original DNA molecule?

-original strand is composed of two sister strands -after 4 rounds of replication, you would have 16 strands of DNA composed of 32 daughter strands # strands of DNA = 2^n, where n = number of round of DNA replication 2/32 = 6.25%

polariznjj polarizatpolarization

-property of TRANSVERSE waves -when two polarized waves combine, a new wave is formed with a different polarization -circular polarization occurs when 2 wave forms with equal amplitude and perpendicular linear polarization propagate 90 degrees out of phase with one another -phase differences of 0 degrees and 360 degreesreflect waveforms that are traveling in phase with one another - polarization is fixed and will not rotate -180 degree phase shift = waves completely out of phase; polarization oriented in fixed orientation at 45 degree angle to axis of polarization of each wave -linear polarization filter blocks electric fields aligned perpendicular to the axis of polarization -light waves with magnetic fields oriented perpendicular to the axis have electric fields parallel to the axis

antibiotic resistance

-use agar diffusion test -disks impregnated with different antibiotics are placed on a bacterial culture -susceptible bacteria normally form a growth-free halo called a zone of inhibition around the disks to the high antibiotic concentrations -resistant strains can grow near that antibiotic and do not form a zone of inhibition

Exothermic reaction

-∆H heat is released to surroundings positive trend line on vant Hoff graph reactants have more energy than products

0 order vs 1 order dependency

0: rate constant 1: substrate concentration

stp

0°C 1 atm 22.4L/mol

density of water

1 kg/L=1000 kg/m^3

triple bond has

1 sigma 2 pi

g3p shuttle

Dihydroxy acetone phosphate (DHAP) is reduced to Glycerol 3 phosphate, while oxidizing NADH to NAD +- The glycerol 3 phosphate carries the electrons into the mitochrondrial matrix- The G3P oxidizes back into DHAP while reducing FAD to FADH2- The FADH2 is now values at 1.5 ATP

Glycolysis irreversible enzymes

1) Hexokinase - only hexokinase is feedback inhib by G6P 2) PFK-1 3) PK

social demographic transition shift

1) br and dr high 2)dr low 3)br low 4)br and dr low

clone gene expression steps

1) cDNA transformed into plasmid 2) add antibiotic resistant gene 3)infect bacterium with plasmid and add antiobotics

CAMs

1) cadherin: group of glycoproteins that mediate calcium-dependent cell adhesion; hold similar cell types together such as epithelial cells; ex. epithelial cells use E-cadherin and nerve cells use N-cadherin 2) Integrin: group of proteins that all have two membrane-spanning chains called alpha and beta; important in binding to and communicating with the extracellular matrix; play important role in cell signaling 3)Selectins:Cell adhesion molecules that bind to carbohydrate molecules that project from other cell surfaces; weakest bond; expressed on WBCs and endothelial cells that line blood vessels; play important role in defense, like inflammation, WBC migration

Steps in Transcription (I,E,T)- start with topoisomerase, promoter region, RNA poly binding, directions, end with mRNA

1) helicase(unwind) and topoisomerase(-supercoil) the DNA double helix 2) TF and RNA Poly II bind TATA box in promoter region 3) As RNA Poly II travels down and reads DNA strand in 3' to 5' direction, it unravels double helix & relies on the complementary bases to catalyze the synthesis of pre-mRNA strand which grows in the 5' to 3' direction

what are the four factors that decrease Hg affinity for O2

1) low o2 2)low pH 3)high co2 4) high temperature 5z)high 2,3 bpg

UPON antibody binding to antigen, what happens

1) neutralization 2)mark for destruction via opsonization 3)agglutination into large insoluble protein complex for that can be phagocytized or digested by macrophage

If the receptor on a NT on a post synaptic neuron is a ligand- gated ion channel, (1)______ If it is a G protein coupled receptor, (2)______

1) the post synaptic cell will either be depolarized or hyper polarized 2)it will cause either changes in the cyclic amp or influx of calcium

separation of enantiomers

1)add molecule with chiral center to racemic mixture 2)enant is converted to dias 3) put 2 diasteromers in different flasks 4)remove chiral center added

which complexes donate protons in etc?

1, 3, 4

How are genes inserted into plasmids?

1. Digest the plasmid with restriction enzymes that only cut the plasmid at the multiple cloning site 2. Digest the gene of interest with the same enzymes as the plasmid to ensure gene and plasmid will anneal - PCR may be necessary to introduce cut sites 3. Incubate the digested plasmid and the digested gene together, along with DNA ligase

Menstrual Ovarian Cycle

1. Follicular Phase (0 day to 13 day)- Primary follicle matures and secretes estrogen - FSH stimulates follicular maturation2. Ovulatory (on day 14)- Surge of the luteinizing hormone (LH) triggers release of secondary oocyte and is released from the ovary (immature ovum)3. Luteal Phase (15 day to 28 day)- Full formation of the corpus luteum - Secretes estrogen and progesterone

menstrual (uterine) cycle

1. Menstruation (about 5 days)- Degeneration of the corpus luteum and drop in estrogen and progesterone levels 2. Proliferative phase (about 9 days)- Estrogen produced by the follicle induces proliferation of the new endometrium 3. Secretory phase (about 14 days)- Estrogen and progesterone secreted by corpus luteum further increase development of the endometrium

Spermatogenesis

1. Spermatogonium (diploid) 2. Primary spermatocyte (after mitosis) (diploid) 3. Secondary spermatocyte (After meiosis I) (haploid) 4. Spermatid (After meiosis II) (haploid) 5. Sperm (spermatozoa) (after maturation process) (haploid)

control of protein levels

1. expression: transcription factors, RNA processing 2. degradation: target secretory proteins to lysosome and cytosolic proteins to proteosome

glucose catabolism

1. glycolysis- 2 ATP, 2 NADH (5 - 2 to bring NADH into mitochondria = ~3 ATP) 2. PDC- 2 NADH (~5 ATP) 3. 2 GTP (2 ATP), 6 NADH (~15 ATP), 2 FADH2 (~3 ATP) ideal total: 38 ATP per glucose (actual: 30 ATP)prokaryotes ideal total: 38 ATPanaerobic glycolysis: 2 ATP

Diopter=

1/f

diopter

1/f

waves number

1/λ inversely:wavelength directly:frequency

Each pH unit above or below the pKa alters the ratio of protonated to deprotonated species by a factor of

10.

ring strain

109.5; create reactive molecules with high heats of combustion

The pKa for the side chain of cysteine is 8.4. What is the ratio of protonated side chain (-SH) to deprotonated side chain (-S−) in a solution of cysteine at physiological pH of 7.4?

10:1

A student adds 5 bacterial cells to a test tube containing fresh medium and incubates it for 3 hours at 37°C. If the bacterial population shows an initial lag phase of 20 minutes followed by a doubling time of 40 minutes, what is the approximate number of bacterial cells present at the end of the incubation period? (Note: Assume unrestricted growth during incubation.)

180 min - 20 min=160 min 160/40=4 5 x 2^4=80 cells

RNA poly roles: transcription

1: rrna 2: mrna 3: trna

aa carbonyl pka

2

glycerophospholipids have how many fatty acyl chains?

2

glycolysis one glucose products

2 PYRUVATE 2 ATP 2 NADH

cytosine h bond acceptors and donors

2 acceptors and 1 donor; guayana gives you add

NADH

2 election carrier

CoQ carries

2 electrons

acetal formation

2 eq OH and aldehyde3

positive potential energy

2 like charges

electric potential energy increases

2 like charges move towards each other two opposite charges move away from each other

negative potential energy

2 opposite charges

ligase enzyme

2 reactants--> 1 product via hydrolysis energy rich bonds

triple bond IR spectrum double bonds

2400-2100 1600-1800 double

affected male x unaffected female carrier

25% affected offsprinfg

two carriers mate and autosomal recessive trait

25% effected child 50% child carrier 25% normal child

number of different possible games that can be formed by diploid organisms

2^n

maximum number of electrons in each shell

2n^2 n=principal quantum number

Formula for maximum # of electrons that can occupy an energy level

2n²

How many molecules of reduced electron carrier are generated during conversion of alpha-ketoglutarate to oxaloacetate in the TCA?

3 During the conversion, 2 molecules of NADH & 1 molecule of FADH2 are generated

tca one turn products

3 NADH 1 GTP 2 FADH2 2 CO2

TAG

3 fa + glycerol Glycerol-->DHAP. and incorporated into glycolysis or gluconeogenesis Fatty acids-->mitochondria for beta oxidation

amino acids with ionizable side groups including (R,K,H,Y,C, D, E) have

3 pka values while the others have 2

The diameter of a segment of an artery is reduced by a factor of two due to an obstruction. Assume that the flow is incompressible and laminar. Compared to an unobstructed segment of the artery, the velocity of blood in the obstructed segment of the artery is:

4 times as large

restriction enzymes recognize

4 to 6 base

In a laboratory population of Drosophila, all the males are XsY. Among the females, 15% are XiXi, 50% are XiXs, and 35% are XsXs. Assuming random mating, what proportion of male flies in the next generation will be XiY?

40%All the males in the next generation will acquire a Y chromosome form their male parent, so the contribution of the male can be ignored. All the XiXi females will have XiY sons, so 15% of the XiY flies in the next generation will come from this type of female. Half of the sons the XiXs females produce will be XiY. Since XiXs females make up 50% of the population, 25% of the males in the next generation will come from this type of female. non of the sons of XsXs females will be XiY. So 15+25=40%

visible spectrum length

400-750 nm

Eukaryotic translation initiation

40s binds to 5' cap initiator tRNA recruited to start codon 60s binds to initiator tRNA

maximum number of electrons in each subshell

4l + 2 l=azimuthal quantum number l=0 s l=1 p l=2d l=3 f

nuclear export mRNA transcript portion

5'cap

disorder due to recessive allele: heterozygous x homozygous

50% affected child

given 51 kDq dimer how many amino acids?

51000/110 =x-->x x2

net energy of gluconeogenesis

6 ATP consumed

oxygen bound to heme

6 coordinate covalent sites -4 bound to porphyrin -1 bound to hisitidine -1 bound to oxygen

What is the net volume of fresh air that enters the alveoli each minute, assuming the breathing rate is 10 breaths/min, the tidal volume is 800mL/breath, and the nonalveolar respiratory system volume (dead space) is 150mL?

6500mL Of the 800 mL of air that enter the lungs in a single breath (tidal volume), only 650mL reach the alveoli per breath (800mL - 150mL). Therefore the net volume of air that reaches the alveoli each minut is equal to 650mL/breath multiplied by 10 breaths/min, or 6500mL.

From Table 1, GnRH + NPY = 7.03 GnRH alone = 4.74NPY amplified pituitary responses to GnRH by..?

7.03 / 4.74 = 1.48, so NPY amplified pituitary responses to GnRH by 48%.

prokaryotic ribosomes

70S (30S and 50S)

e coli is

75% water 25% phospholipid

1 atm=

760 torr 101325 Pa 101.325 kPa 101J/L

eukaryotic ribosomes

80S (40S 60S)

aa amino pka

9

microtuble

9 + 2 arrangement

salt concentration is high in

=adrenal medulla

only component of sarcomere that maintains constant size during contraction

A band

frank starling mechanism

A mechanism by which the stroke volume of the heart is increased by increasing the venous return of the heart (thus stretching the ventricular muscle).

kinetochore:

A specialized region on the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle.A specialized region on the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle.

universal recipient

AB

ACTH and stress

ACTH usually increases cortisol from cholesterol synthesis in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum. If there is impaired cholesterol synthesis in the smooth er, increased cholesterol synthesis is failed synthesis of steroid hormones and lipids-->smoooth er

∆G vs Ecell

ALWAYS opposite signs

for a kinase reaction to proceed

ATP or GTP must be present

If a culture of red blood cells is grown on a nutrient medium containing a poison the blocks down the electron transport chain, what will happen to ATP production?

ATP production will remain the same-RBCs do not have mitochondria; thus they must produce energy anaerobically and are unaffected by drugs that affect the electron transport chain-lactic acid buildup would only occur in an aerobic cell that is forced to undergo anaerobic respiration

relative vs absolute refractory periods

Absolute refractory period -Voltage-gated Na+ channels are inactive & cannot respond to depolarization -Generation of second AP is impossible, no matter the intensity of the stimulus Relative refractory period -Voltage-gated Na+ channels are closed but responsive -AP can be generated with greater than normal membrane depolarization AP = action potential.

fatty acid synthesis reactants

Acetyl CoA, NADPH, ATP

Arrhenius

Acid H+ donor Base OH- donor

Bronstead

Acid H+ donor Base H+ acceptor

pfk1 regulation

Activated: AMP/ADP, F26BP Inhibited: ATP, Citrate All are allosteric

Acylation reactions

Acylation reactions between anhydrides and amines generate amides and carboxylic acids. The solubility of carboxylic acids in water increases when they are converted into carboxylate anions by a base, such as LiOH

How is dna precipitated from aqueous solution?

Add ethanol-->disrupt hydration shell-->add Na+ cations which neutralize dna charge via ionic bonding with phosphate

synthetic cortisol analogue example

Administration of a synthetic cortisol analogue increases the activation of the cortisol receptors, mimicking the physiologic effects of cortisol without increasing the serum level of cortisol. This analogue will also increase negative feedback, diminishing the synthesis of endogenous cortisol and ultimately decreasing its serum concentration.

Aliphatic Amphoteric Amphipathic

Aliphatic-non aromatic Amphoteric-act as acid or base Amphipathic-hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts

open reading frame

An ORF begins with a start codon (AUG) and ends with a stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA). The start and stop codons must be in the same reading frame.

the stronger the interactions what happens to pvap and bp

BP increase Pvap dec reae

pancreas vs liver digestion

Bile from the liver is involved in emulsification of fats, a mechanical process, while pancreatic enzymes chemically cleave apart macromolecules.

generally ribosomes initiate

CAP DEPENDENT translation by bind to 5' cap on eukaryotic mRNA

platelets are

CELL fragments

anhydride formation

COOH + acid halide in presence of BASE

ependymal cells

CSF

when another capacitor identical to the original is added in series

Ceq decreases by 1/2

conversions best describes what takes place in a battery-powered resistive circuit when the current is flowing?

Chemical to electric to thermal

tca enzyme pneumonic

Cindy And I Know Some Sexy Fuc***g Mothers

complexes of etc

Complex I (NADH coenzyme Q reductase; labeled I) accepts electrons from the Krebs cycle electron carrier nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), and passes them to coenzyme Q (ubiquinone; labeled Q), which also receives electrons from complex II (succinatedehydrogenase; labeled II). Q passes electrons to complex III (cytochrome bc1 complex; labeled III), which passes them to cytochrome c (cyt c). Cyt c passes electrons to Complex IV (cytochrome coxidase; labeled IV)• NADH donates to complex I (4 H+), FADH2 donates to complex II (no protons)o complex 3 pumps 4H+, complex 4 pumps 2 o 4H+ = 1 ATP, NADH thus = 2.5 ATP, FADH2 = 1.5 ATP

gas chromatography

Compounds with a lower boiling point tend to stay in the gas phase and move through the column quickly, whereas compounds with higher boiling points have a greater tendency to interact with the liquid phase and a longer retention time. The walls of the GC column are coated with a thin layer of liquid that acts as the stationary phase. -Given enough time, even subtle differences in affinity for the stationary phase can be amplified, allowing separation of compounds with similar properties. Increasing the length of the stationary phase through which the compounds must travel can provide the necessary time. -Each of the peaks in the chromatogram represents the signal created when a compound elutes from the GC column into the detector. -Compounds with lower boiling points elute faster (peaks come first)

*Diff between Conjugation, Transduction, Transformation & Transfection*

Conjugation: genetic info from one pro cell to another via direct contact ie F factor (sex pilus) and plasmids Transduction: dna from one prok to another via bacteriophage Transformation: cellular uptake of foreign. dna from environment Transfection: genetic material(plasmid) from prok to euk

mRNA turnover

Coordination of cell differentiation during development is extremely sensitive to the timing of _____? Two words.

Current and resistor

Current stays constant within resistor when exiting and entering

Almost all carbohydrates are3 found in nature in the

D configuration

when asked for absolute stereochemical configuration it is

D or L

R configuration corresponds to

D sugars

EWG VS EDG

EDG: make carbonyl carbon less electrophilic and less reactive EWG: make carbonyl carbon more reactive and more electrophilic

edg vs ewg

EDG: stabilize carbocations EWG: stabilize carbanions

in the Michaelis mentor model, the overall rate of the reaction is proportional to

ES complex formation(slow step)

Fatty acids oxidized to acetyl coa

Even: #C/2 Odd: acetyl coa + propionyl coa

What causes a Right Shift in Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve?

Exercising is the Right thing to do - right shiftincreased CO2, increased H+, decreased pH, increased T, or increased 2,3 BPGExercising is the Right thing to do - right shiftincreased CO2, increased H+, decreased pH, increased T, or increased 2,3 BPG

Reporter Gene

Express easily identifiable (fluorescent/ protein luminescent) protein products - Used to determine certain regulatory sequences or measure the expression of other genessiRNA

Diff btw Expressivity, Variable expressivity & Penetrance (complete & incomplete)

Expressivity - to what degree a penetrant gene is expressed Variable expressivity = range - 1 genotype → 2+ phenotypes expressed - single genotype give rise to a range of multiple phenotypes - eg- Hearing loss → mild ↔ severe Penetrance = proportion - 1 genotype → % of phenotypes expressed - Proportion of individuals with a genotypes who express the corresponding phenotype Complete Penetrance = genotype - 100% expressed in phenotype -Those with specific genoype *ALL* have ass. phenotype- eg- if you have the genes for being smart, then you'll definitely be smart Incomplete Penetrance genotype - <100% expressed in phenotype - Those with specific genotype but *SOME* express ass. phenotype - eg- you may have the genes for being smart, but you may not actually be smart.

amino acids with the largest side chains that contribute more to steric constraints

F I L K M R W Y

bacterial conjugation

F plasmid from F+ male to F- female F plasmid contains genes taht direct formation of pilus structure Hfr jgenerated

apparent weight

FN (weight) = Fg - Fbuoyant o Apparent weight loss shortcut: ▪ Pfluid / Pobject x 100 (percent lost)

if the hypothalamus secretes GnRH, what hormone does the anterior pituitary secrete in response?

FSH and LH

Glucose typically enters the cell through which mechanism?

Facilitated diffusion through a carrier proteinGlucose is too large and polar to move quickly through the cell membrane by simple diffusion.Typically the concentration of glucose outside the cell is higher than inside the cell.Since glucose is moving down a concentration gradient by entering the cell, the process does not require ATP.Glucose typically enters cells by facilitated diffusion through a carrier protein.

when osmotic pressure decreases

Fluid: circulatory system-->body tissues

tmenstrual cycle

Follicular -0-14 -primary follicle matures from release of FSH and lh -estrogen released -vascularization and glandularization of endometria lining Ovulation -14 -LH surge -follicle ruptures and 2ndary oocyte released from ovary -negative feed back transitions to positive feedback and spike in gnrh fsh and lh Luteal -14-28 -full formation of corpus luteum -release of estrogen and progesterone Menstration- -if fertilization does not occur, it occurs -degeneration of corpus luteum and shedding of endometrial lining -drop in estrogen and progesterone Pregnancy -if fertilization occurs successfully, HCG is released -1st trimester: estrogen and progesterone secreted 12nd trimester: HCG levels low

tile vs carpet

For a person straddling the tile and carpet, the temperature gradient between the body and each object is the same because the carpet and the tile are at the same (room) temperature. However, tile is a better thermal conductor than carpet and therefore has a higher k. Consequently, heat transfer from the body to the tile is more rapid than the heat transfer to the carpet such that the person perceives the tile being colder than the carpet.

When the cell is in need of glucose, glycogenolysis is upregulated, beginning with the activation of glycogen phosphorylase. Glycogen phosphorylase catalyzes the production of which of the following molecules?

G1P

Which two enzymes of the pentose phosphate pathway catalyze production of NADPH?Which two enzymes of the pentose phosphate pathway catalyze production of NADPH?

G6P dehydrogenase (RLS) 6 phosphogluconate dehydrogenase

pentose phosphate pathways oxidative phase

G6P-->6 phosphogluconate-->Ribulose 5 phosphate decarboxylation 2 NADPH produced irreversible

endoderm

GI tract respiratory liver thymus parathyroid pancreas

kinetic energy of block came from

GPE of block

new tRNA molecule binds to amino acid and enters A site

GTP and elongation factor is required

Escherichia coli bacteria containing only 15N-labeled DNA were grown in media containing only 14N nucleotides. What percentage of double helices would be composed of one 15N strand and one 14N strand after one, two, three generations?

Gen 1: 100% Gen 2: 50% Gen 3: 25%

Differences & Similarities btw Genetic Drift & Bottle neck- caused by?- effect on genetic diversity, allele pop size, survival

Genetic Drift = Chance event, - eg- sampling error Bottle neck = Not by chance, -eg- natural disasters, human destruction BOTH- ↓ genetic diversity- ↑probability of a beneficial allele being removed and deleterious allele becoming fixed - can cause extinction in small population

During cell transplant,

Goal is to determine whether donor neural cells would continue to develop independently → into the tissue of choice OR→assume a diff tissue type or cell fate (due to communication with surrounding cells aka inductive signaling)

Waste products in urine

H+ Urea NH3 K+

During muscle contraction

H, I, distance between Z, distance between M line become smaller and A BAND remains constant

ordered mechanism

HAVE ternary complex

Salt concentration (thermodynamic stability)

HIGH concentration-->increases double helix stability LOW concentration--> decrease double helix stability

qHow to identify pure substances

HPLC chromatogram - A pure reaction product would show only one absorbance peak indicating only the presence of a compound on the HPLC chromatogram. 1H NMR spectrum - Th\ere are three unique methyl (−CH3) groups in caffeine; therefore, a pure caffeine product would show three unique −CH3 signals in its 1H NMR spectrum. TLC - If a single spot with a larger Rf than that of the reactant is visible on the product sample track on the TLC plate, then the isolated product is pure - a single spot on a TLC plate is indicative of a compound's purity. SC - cannot be used to purify a compund because it separates compounds by size; therefore, compounds that are similar in size elute together. An absorbance peak indicates only the presence of a compound, not the number of compounds contributing to the absorbance.

diatomic elements

Have No Fear Of Ice c(l)old Beer

What happens if there is a high concentration of CO2?

Hemoglobin form carbamates which help stabilize the T state, lowering energy, thereby pushing the release of O2

boiling point is directly proportional to

IMFs and Patm

Cholesterol at low temperatures

INCREASE fluidity prevent membrane from solidifying

During ovulation, estrogen and progesterone

INHIBIT LH

Monosynaptic reflex vs. polysynaptic reflex

Impulse enters the spine via the dorsal root ganglia Monosynaptic Reflex: Directly sent to the effect neuron Polysynaptic Reflex: Indirectly sent through an interneuron that interfaces with the effector neuron

solubility rules

In aqueous solutions, there are solubility rules: -> 1) All salts containing ammonium (NH4+) and alkali metal (Group 1) cations are water-soluble. -> 2) All salts containing nitrate (NO3-) and acetate (CH3COO-) anions are water-soluble.

Von Gierke disease is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by a deficiency in the enzyme Glucose-6-phosphatase. Which of the following would most likely be observed in an individual with Von Gierke disease?Von Gierke disease is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by a deficiency in the enzyme Glucose-6-phosphatase. Which of the following would most likely be observed in an individual with Von Gierke disease?

Increased glycogen in the liver Glucose-6-phosphatase hydrolyzes glucose-6-phosphate into a phosphate molecule plus glucose, which can then be used by cells to generate energy. Without this enzyme, gluconeogenesis cannot be completed. Glycolysis would not be affected, and glucose tolerance would be expected to be normal. Glycogenolysis produces glucose-6-phosphate from glycogen stores in the body during times of fasting, or when blood glucose is low. However, without glucose-6-phosphatase, glucose cannot be made from glucose-6-phosphate. Therefore, the breakdown of glycogen is impaired in these individuals.Increase glycogen in the liver would be expected in an individual with Von Gierke disease.

How would treatment with a synthetic analogue change endogenous levels.

Influxing the patient with a synthetic compound would cause negative feedback to occur and reduce natural production of the compound.

cell cycle

Interphase: Consists of two gap phases (G1 and G2) separated by a synthesis phase - During G1: The cells grown, produce organelles, and assemble molecular machinery - During S phase: DNA is replicated - During G2 phase: Cells continue to gro Mitotic Phase (M phase) : - Mitosis G1 phase = Pre-synthetic growth and organelle duplication G1/S checkpoints: Checks for cell size, nutrients, growth factors, and DNA damage S phase: DNA replication S/G2 checkpoint: DNA damage, DNA replication completeness G2 phase: Premitotic growth, DNA damage repair M phase: Cell division G0 phase = Cell Cycle Arrest, and resting phase

What is the danger of giving a patient with a bacterial infection an anti-inflammatory drug?

It may decrease endogenous antibacterial activities The proliferation of inflammatory cells, including T cells, B cells, and other leukocytes, helps in fighting infections. Therefore, giving an infected patient anti-inflammatory drugs has the potential to reduce their ability to fight infection.

absolute refractory period

K channels open, near na+ equilibrium, Na+ channels are inactive when cells are too positive

only effect the photon frequency has on its ejected electron is

KE

+∆G

Keq<1 reactant favored nonspontaneous

-∆G

Keq>1 product favored spontaneous

-∆G-->-->

Keq>1-->product favored

pipe open at both ends equation

L=λ/2... for example with a stethoscope

what coordinates with cations

LEWIS BASE

GnRH stimulates release of

LH and FSH

DNA length (thermodynamic stability)

LONGER dna molecules take more time to both MELT and REANNEAL

Bacterial growth:

Lag: adapt to new local conditions log(:growth increases exponentially stationary: resources reduced and growth levels off death: resources depleted

Which of the following statements is true regarding a rider in a roller coaster cart moving with a constant speed through a loop?

Let's evaluate the situation. A roller coaster is moving with a constant speed through a loop. In terms of circular motion, this constant speed represents the tangential velocity. In a vertical loop, there are 2 forces acting on the object: the normal force and gravity.When a force acts perpendicular to the displacement of the object, no work is done. Only at the bottom and the top of the vertical loop is gravity perpendicular to the displacement.If the sum of all the forces acting on the rider is zero, then the rider would be either moving in a straight line at a constant velocity or not moving at all.When an object is undergoing circular motion, the magnitude of the velocity or speed is constant, but constantly changes direction. Therefore, the object is accelerating because of the changing direction.

A reaction between a long-chain anhydride and phenylethylamine is done to produce a long-chain amide and a carboxylic acid. Which of the following aqueous solutions can separate the products of this reaction in an extraction?

LiOH

When the environmental temperature is 45C, which of the following organisms will have the highest body temperature?

LizardKangaroo rats and Camels have great cooling mechanisms. Humans have some cooling mechanisms, while lizards have the worst cooling mechanisms because they can't sweat and can''t do vasodilation.

How to increase the relative signal intensity of peaks that correspond to smaller mass-to-charge (m/z) values?

Lowering the pH of the solvent - increases the conc of protons & will result in a greater # of multiply charged molecules or the signal intensity of the smaller m/z values (z > 1). - An increase in multiply charged molecules would therefore result in greater signal intensity for smaller m/z values. Signal intensity of a mass spectrometry peak corresponds to the relative quantity of ions at a given mass-to-charge ratio m/z. Increased charge yields a decreased m/z ratio; - therefore, an increase in the number of multiply charged particles increases signal intensity at lower m/z ratios.

Delayed ovulation, as a cause of tubal pregnancy, would most likely be associated with delayed secretion of which of the following hormones?

Luteinizing hormone because is the hormone responsible for triggering ovulation.

the radius of a particle path is proportional to its

MASS

Presence of MHC1 and MHC2

MHC1- present on all nucleated cellls MHC2-present on all APCs

mp vs pressure

MP decreases with increased pressure

Reading a mass spectrometer

Mass spectrometry (MS) - separates ions according to their mass-to-charge ratio m/z. Assume a compound is 414g/mol - If the compound is singly charged (+1) after Mass spectroscopy, --> the MW (414 amu) of the initial molecule must be increased by the mass of one proton to 415 amu. --> Therefore m/z ratio is 415 on the mass spectrum. If the compound is doubly charged (+2) --> the MW (414 amu) of the initial molecule must be increased by the mass of two proton to 416 amu . --> Therefore m/z ratio is 416 on the mass spectrum.

Sensory cells of Dermis

Merkel cells: deep pressure and texture free nerve endings: pain Meissners Corpuscles: light touch Ruffini endings:stretch Pacinian corpuscles: deep pressure and vibration

Better electric conductor order

Metals>metalloids>nonmetals

dna polymerase binds

Mg2+ cofactor to stabilize negative charge of dna dna polymerase does not function properly in LOW pH environments

miRNAs

MicroRNAs (miRNAs), an example of noncoding RNA, silence gene expression at the translational level. miRNAs bind complementary sequences on target messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules, consequently inhibiting expression of the target mRNA by either blocking its translation or marking it for degradation.

centrosomes

Microtubule-organizing centers that help to form and organize the mitotic spindle during mitosis

Germline vs parental somatic mutations

Mutations that occur in the reproductive cells of parents are called germline mutations. These mutations can be passed from parent to offspring, and result in the offspring carrying the mutation in all of its cells. Parental somatic mutations, which occur in non-sex cell lineages during an organisms' lifetime, are not inherited by the offspring.

Erickson stages pneumonic

My: mistrust sexy: shame girl: guilt in: inferiority red: role confusion is: isolation sucking:stagnation dick: despair

acetylation adds acetyl group to

N terminus to increase stability

myelination and effect

NO effect on neuron excitability ONLY affects conduction velocity

force and magnetic field

NO force when charge moves antiparallel/antiparallel to magnetic field

can e coli undergo transfection?

NO they are prokaryotes not eukaryotes

Nodes and antinodes of pipe and strings

NODES-->end of strings and closed end of pipe; maximum destructive interference ANTINODES-->open end of pipe; maximum constructive interference

Vmax affects

NOT dependent on enzyme concentration DOES NOT change upon addition of activator ONLY increases when MORE ENZYME is added

enveloped vs nonenveloped virus overview

Non-enveloped (Naked) Viruses - Enter cell via receptor-mediated endocytosis → bind specific receptor protein on cell surface→ this induces the plasma membrane to bud inward towards the cytosol→ then the formed vesicle is pinched off containing both ligand (with capsid) + receptor - A drug that inhibits this inward budding would likely prevent virus from entering cell Enveloped Viruses - Enter cell by fusing their membrane with the host cell membrane - Their capsid is enclosed in a phospholipid membrane & no vesicle is formed - Capsid is then released into the cytosol - A drug that inhibits fusion of viral & cell membrane needed would likely prevent virus from entering cell

alpha keto acid derivative of aspartate

OAA

compound that has contaminant contains

OH group

phosphorylation occurs at

OH of S T Y

Diff btw (Proto) Oncogenes, Tumor suppressing cells and Pro-apoptotic proteins- what do they code for?- what do they promote?- what do they inhibit?

Oncogenes ex. p53 and Rb -code for grow factors or receptors -mutated or over expressed gene that induces uncontrolled cellh growth -promote cell cycle progression or inhibit apoptosis Tumor suppressing genes -code for dna repair enzymes baby -repress uncontrolled/cancerous growth via apoptosis Cancer: ↑Oncogenes; ↓Tumor suppressing genes → Ignores Apoptosis pathways pro-apoptotic proteins -do NOT lead to dna repair BUT prevent tumor development via apoptosis

malate aspartate shuttle

Oxaloacetate is reduced to malate while oxidizing NADH to NAD+ - The malate shuttles the electrons into the mitochondrial matrix- The malate is then oxidized back to oxaloacetate while reducing NAD+ to NADH - The NADH is valued at 2.5 ATP

mass spectrometry

P + 1 peak----> to the right of the parent peak; molecule that contains heavier isotopes highest point in graph is base peak and made equal to 100% of relative abundance and every other peak is compared to this peak

If an artery that supplies blood to a lung lobe was blocked but ventilation to the lobe was unaffected, how would alveolar gas partial pressures change?

PO2 would increase and PCO2 would decrease If the blood flow to an alveolus were blocked there would be no flow of hemoglobin-rich red blood cells to take away O2 and no influx of CO2 from the blood.

PTH and serum phosphate

PTH release causes increased plasma calcium but decreases plasma phosphate. Decreased PTH availability or diminished physiological response to PTH will increase phosphate levels in the blood.

calcitriol

PTH release stimulates the synthesis of calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D, in the kidney. Consequently, calcitriol primarily functions to promote absorption of dietary calcium and phosphate from the small intestine.ff

If temperature increases,

PV increases only if constant volume according to ideal gas law lets go!

[O2]dissolved=

Partial pressure O2 x Solubility of O2 in liquid

Which type of membrane protein is most likely to be a hormone?

Peripheral protein Hormones move through the circulatory system, acting as signaling molecules to specific organs/cells. A steroid is not a membrane protein. An integral protein can not easily leave the cell membrane and would therefore be a poor signaling molecule. Lipid-bound proteins remain within the phospholipid bilayer by the fatty acid tails of phospholipids. They would also be poor signaling molecules.Peptide hormones like insulin and growth hormone interact with integral protein receptors in cell membranes. These hormones can be considered peripheral membrane proteins.

Vasa recta

Picks up solutes reabsorbed by the kidney and returns them to the blood stream Creates a countercurrent multiplier system with the nephron - flow through loop of Henle is in the opposite direction of blood flow in vasa recta to maximize reabsorption of water and so they don't reach equilibrium

Reduced permeability of potassium leak channels would affect which of the following aspects of action potentials in a neuron?

Potassium leak channels allow potassium to exit a neuron in response to depolarization. Reduced permeability of a leak channel to its natural ion means that the rate the ions are able to cross the channel is reduced. Reduced permeability of potassium leak channels would affect the time to reach maximum repolarization in a neuron.

Intensity of sound

Power/Area equal to loudness of sound inversely proportional square of distance between source and detector

Resistivity/Resistance:

Proportional to: resistivity and length indirection proportional: cross sec area

Rate constant K proportionality

Proportional: presence of catalysts temperature effectiveness of medium in which reaction occurs concentration of reactants or partial pressures of reactants (number of molecules of reactants) frequency factor A in arrhenius Inversely: energy of activation

capacitance i

Proportional: plate area Inversely proportional: separation distance between plates

spongy bone

RBC production red bone marrow center of bone

raising the temperature drives the reaction towards the

REACTANTS

myeloid lineage vs lymphoid lineage

RED BLOOD CELLS AND MACROPHAGES: MYELOID LINEAGE B cells:LYMPHOID LINEAGE

80s subunit binds to

RER

EM spectrum

RMIVUXG (increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength)

almost ALL RNA viruses replicate via

RNA dependent RNA polymerase(except retro

RTKs

RTKs are often associated with growth factors. Mutations in specific RTKs may cause uncontrolled growth, leading to cancers.

Which type of membrane receptor protein best describes receptor tyrosine kinases?

Receptor tyrosine kinases are integral membrane proteins that relay a "message" from the extracellular side of the cell to the intracellular side of the cell. Upon activation, receptor tyrosine kinases dimerize and phosphorylate tyrosine residues on each other's tails.This enzymatic kinase action makes receptor tyrosine kinases enzyme-linked receptors

when acid or base is added to buffer

SLIGHT pH change

Schwann vs oligodendrocytes

Schwann-myelin for pns oligo-myelin for cns

Sensory neurons enter the spinal chord on the ______ side and the motor neurons exit the spinal chord on the _____ side

Sensory neurons enter the spinal chord on the __dorsal_ side and the motor neurons exit the spinal chord on the _ventral_ side

What would be the results of complete removal of the parathyroid glands?A. Severe neural and muscul

Severe neural and muscular problems due to deficiency of calcium in the plasma Removal of the parathyroid gland would lead to hypocalcemia, a condition of low blood calcium, resulting from the lack of parathyroid hormone. This would cause increased neuromuscular excitability because of the change in membrane potential, which under normal physiological conditions, is partially kept in balance with the extracellular calcium.

siRNA

Short, double stranded RNA sequences that decrease the translation of target proteins - They contain complementary sequences that bind to the mRNA of the target protein and signal for its degradationShort, double stranded RNA sequences that decrease the translation of target proteins - They contain complementary sequences that bind to the mRNA of the target protein and signal for its degradation

Epithelia

Simple: only layer Stratisfied: many layers Pseudostratisfied: appear to have many but only have one layer Shapes: -Columnar:long and narrow -squamous: flat and scalelike -cuboidal: cube

Muscle types

Skeletal: -striated -voluntary somatic control -multinucleated Cardiac: -intercalated disks(gap junctions and desmosomes) -uninucleated -autonomic involuntary control Smooth: -uninucleated -involuntary autonomic control -

sound properties

Sound propagates through the vibrations of the molecules as longitudinal pressure waves , and therefore cannot exist in a vacuum. The attenuation of sound is greatest in soft materials and increases with distance . Sound travels most slowly in gases and most quickly in solids.

come lets get sun burned (superficial to deep)

Stratum: corneum, lucid, granulosum,, spinosum, basale

region of Dna responsible for binding mrna during prokaryotic transcription

TATA box upstream from promoter with help of rna poly and TFs on mrna

Total activity specific activity activity of protein percent yield (activity)

TOtal activty= total protein (mg) x specific activity specific activity=activity/total amount of protein activity of protein= moles/time percent yield (activity)=total activity of purified protein/total activity of unpurified protein

teratogen vs mutation

Teratogen: any substance that causes malformation of an embryo Mutagen: any substance that causes a genetic change

Tetrahedral vs Trig pyramidal

Tetrahedral -4e densities -4 bonds Trig pyramidal -4 e densities -3 bonds -1 lone pair ex. NH3

cell envelopes and bacteria

The cell envelopes of gram-negative bacteria have more layers than those of gram-positive bacteria. Gram-negative bacteria are considered to be more dangerous, because components of the outer membrane make them more resistant to antibiotics and the host's immune system. Additionally, the lipopolysaccharide found in its outer membrane is an endotoxin that damages the host.

Which of the following statements correctly describes the distinction between the exocrine and endocrine portions of the testis?

The exocrine portion releases its products into ducts; the endocrine portion releases its products into the blood

Lub Dub

The first heart sound, "Lub," indicates that the heart has entered systole. Systole is typically defined as ventricular contraction. As the ventricles contract, the AV valves close to prevent regurgitation into the atria. The first heart sound indicates the closure of the mitral and tricuspid valves.The heart is in systole between the first and second heart sounds. Second sound of the heart "dub" is bc of closure of semilunar valvesThe second heart sound indicates the beginning of diastole. During systole, the heart pumps blood from the ventricles, and the atrioventricular valves are closed to prevent regurgitation into the atria. The closure of the semilunar valves is the start of a brief period of "isovolumetric relaxation."All valves are closed during the second heart sound

The frequency shift is positive when the source velocity is negative Doppler(moving closer) a

The frequency shift is positive when the source velocity is negative (moving closer) and negative when the source velocity is positive (moving away).

intensity=power/area=energy/timeareaintensity=powerarea=energy/timearea

The intensity of electromagnetic radiation increases with higher individual photon energy and higher emission rate.

lac operon--lets go bitch

The lac operon that controls lactose digestion in prokaryotes normally operates at a very low basal level, and is upregulated by the presence of its substrate. Lactose is a dimer of galactose and glucose. The absence of glucose leads to an increase in cAMP, because now the cell must rely much more heavily on the lac operon for energy. This sets off a cascade of events that upregulate the enzymes that cleaves lactose. The presence of lactose and absence of glucose will lead to the most galactose and thus will dye the most strongly blue (Answer B). The lac operon contains genes necessary to enhance lactose metabolism.Cleavage of lactose is carried out by the beta-galactosidase encoded for by lacZ, not by lactose permease.When glucose is low but lactose is readily available, the lac operon is activated, enhancing transport of lactose into the cell as well as lactose utilization.

Why would the mRNA for a secreted proteins encode a longer proteins that is actually observed in the cellular exterior

The only way for their to be a longer proteins would be if there was some post translational modification such as adding a signal sequence

increse lymph flow

The rate of lymph flow is proportional to factors that tend to pull liquid out of the circulatory system and into the interstitial spaces of tissue.Fluid moves from regions of high pressure to low pressure; Elevated cardiovascular capillary pressure will cause fluid to move out of capillaries, to regions of lower pressure.Elevated capillary pressure will increase lymph flow.The lymph circulatory system is an open system; its purpose is to take up fluid from the interstitial space and transport it to the blood circulatory system. has valves to prevent back flowe

The properties of parallel resistors are:

The voltage drop across each resistor is the same. If they are in parallel with the battery, the voltage drop across each resistor will be equal to that of the voltage generated by the battery. The equivalent resistance decreases if a resistor is added in parallel. Conversely, the equivalent resistance increases if a resistor in parallel is removed. The current through each resistor is independent from that through the other resistors. The total current is equal to the sum of the currents through each component.

What happens to respiratory system when we go to higher altitudes?

There is less O2 available, so we would breathe more rapidly to avoid hypoxia-Binding dynamics of Hb change to unload oxygen more readily (aside: the natural response of hemoglobin to decreased CO2 concentration (which would also occur at higher altitude) is to DECREASE unloading of oxygen, but other forces override this phenomena) -You would make more RBCs -in long term, you could increase vascularization to tissues

A drug that increases the risk of tubal pregnancy is most likely to inhibit which of the following actions?Transport of the ovum from ovary to uterusThe main reason for ectopic pregnancy is the failure of the fertilized egg to be transported from the oviducts to the uterus.

Transport of the ovum from ovary to uterus The main reason for ectopic pregnancy is the failure of the fertilized egg to be transported from the oviducts to the uterus.Transport of the ovum from ovary to uterusThe main reason for ectopic pregnancy is the failure of the fertilized egg to be transported from the oviducts to the uterus.

contractile velocity in ascending order for muscle fibers

Type I< Type 2 A< Type 2 B

As r increases what happens to U

U becomes less negative and increases the potential

first law thermodynamics: internal energy

U=W + Q INTERNAL ENERGY PROPORTIONAL TO TEMPERATURE compressing gas-->doing work-->increase internal energy W=P∆V area under graph: volume decreased: work done volume increased:work lost

Complex lll contains

UQH2 and Cyt C(ox)

fatty acid isomerization

Unsaturated: requires to convert cis to trans Saturated: does not require

9 essential amino acids

V H M I L K W T F (Very Heavy MILK is essential? WTF)

umbilicals

Vein: oxy blood from placenta to fetus artery: deoxy blood from fetus to placenta

9 essential amino acids:

Very Heavy MILK is essential? WTF

mixed inhibitors

Vmax decreases and Km either increases or decreases in its presence

volume of water displaced

Wapparent= Wair - FB FB= Wair - Wapparent FB= densityVg

inhibitors and enzyme activity example

When the inhibitor was preincubated with enzyme prior to the addition of the substrate (empty circles), only ~10 nM was required to induce significant inhibition compared to ~50 nM when inhibitor and substrate were added simultaneously. It is therefore most likely an irreversible inhibitor.

Explain DNA mismatch repair

Where exonuclease activity removes the specific nucleotide along with several nucleotides flanking either side DNA polymerase will incorporate the proper nucleotidesDNA ligase will catalyze new phosphodiester bonds to seal the gap

X linked recessive vs X linked dominant Y linked vs mitochondrial

X linked recessive -most common in males -Affected dad-->all daughters carriers -Mom carrier-->50% daughters carrier 50% sons affected X linked dominant -no father to son transmission -affected father-->all daughters affected -affected mother-->50% probability affected children Y linked inheritance -only father to son transmission Mitochondrial inheri -affected dad-->no affected offspring -affected mother-->100% daughters/sons affected

In order to create a claim that a particular function is independent of a certain structure what must you do?

You must show that there are similar function related findings in the organism with or without the anatomical structure of interest

In normal human extracellular fluid, the concentration of Na+ is approximately 140 mEq/L. A beaker of water is filled with a solution with exactly that sodium concentration. If a water-permeable synthetic cell is dropped in the beaker, what NaCl concentration can it have and still lose water to its environment?

[NACL]< 70 mEq/L *number of solute molecules 70 nail-->70 na and 70 cl upon dissociation =140 meq for the dell to lose water, it should have LESS solute concentration so it should have less than 70 nail

expression of MHC is solely dependent on

a cells transcriptional and translational machinery therefore, a low number of helper T cells would not alter the MHC complex

enzymatic conformational stability and kcat

a change in conformational stability of an enzyme does not necessarily affect function as long as the ambient temperature is low enough that the protein can fold properly

how to provide evidence that a metabolic pathway works by a proposed mechanism

a critical component of that mechanism should be inhibited and the effects observed. The blocked component must be unique to the proposed mechanism to ensure that the observed effect is not due to a separate pathway.

an increased slope on a lineweaver burk signifies

a decreased catalytic efficiency

what is needed for for eukaryotic DNA polymerase to bind in order to initiate synthesis

a free 3'OH provided by PRIMER prokaryotes-->no require primer

in order for a (- RNA to infect it needs

a rna polymerase in its capsid

what occurs when current flows through a resistor? x

a voltage drop occurs across the resistor

during amino acid degragadation

aa are converted to alpha keto acids via transamination

what is cooperativity

ability of ligand binding to alter a proteins affinity for additional ligands

critical point

above point where LIQUID and GAS are no longer distinguishable, becomes supercritical fluid

carbs and amino acids entrance into circulation

absorbed in capillaries of small intestine and enter systemic circulation via hepatic portal system

electrons ejected from cathode

accelerate toward anode and CURRENT flows through circuit

utricle and saccule are involved in detecting

acceleration

RLS FA synthesis

acetyl CoA Carboxylase converts: acetyl coa to mal coa requires atp if unphosphorylated: on if phosphorylated: off promoted by insulin!

****During prolonged starvation

acetyl coA produced during beta oxidation in the mitochondria converted to ketone bodies

all preganglionic neurons in autonomic and postganglionic neurons in pns use

acetylcholine

neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular junction

acetylcholine

norepi and epi stimulated by

ach signaling of sympathetic

water is a product of the reaction signifies

acidic electrolyte will be diluted as the battery discharges

during extractions

acids protonate bases bases deprotonate acids

thin filament components

actin troponin tropoomyesin

A zone

actin + myosin

I band

actin filaments only

action potential and calcium

action potential cause ca2+ channels in the SR to open, causing ca2+ to flow out and increase [ca2+] around sarcomeres

cholinergic agonists

activate ACh receptors

p53

activate dna repair protein when da has sustained damage arrests growth by holding cell cycle hostage at g1-->s regulation po8int giving time for dna to be repaired before cell cycle continues **tumor suppressor protein

metabotropic NT receptors

activate secondary messanger move slower than inotropic but have larger and more widespread results baby

Upon binding foreign antigens,

activated B lymphocytes divide and differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells and long-lived memory B cells that can more rapidly respond to foreign antigens in the event of future infections.

fatty acid activation

activated by CoA followed by carnitine to enter the mitochondrial matrix and this requires atp hydrolysis requires transport proteins in inner mitochondrial membrane

PTH also

activates vitamin d syhntehsis

endosomal acidification requreies

active transport

how to decrease amount of ionization of weak acid such as acetic acid

add a strong acid

N linked carbon chain

added to asparagine in ER

2 hormones produced by the hypothalamus and released by posterior pituitary

adh and oxytocin

aldosterone and cortisol are released by

adrenal cortex

aldosterone secreted from

adrenal cortex

absolute refractory period.***

after depolarization and the cell reestablishes original resting state

relative refractory period.***

after hyperpolarization til resting state is reestablished

centromere

after replication, sister chromatids attach to centromere during mitosis, spindle fibers are attached at centromere and pull sisters chromatids apart

Spermatogenesis:

after s stage: primary spermatocytes after meiosis 1:secondaspry spermatocytes after meiosis 2:spperspermatids After maturation:spermatozoa

strecker synthesis

aldehyde + NH4Cl-->imine nucleophilic attack by KCN to form aminonitrile hydrolyzed to form carboxylic acid (amino acid) non steroselective

parallel strands have

aligned N-terminals require larger connecting groups

hydroxylation reactions occur in amino acids with

aliphatic r groups

NP-HPLC elutes in the following order (nonpolar to polar)

alkane, ester, alcohol, and carboxylic acid.

complex lV inhibition

all reduced electron carriers buildup because ultimately lose electron acceptor

incomplete penetrance

all same genotype but only SOME express associated phenotype ex. not all patients with A323G mtDNA mutant exhibit hearing loss

in sex linked dominance if father is affected

all sons affected

when protein denatured via heating

all structure is destroyed except PRIMARY structure as it is conserved

complete penetrance

all with same genotype show associated phenotype

Michaelis mentor does not apply to

allosteric proteins -kay assumption is there is ONE active site capable of binding substrate -hemoglobin however is an ALLOSTERIC Protein with four subunits and exhibits cooperatively

F26 BP

allosterically activates PFK1--stimulates glycolysis allosteric inhibits F16 BP--inhibits gluconeogenesis stimulates glycolysis and reduced gluconeogenesis**** ---decreased f26hbp stimulates gluconeogenesis -----regulatory mechanism. to help increase net glucose catabolism in liver after a meal: allosterically inhibit F16 BP catalysis

salt bridge purpose

allow for free movement of IONS which prevents charge differences

leak channels

allow na and k to pass through membrane to main the resting membrane potential open all the time with bond ions moving back and forth DOWN their concentration gradients and following electric potential voltage gated ion channels permit an action potential

cytokinesis

allows for two daughter cells to form

dsDNA

already hybridized unable to anneal the cDNA probe

how to modify the affinity for each layer of extraction

alter the charge or affinity

∆G. and signs

always ->>> -∆H and +∆S always +->>>> +∆H and -∆S

too little acetylcholine

alzheimers; paralysis

protein aggregation upon charge neutralization

ambient pH should equal pI

amines vs phenols

amines are weak bases that require strong acid to be protonated phenols are weak acids that require strong base to be deprotonated

A

amino

Patient presents to ED status post afferent arteriole stenosis. What happens physiologically?

amount of blood reaching the glomerulus limited-->decreased glomerular hydrostatic pressure-->decreased GFR

energy density

amount of energy produced by a battery per unit mass used to compare energy output of batteries or WORK DONE by battery

electromotive force that a battery produces on discharge

amount of work done per unit charge

starches are hydrolyzed by

amylase(produced in pancreas)

when charging a battery

an external potential must be applied to force the redox reaction in the NONspontaneous direction the reverse direction requires MORE than the potential produced by the battery because of internal resistance

inductive signaling

an inducer(signaling cell) releases chemical signals that act on competent neighboring cells by regulating the expression of specific genes required for cell determination

A confounding variable is

an uncontrolled variable different from the independent variable but that still has an impact on the dependent variable. The effect of a confounding variable can be observed by including a group that differs in the confounding variable.

fast twitch fibers

anaerobic metabolism more glycolysis less mitochondria greater ca2+ pumping capacity

most reliable way to confirm presence of silent mutation

analyze the sequence of the associated gene3

nondisjunction occurs during

anaphase when the homologous chromosome (*meiosis 1) or sister chromatids (meiosis 2) fail to separate to opposite poles, leading to extra chromosomes in some daughter cella and missing chromosomes in some others

microtubule organizing centers

anchor negative end of microtubule to prevent depolymerization

critical angle

angle between the incident ray and the normal and creates a 90 degree angle between the refracted ray and the normal -refracted ray is parallel to the surface

angle of incidence vs angle of refraction

angle of incidence IS NOT equal to the angle of refraction

Law of Reflection

angle of incidence iS ALWAYS equal to the angle of reflection

low pH end of gradient near

anode

in electrolytic cell

anode is positively charged cathode is negatively charged **Anode to Cathode

appendix and colon anatomy

anppendix is continuous with colon so splitting of appendix leads material to abdominal cavity

tsh is secreted by

anterior pituitary

trna and binding

anticodon recognizes and binds mRNa

what is measured by elisa

antigen level NOT antibodies

MHC 2

antigens from EXTRACELLULAR PATHWAYS exogenous pathway cells that PHAGOCYTOSE need these antigen presenting cells

MHC 1

antigens from INTRACELLULAR PATHWAYS endogenous pathway all NUCLEATED cells have

pNADPH

antimicrobial resistance production of steroid hormone precursor maintenance of reduced glutathione for free radicals

aorta pressure vs superior vena cava pressure

aorta has great pressure superior vena cava pressure is nearly zero

blood flow after LV

aorta-->arteries-->arterioles-->capillaries-->venues-->veins-->vena cavae

growth arrest is indicative of

apoptosis

what suggests that at least one disulfide bond is present in the protein and that the disulfide bond holds two separate subunits of different masses together?

appearance of 1 band on SDS PAGE without reducing agent and 2 bands on SDS page WITH reducing agent

counter current multiplier mechanism

applies the single effect (static gradient) to a dynamic system where fluid is constantly moving through the LOOPOFHENLE 1)pump salt from filtrate to medulla 2)equilibrate water throughout system 3)shift filtrate along the tubule medulla becomes least concentrated in the UPPER region near the CORTEX and progressively more concentrated in the deeper region

principal quantum number

approximate size of radial electron cloud

what facilitates the reabsorption of water in the collecting duct and subsequently decrease urine output

aquaporin proteins

migrating from low pH to high pH proteins

are deprotonated

migrate from high pH to low pH proteins

are protonated

Heterocyclic molecules

are ring structures that contain at least one heteroatom (neither carbon nor hydrogen) within the ring.

titin:

are strands of protein reach from tips of thick filaments to the Z line stabilize the filaments

acceleration vs time graph

area=change in velocity

reticular activating system

arousal and wakefulness

blood flow

arteries-->arterioles-->capillaries-->venues veins

BP vasculature

arteries>arterioles>capillaries>venules>veins

which group of blood vessels are the main source of peripheral resistance

arterioles because they have the greatest voltage drop across its length

ductus:

arteriosus: pulmonary artery to aorta venous: umbilical vein to inferior vena cava

gall bladder vs hepatopancreatic sphincter

as gallbladder contracts hepatopancreatic sphincter relaxes----inverse relationship

resistance vs current

as resistance increased current decreases

temperature and Ecell

as temperature increases Ecell decreases

The potential energy of object increases

as the radial distance from the mass increases

erm thermal expansion

as the temperature increases, the length linearly(proportionaly increase as well

which amino acids can be glycosylated?

asparagine and glutamine but mostly ASPARAGINE

to determine if differential can be reversed

assess whether the acquired changes of DIFFERENTIATED cells would revert following transplantation

spindle fibers

attached to centromere and pull sister chromatids apart during mitosis

centromeres function

attachment points on the chromosomes for MICROTUBLES during mitosis

temporal lobe

auditory cortex

Why is dNa have a more stable sugar than rnA?

b/c sugar with free OH on 2' RnA is more REACTIVE AND LESS STABLE

all beta sheets participate in

backbone hydrogen bonding

semicircular canals are involved in detecting

balance

optical conditions of pancreatic enzymes

basic conditions in small intestine

gel filtration chromatography separates proteins on

basis of size

the electrons are lost from cathode or when they are lost from negatively charged terminal of capacitor

battery replaces lost electrons and therefore forms a current

positive ions be considered to be fixed during electrons oscillations

because ions is much more massive than electron

alkali metals and alkali earth metals often get oxidized to

become metal cations

the constant region of The antibody does not

bind antigens because the variable region does,

transcription factors

bind dna recruit rna polymerases in the nucleus

free enzyme binding vs ES complex effect on km

binding free enzymes-->increases Km binding ES complex-->decreases km

first differentiated cells occur

blastua

kidney failure results in disrupted

blood nitrogen levels blood ph production of erythropoeitin

glomerular filtration rate is dependent on

blood pressure

as water reabsorption increases,

blood volume increases and subsequently blood pressure increases

types of connective tissue include

blood, bone, adipose tissue

gas chromatography separates based

boiling point

bond formation and bond dissociation

bond formation: exothermic bond dissociation: endothermic

Self-reactive B cells are normally eliminated in the

bone marrow

in order for child to be homozygous for certain allele.

both parents must be carriers

primary structure can be altered by

breaking peptide bonds changing the identity of one ore more amino acids within the original sequence (such as mutations)

breaking bonds is ___whereas forming bonds is

breaking-endothermic forming-exothermic

alpha amylase

breaks down glucose polymers

medulla oblongata

breathing and heartbeat

inhibition of carbonic anhydrase results in

build of co2in the tissues

complex ll inhibition

buildup of FADH2

moles of metal plated

calculate moles of metal plated given current and time: 1. determine charge: Q = It 2. determine moles of electrons: ne = Q/F 3. determine moles of metal: nmetal = ne/ionic charge (electrons per metal)

ubiquitin

can be attached to one proteins as a molecular signal usually through a linkage to a LYSINE residue

amphoteric

can behave as acid or base such as amino acids water and bicarb

prostaglandins

cannot be hydrolyzed autocrine and pararine signaling derived from arachidonic acid mediate localized inflammatory responses

Individuals who cannot carry out gluconeogenesis

cannot buffer blood glucose with glucogenic amino acid metabolites

leptin resistant cells

cannot increase fatty acid oxidation so leptin resistance would lead to decrease in acetyl coa in skeletal muscles

glycerol contains three hydroxyls which signifies

capable of hydrogen bonding

size of patients brain ventricles can be measured by

cat scan

catalyst and enthalpy

catalyst does not affect the enthalpy of the reaction

PEPCK

catalyzes second step in gluconeogenesis(oaa-->pep) inactivation leads to lactate buildup and glucose depletion in blood

amino acid derivate hormones

catecholamines which bind to gprcs, rapid onset, short lived

high pH gradient near

cathode

selectins

cell adhesion to carbohydrates on the surfaces of other cells and are most commonly used in the immune system calcium dependent

as temperature increases

cell potential increases, delta g decreases, K (eq constant) increases, right shift

cadherins

cell to cell adhesion using calcium

epi and norepi bind to to the

cells surface

what are all made of tubulin

centrioles flagella cilia

at top of loop

centripital force=gravitational force

microtubules originate from

centrosome

once sperm enters vagina it travels

cervix to uterus to fallopian tube

sperm enter vagina goes to

cervix uterus fallopian tube

one potential cause for antibiotic resistance is

chance mutations

inbreeding increases

chance of getting homzygous recessive traits incidence of expression of deleterious recessive traits

impulse

change in momentum=Ft

the absolute only way to affect Keq

change temperature!

one way to reduce enzyme activity is

change the salinity concentration in vitro

reducing agents

change toward a higher oxidation state

it is not possible for the particle to accelerate in the magnetic field without

changing direction

in order fora charged particle to experience a magnetic field

charge must be MOVING and VELOCITY must be PERPENDICULAR to direction of magnetic field

to precipitate dna

charge must be neutralized

charged particle at rest and magnetic field

charged particles at rest DO NOT experience magnetic field

A Battery is

charging in an electrolytic cell discharging in galvonic cell

Running motor with battery energy pathway

chemical to electrical to thermal kinetic

galvanic cells

chemical toi electrical energy

intestinal epithelial contain

cholesteral

lipid rafts

cholesterol rich in plasma membrane

metaphase

chromosomes align along metaphase plate chromosomes attach to spindle fibers

mitochondria genes

circular chromosomes of dsDNA no telomeres no histone association

which configuration enhances membrane fluidity by introducing kink

cis

irreversible steps of krebs-->allosteric regulation

citrate synthase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, a ketoglutarate dehydrogenase

2 stereospecific reactions of krebs

citrate to isocitrate via aconitase fumarate to malate via fumarase

events that alter sequence

cleavage of peptide bonds by proteases changes in amino acid sequence by mutations in the DNA that encodes the protein of interest ex. site directed mutagenesis

Lipases

cleave ester bonds in hydrolyzable lipids via hydrolysis

chymotrypsin

cleaves bonds near HYDROPHOBIC residues

chymotrypsin cleavage

cleaves bonds on c terminal side of large aromatic residues (F,Y,W)

trypsin

cleaves bonds on c terminal side positively charged residues (R, K)

D(+)

clockwise

a potent competitive inhibitor could be designed by

closely resembling TS of the enzyme catalyzed reaction (not substrate)

Diff btw Co-dominance & Incomplete dominance- is it observed in Phenotype of homozygous or heterozygous individuals?

codominance=co expression -eg- red + white= red and white flower incomplete dominance=blended/intermediate -eg-red + white=pink flower both are observed phenotype of HETEROZYGOUS individuals

coenzymes vs prosthetic groups

coenzymes bind LOOSELY (NAD) prosthetic groups bind TIGHTLY to their enzyme (heme)

coenzymes vs cofactors

coenzymes-organic cofactors-inorganic

leucine zipper

common motif

How can genes biological function be inferred?

compare the differences with the gene KNOCKED OUT to the WILDTYPE organism

genes biological function can be inferred by

comparing differences in organisms it the knocked out gene(inactivated) with the wild type organism

how likely a mutation is going to cause a genetic disorder is determined by?

comparing mutant activity to wild type form

competent vs incompetent oocytes

competent oocytes are mature and most likely result in viable progeny after being fertilized by sperm

Binding interactions and inhibitors

competitive->only free enzymes uncompetitive->only ES complex mixed->can bind both free enzymes and ES complex---if do, noncompetative

Negative Sense Viral RNA

complementary to mRNA and must be converted to positive sense-RNA by an RNA polymerase before translation

a wave that is combined with a copy of itself has has been flipped across the x axis would result in

complete destructive interference and subsequently generate noise cancellation

mass percent

component mass/total mass x 100%

blood brain barrier

composed of endothelial cells held together by TIGHT JUNCTIONS

gray matter

composed of umyelinated neuronal cell bodies and dendrites

morphogens

concentration dependent manner b

henrys law

concentration of o2 dissolved in blood is directly proportional to partial pressure of o2 in equilibrium with blood high partial pressure of o2 in alveoli-->more o2 dissolved in blood greater pressure=greater solubility of gas

conduction convection radiation

conduction: molecular collisions, requires direct physical contact convection: through fluids radiation: thermal energy transfer through EM waves

conductivity vs resistivity

conductivity = 1 / resistivity (inversely proportional) -->ex: lowering conductivity by 75% means 1/4 of conductivity, which means 4 times the resistivity

spindle microtubles

connect 2 centrioles

merkel cells

connect with motor neurons to sense TOUCH

metaphysis

connection betweeen epiphysis and diaphysis

ovarian cell composition

connective + epithelial tissue

osteoclast is

connective tissue

kinetochore

connects centromeres to centrosomes/centrioles and their shortening pulls sister chromatids apart

corpus collosum

connects cerebral hemispheres

basement membrane

connects epithelial alter to endothelium of capillary

cardiac sphincter`

connects esophagus to stomach

hypophyseal portal system

connects hypothalamus to anterior pituitary gland

young double split experiment

constructive interference: bright, maxima fringes destructive interference: dark, minima fringesPresented light (of one wavelength) to two parallel slits Diffracted rays of light emerged due to interference Supported theory that light behaves as a wave

compact bone

contains lamellae and haversion canals

parietal lobe

contains somatosensory cortex and involved in processing touch and taste

what causes neuronal fatigue?

continuous synaptic activity--->depletion of neurotransmitters-->fatigue

positive focal length

convergin

correct hyperopia

converging (convex) lens because focal length is too long

Ketogenic amino acids

converted directly to acetyl CoA which can enter TCA or be used for ketone bodies

the kinetic energy of an object launched upward in gravity is

converted into gpe

glucogenic amino acids

converted to pyruvate or tca intermediates which can be converted to GLUCOSE

ELECTRICAL SIGNAL FROM AXON OF PRESYNAPTIC TERMINAL

converted to release of neurtransmitters into the synaptic cleft between neurons--->. neurotransmitters bind to receptors on post synaptic dendrites and chase electric potential of cell

When a retinal cis binds to opsins

converted to retinal trans on absorbing a photon, triggering polymerization of cell by blocking Na+ channels

unfolding of proteins is

cooperative so sigmoidal curve

L(-)

counterclockwise

post translational modifications include

covalent additions of non amino acid groups to proteins

solid state carbon

covalent network of solid graphite

suicide inhibitor

covantly bind to enzyme and prevent it from catalyzing reaction

what happens when stretching of skin in regards to physics?

creates greater normal force around cannula and greater static friction to better prevent slipping

viruses genes never undergo

cross over because they lack machinery to do meiosis

crossover vs alternative splicing

crossover: genetic diverisyt alternative splicing: protein diversity

an ammeter measures

current

two wires repel if

current in opposite direction

magnetic field strength related to

current over radius of loop

cell cycle maintained by

cyclin dependent kinases

cysteine vs cystine

cysteine: amino acids with thiol group cystine:2 amino acids that have disulfide bond

apoptosis induction

cytochrome C leaves mitochondria and enters cytosol, where it activates CASPASE caspase activates several degradative process such as PROTEOLYSIS

Environments

cytoplasm: reducing ER: oxidizing Extracellular space: oxidizing

G3P shuttle

cytosolic NADH converted to mitochondrial FADH2 by OXIDIZING G3P-->DHAP

how do we control termination of replication during dna sequencing?

ddNTPs used which are do not have OH on 3'carbon and prevents us from creating new 5' to 3' phosphodiester bond

kinetic friction causes objects to

decelerate because friction opposes sliding

in order for plasma osmolarity to increase

decrease amount of water or increase concentration of solutes

attenuation

decrease in amplitude of wave causes intensity to DECREASE

what do chaperones do?

decrease the tendency of proteins to aggregate and increases its solubility

reduced bone mass and density

decreased activity of osteoblasts increased activity of osteoclasts

for sds page of a degradable protein, treatment with increasing protease concentrations is correlated with

decreased band intensity of protease resistant fragments per lane

aldosterone deficiency results in

decreased blood volume and decreased pressure because H20 passively follows Na+ during that, less Na+ reabsorp means less H20 reabsorp into the blood as well thus a decreased volume

increased slope on LW burk signfies

decreased catalytic efficiency

a lower Tm indicates

decreased conformational stability because less thermal energy is required to denature the protein

when increased levels insulin cause blood glucose to decrease (4 things)

decreased glucagon release decreased plasma amino acids decreased hepatic gluconeogenesis increases hepatic glycogen stores

2,3 BPG***

decreases affinity for o2 for hemoglobin released in HIGH co2, h+ ion concentration, or high T environments

magnitude of heat released

decreases as more ligand is added

increased partial pressure and fermentation

decreases fermentation and production reduced ethanol reduced production of ethanol

inbreeding outcome

decreases heterozygosity-->decreases reproductive success and fitness-->extinction/elimination of species

drug that decreases glucose absorption

decreases osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid and capillary blood plasma surrounding the intestine. Decreased osmotic pressure caused by reduced glucose absorption would likely decrease intestinal water absorption and increase (not decrease) the excretion of water in stool.

mutation the ubiquinated lysine to any other Amino acid

decreases rate of protein degradation

blue shift

decreasing wavelength and approaching

how does calcitonin decrease blood calcium

decreseaes osteoclast activity increase renal excretion of calcium

Adrenal insufficiency caused by

defective SER

end product from unequal crossover

deficient-deletion excess-duplication

Chemical synapse

delay between pre and post synaptic action potentials use NTs

three ways protooncogenes convert to oncogenes

deletion or point mutation gene amplification/increase in mRNA stability chromosomal rearrangement

how can one reveal the role of amino acids in enzymatic activity?

deliberately mutate the amino acids of interests

specific gravity

density of object/density of water

pulmonary circuit distributes

deoxygenated blood-->low o2, high co2, high H+

first order reaction

depend on substrate concentration and occur when the Km is greater than the substrate concentration

pH>pI

deprotonated and negative charge

how to get NTs out of synaptic cleft

destroy using enzyme in the cleft reabsorb into presynaptic cleft diffuse out of cleft

ovaries are directly responsible for

development and maintenance of female sex characteristics

halogens get oxidized to become

diatomic

graphically Ea

difference between tallest peak and reactants

Different isoforms of proteins can be produced by

different combinations of exons

whatfrequency does not change between

different mediums

multipotent stem cells

differentiate only into the specialized cells of certain tissues and are also found in adults

gene inserted into plasmid by

digesting gene and plasmid with same restriction enzymes then ligation

inotropic neurotransmitter receptors

directly allow ions to pass through membrane faster than metabotropicl

force and charge rela

directly proportional

viscosity and diameter are

directly proportional

solid/liquid solubility in water

directly proportional to T NOT affected by pressure

According to Poiseuille law, the flow rate is

directly proportional to vessel radius and pressure difference, and inversely proportional to viscosity and vessel length.

gas solubility in water

directly proportional: P indirectly proportional: T

density is directly proportional to and indirectly proportional to

directly: external P indirectly: external T

galvanic cell

discharging battery

tissue cells

divide by mitosis contain sub cellular organelles metabolize nutrient molecules but are not capable of extended independent life like single celled organisms

nuclear protein requires

dna binding domain nuclear localization sequence

leucine zipper:

dna binding domain in transcription factors made of 2 amphipatic alpha helices

cDNA cloning

dna ligase dna polymerase reverse transcriptase

cDNA components

dna poly: dna amplificait9n dna ligase: ligation of dna to vector reverse transcriptase:rna to cDNAw

Relative gene count can be determined by

dna sequencing southern blot not northern blot

lipids with unsaturated acyl chains

do not pack well and increase entropy.

how do transmembrane proteins endomembrane system

dock at rough er via signal sequence

activity of digestive enzymes and nervous system

does not affect activity of sympathetic nactivity

lyase generates

double bond or ring structure

double bonds vs single: regarding dissociation energy

doulbe bonds require greater dissociation energies than single

motor

efferent--motor impulses away from CNS

how can you solve for catalytic efficiency if given Km and Vmax but not Kcat

efficiency = Kcat/Km but Vmax= Kcat [E] if at constant concentration of enzyme them Vmax = Kcat therefore efficiency = Vmax/ Km

electronegativity vs bond length

electonegativity and bond length are inversely proportional

in electrolytic cell,

electric current from external source is supplied to provide energy to perform endergonic nonsponatneous process electrochemical decomposition of compound

electrolytic cells

electrical to chemical energy

electrode travel and voltage travel

electrode: anode to cathode voltage: cathode to anode

electrolytic cells cause

electrolysis which is nonspontaneous

negative voltage is indicative of

electrolytic cell

electrolytic vs galvanic

electrolytic: positive anode and negative cathode galvanic: negative anode and positive cathode

electron excitation in uv spectroscopy

electrons are excited from HOMO to LUMO --the smaller the difference in energy between the two, the longer the wavelengths that can be absorbed in the molecule in uv spectroscopy

hunds rule

electrons fill each orbital in a subshell before doubling up

in spontaneous reaction,

electrons flow from molecules wit LOW reduction potentials to molecules with HIGH reduction potentials

native page

electrophoretic mobility relying on length conformation and charge

ACCORDING to coulombs law

electrostatic force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between charged particles

ionization energy and ionize

elements with lower first ionization energy are easier to ionize than elements with higher ionization energy

lower the net charge of peptide results

elution at lower concentratiohn

all lipids can be _____ and triglycerides and phospholipids are____

emulsified (lipids), hydrolyzed (triglyc and phospholipids)

viruses entering host cells

endocytosis in which the capsid and envelope UNCOAT (dissemble) which released the viral genetic material inside host genome

the blastula implants in what and becomes what

endometrial lining and becomes placenta

internalization fo viral proteins is mediated by

endosomes

in the lowest energy electron configuration,

energy levels are completely filled

enzymes lower

energy of activation or delta g of TRANSITION STATE not reaction

IONization energy

energy required to remove an electron from an atom

phage lysogenic life cycle

enrage genome with host genome and replicate as cell deicides

enveloped viruses:

enter cell via cell membrane fusion capsid composed with phospholipid hbilayer Drug to inhibit: inhibit fusion of virus to cell membrane

non enveloped viruses

enter cells via receptor mediated endocytosis inward budding no phospholipid bilayer Drug to inhibit: inhibit inward budding would prevent virus from entering cell

fats entrance into circulation

enter lacteals of small intestine and bypasss hepatic portal circulation and enter systemic circulation via thoracic duct

trypsinogen is activated by

enteropeptidase

resting state of protein

entropy main responsible lacks secondary and tertiary structure

retroviruses

enveloped postive sense stranded convert their genomes to DSDNA using reverse transcriptase during lysogenic cycles enter nucleus and integrate their reverse transcribed dna into host genome

autophosphorylation best control

enzyme WITHOUT substrate

carbonic anhydrase

enzyme that catalyzes the reaction between carbon dioxide and water to form carbonic acid

during mismatch repair

enzymes cut out dna strands that are not methylated

since almost all natural amino acids are synthesized in the L conformation

enzymes work exclusively with L amino acids and do not affect D peptides.

gluconeogenesis stimulated by

epi, glucagon, cortisol

nasal mucosal cells

epithelial

what type of cells are highly proliferative?

epithelial cells

kerati=

epithelial cells (skin) link cells via DESMOSOMES intermediate filament high tensile strength, resistance to stretching and tearing

hemidesmosomes

epithelial cells to basement membrane ex skin attached to muscle

protein transcriptions primarily occurs in the

er then sent to golgi to get post translational modifcation

reactions with large free energy change are

essentially irreversible and unidirectional

If the elevator is moving at constant velocity,

ethen there is no net acceleration and no net force. The tension in the cable must equal the gravitational force of the there is net acceleration and no net force. The tension in the cable must equal the gravitational force of the elevator. The forces on the elevator when it is moving downwards at a constant velocity are the gravitational force and the force due to the tension on the cable.

organic layer usually has

ether which is not very polar so AMIDE and others ETHERS will be here

A gene is continuously expressed, such as GADPH, it is mostly likely found in

euchromatin

yeast are

eukaryotes

mechanism of heat exchange of sweatingq

evaporative cooling

genes with similar sequences or high sequence similarity are considered

evolutionarily related

hyperpolarization

excessive outflow of K

splicing

excision of noncoding regions introns

absorption of uv light causes

excitation of bound electrons

exergonic/endergonicexothermic/endothermic

exergonic - releases energy endergonic - absorbs energy exothermic - releases heat endothermic - absorbs heat

NTs mechanism of action

exocytosed for presynaptic neuron and enter synaptic cleft receptors are located in postsynaptic neuron

serotonin released from neurons via

exocytosis

increase in intracellular calcium causes

exocytosis of NTs

-∆H

exothermic temperature rises

lack of hydrophobic residues signifies

experience weak hydrophobic effect and do not fold

way to determine if virus enveloped or nonevelpope

expose to fluorescent antibodies designed to bind to viral capsid

protein expression vs degradation

expression: transcription factors RNA processing degradation: targeting sec proteins to lysosome cystolic proteins to proteasome ubiquitin tags-->cytosolic proteins

pH (thermodynamic stability)

extreme changes in pH outside the physiological range lead to loss of hydrogen bonding and DESTABILIZE dna helix

convex mirror focal length

f<0

concave mirro focal length

f>0

charge during electrolysis

faraday 1 faraday equals electrica charge present in 1 mole of electrons

low melting point signifies

faster dénaturation rate, less stable structure, weaker or fewer IMFs

what accumulates in adipose tissue

fat soluble vitamins

the energy necessary for sustained gluconeogensis is provided by

fatty acid oxidation

inhibition of any complex in the etc results in

fewer protons being pumped into the im space of mitochondria resulting in DECREASED proton motive force

the primary antibody or labeled secondary antibody is detected by

fluorescence or chemoilluminescence

doppler

fo>fs: moving towards fo<fs: moving away

mirrors conventions

focal length: postive-->concave negative-->convex di: positive-->real negative-->virtuall do=always +

proteins expressed by different mRNAs whose codons code for the same amino acid sequence

fold identically and are indistinguishable from one another

elementary reaction vs non elementary reaction

for elementary reactions there reaction order of each species is equal to its stoichiometric coefficient whereas it must be determined empirically a non elementary reaction

A charge that is moving parallel to a current of other charges experiences

force perpendicular to its own velocity

Nucleolus

found within nucleus primary site of rRNA transcription by RNA Polymerase 1 -->make ribosomes

property of wave that does not change when different medium

frequency

what does not change between different medium?

frequency

given frequency how can heart rate be calculated

frequency x 60s

viruses infect cells by attaching to specific acceptors

fusing with plasma membrane endocytosis inject their genome into cell

G1 is and G2 is

g1-presythetic gap g2-postsythetic gap

atoms positioned to right of periodic table

gain electrons more readily than metallic elements on the left, with exception of group 18

People who are born without sweat glands are likely to die of heat stroke in the tropics. This indicated that, under tropical conditions, the human body may:

gain, rather than lose, heat by radiation If people lack sweat glands, they are unable to make sweat nor capitalize upon the evaporative cooling of sweat. These individuals nearly solely rely on vasodilation (radiation) for responding to elevated external temperature. This indicates that radiation alone is ineffective for cooling under these conditions. In fact, the human body may gain heat by absorbing radiation from the sun leading to an elevation in body temperature.

Gamma vs beta radiation

gamma-->high energy photons lacking charge beta-->negatively charged electrons and subsequently deflected by magnetic field because charged

intercalated disks contain

gap junctions and desmosomes

entropy order

gas>liquid>salt (s)>metal(s)

gases vs liquids compressibility

gases-compressible liquids-not compressible

when succinyl coa converted to succinate

gdp-->gtp

cDNA

generated from mature mRNA-->encodes SAME mature mRNA as ENDOGENOUS GENE hybridizes with SSDNA that corresponds to SENSE strand has same sequence as ANTISENSE (template) strand unlikely hybridizes with protein NOT hybridized by ANTIbodies DOES NOT undergo SPLICING

what causes decrease in population

genetic drift bottleneck events

founder effect

genetic drift that occurs after small number of individuals colonize a new area requires separation of populations

cowpers glands

glands that secrete a clear alkaline fluid into the male's urethra

Infusion of which peptide hormone will most likely prevent brain injury in newborn infants exposed to high glucose levels during their fetal development?

glucagon

alpha cells

glucagon

blood glucose levels low stimulates

glucagon

when increased levels of insulin cause blood glucose to decrease

glucagon release decreases plamsa amino acids decreases hepatic gluconeogenesis decreases hepatic glycogen stores increase

common peptide hormones

glucagon, insulin, leptin

glucagon stimulates

gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis release glucose from the liver

glucocorticoids promote

gluconeogenesis and lipolysis

what pathways use G6Pase to catalyze final step to release free glucose?

gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis, cori cycle ppp uses g6pase as substrate

sucrose

glucose + fruchtose alpha 1,2 nonreducing

sucrose

glucose + fructose

maltose

glucose + glucse alpha 1,4

after several weeks starvation acetyl coa is primary converted to ketone bodies becasue

glucose depletes supply of OAA which is essential for entry of acetyl coa into krebs OAA is converted to PEP

GH increases

glucose in bone and muscle

when there is sympathetic activity and there is increased brain activity

glucose metabolism rise

A synthetic "cell" contains 2.5 M of glucose and 3.5 M of sucrose, along with plenty of glucose and sucrose channels in its membrane. If it is placed in a solution of 5.0 M glucose and 1.0 M sucrose, in which direction will these solutes initially diffuse?

glucose will diffuse INTO the cell and sucrose will DIFFUSE OUTWARD because Although the total concentration of solutes is identical inside and outside the cell, glucose and sucrose each possess their own concentration gradients. Glucose will move down its gradient from the extracellular solution into the cell, and sucrose will travel in the opposite direction.

alodose of fructose

gluose

CNS excitatory NT

glutamate

nmda

glutamate receptor

gluconeogenic precursors

glycerol, lactate, OAA

Glycerol conversion

glycerol-->G3P-->DHAP-->glycolysis

purine synthesis amino acids

glycine, aspartate, glutamine

glycogenolysis rate limiting enzyme

glycogen phosphorylase

Glycogen during Prolonged Starvation

glycogen stores are depleted within 12-24 hours of fasting and are not available after prolonged starvation

glycogenesis rate limiting enzyme

glycogen synthase

Glycogenesis vs glycogenolysis

glycogenesis is inducted by insulin in response to high blood glucose level whereas glycgejoneolysis is induced by EPI binding to G protein coupled receptors which ultimately activates glycogen phosphorylase

hepatic glycogen indicative of

glycogenolysis

monosacs bond in oligosaccharides

glycoside

only eukaryotes have

golgi

bacteria lack

golgi er mito chloroplasts

retrograde transport

golgi-->rough er; toward nucleus

rate constant

greater for catalyzed reaction increases with temperature

bonds and heat capacity

greater number of bonds, greater heat capacity

greater catalytic surface area corresponds to

greater reaction rate

greater solubility and corrosion rate

greater solubility results in faster/greater corrosion rate(faster

larger the electronegativity difference,

greater the dipole moment

cross sectional area greatest and lowest

greatest-capillaries lowest-arteries

Representative elements

groups 1-2 (s block) groups 3-18(p bloack()

during chain elongation,

gtp and elongation factor are required

5' cap

guanine nucleotide protects mrna strand from exonucleases promotes ribosomal binding regulates nuclear export of the mRNA

crest and the adjacent trough are a

half wavelength apart.

NTPs

have phosphodiester bonds The three phosphate groups on an NTP are designated as the α-, β-, and γ-phosphates, with the α-phosphate being linked to the nucleoside and the γ-phosphate being farthest away from the nucleoside. NTP cleavage typically releases either the γ-phosphate as inorganic phosphate (Pi) or the γ- and β-phosphates as pyrophosphate.

not being selective against is same as

having equivalent fitness

What is the driving force for gas exchange?

he driving force is the pressure differential of the gases, CO2 and O2 go down their partial pressure gradients. Thus gas transfer requires no energy.

systole

heart contracts as ventricles pump blood to body

way to improve degree of separation?

heat distill flask at slower rate

relative thermodynamic stability of isomers can be determined by

heats of combustions less heat more stability

in order for mutarotation and oxidation to occur

hemiacetal must be present in order for ring to open

centromeres and telomeres are both made of

heterochromatin

With sex linked traits

heterozygous female means one of X chromosomes carries resessive sex linked trait(1/2 chance) hemophiliac male means that male expresses the trait

sex linked traits

heterozygous female means one of X chromosomes carries resessive sex linked trait(1/2 chance) hemophiliac male means that male expresses the trait

Suppose a man heterozygous for an autosomal recessive disease marries a healthy woman and they have a child with the recessive disease phenotype. This result provides evidence that the woman's genotype is

heterozygous for the mutant allele

carriers are

heterozygous who carry recessive allele

In a dihybrid cross probability for heterozygotes for both traits and prob homozygous for both traits

heterozygous: 1/4 homozygous:1/4

3 irreversible steps in glycolysis

hexokinase-glucose to g6p pfk1-f6p to f16BP pyruvate kinase-PEP to pyruvate

simple cuboidal

hgland ducts and kidney tubules

thin lens equation

hi/ho proportional to di/do

glycolysis stimulated by

high ADP, INSULIN

when one is dehydrated, this means

high blood osmolarity

kidneys regulation on bp

high blood pressure---decrease water reabsorption low blood pressure---increases water reabsorption

in pulmonary circuit, pulmonary arteries

high co2, high H+, low o2

fovea of retina

high cones

cortisol effect

high glucose low immune system decreased protein synthesis

pO2

high in lungs low in capillariesa cause o2 to diffuse into capillaries

in pulmonary circuit, pulmonary veins

high o2, low co2 ,low H+

Calcium storage gradient

high outside of cell low inside cytosol

periphery of retina

high rods detects dim light

Noncovalent interactions are disrupted by

high temperatures and high urea

maximized power transmission

high voltage low current

nadh and fadh2 in reaction to high glucose and deleted glucose

high: nadh fadh2 accumulate low:nad+ and fad+ accumulate

kidneys response to ph

high: secrete more bicarb and increase reabsorption of h+ions low: opposite effect

higher etc activity corresponds to

higher ATP/ADP ratio OR lower ADP/ATP ratio

proton gradient

higher H+ concentration in inter membrane space than mitochondrial matrix

higher emissivity signifies

higher amount of radiation absorbed

shorter bonds have

higher bond energy

graphically transition states

higher energy peaks (highest peak)

hco3- content is

higher in veins than arteries

presence of particular mRNA within specific cell type may be assessed by

hybridization to complementary probe

the small size of water allows

hydration shells around solute

carbocation rerrangement

hydride shift:secondary carbocation adjacent to tertiary carbon methyl shift: secondary carbocation adjacent to quaternary carbon

if tyrosine kinase present and question asks the phosphate groups are exchanged for what atoms on tyrosine residues during phosphorylation of protein?

hydrogen atoms of hydroxyl groups as tyrosine has a nucleophil8c hydroxyl groups that nucleophilically attacks 5the terminal gamma phosphate on atp

aligned glutamine side chains in adjacent strands of beta sheets can

hydrogen bond with each other because they can act as donors and acceptors

nucleotide base pair matching involves(IMFS)

hydrogen bonding and London dispersion

active site and inhibitor

hydrophilic active site-->hydrophilic inhibitors hydrophobic active site-->hydrophobic inhibitors

retinal binding site environment is mostly

hydrophobic

hydrophobic vs hydrophilic hormones

hydrophobic hormones DO NOT require secondary messengers whereas hydrophilic hormones DO require secondary messengers

transmembrane domain indicative

hydrophobic residues

fluid moving out of the vessels

hydrostaic pressure significantly degreasers and onctoyuic pressure stays ajabout the same

GFR is proportional to

hydrostatic blood pressure within the glomerulus increased urinary output corresponds to increased GFR Increased Na+ reabsorption in the nephron, which is stimulated by the adrenal hormone aldosterone, also leads to increased reabsorption of water. This results in increased blood pressure without altering blood osmolarity (blood solute concentration). Increased blood pressure increases the GFR, decreasing holoTf retention.

How do you decrease the risk of pulmonary edema?

hydrostatic pressure exerted by the fluid must decrease, and osmotic pressure exerted on the fluid must increase.

arteriole end of capillary

hydrostatic>osmotic net efflux of water FROM circulation

when experiment is performed on enzymes that display traditional mm kinetics the graph of vo versus substrate concentration should have

hyperbolic dependence on [s]

low levels of glucocorticoid high stress what happens?

hypothalamus secretes CRH CRH stimulates anterior pituitary to release ACTH acth stimulates adrenal cortex to synthesize and release cortisol

ascending limb of loop of henle

hypotonic to interstitium

axial vs appendicular

i. The axial skeleton consists of structures in the midline such as the skull, vertebral column, ribcage, and hyoid bone ii. The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the limbs, the pectoral girdle, and the pelvis

way to determine the cell type that expresses a gene of interest

identify presence of ANOTHER MRNA that is known to be specific to the cell type of interest

why are actions potentials all or none?

if action potential occurs, all action potentials have the same magnitiude propagation between. cells involves NO RESISTANCE LOSS because the postsynaptic action potential is just as large as the presynaptic action potential

If chromosomal duplication before tetrad formation occurred one during spermatogenesis, while the other steps of meiosis proceeded normally, which of the following would result from a single spermatocyte? four haploid

if it occurred twice during spermatogenesis, 4 diploid would form

spurious means

illegitimate not valid

joints

immovable: fused together to form sutures mova ble: strengthened by ligaments and contain synovial capsule synovial fluid: secreted by synonym and lubiracates joints

impurities and redox

impurities decreases the accuracy of the measured equivalence point in redox titration

pregan neuron vs postgang neuron

in ans, soma of pregan neuron is in CNS, and its axons travel to ganglion in the PNS where it is synapses on the body of the post gan neuron

x inactivation

in females, cells inactivated one X chromosome to become Barr body, creating two populations of cells only 50% of cells will have an X-linked trait in females the condensation of X chromosomes into Barr bodies during embryonic development in females to compensate for the double genetic dose

lipid peroxides are found

in the mitochondrial membrane

Dna methylation

inactivates transcription and silences genes methylating bacterial dna is mechanism of defense against bacteriophage

hydrolysis of gamma phosphate of gtp results in

inactivation

Kidney failure during severs dehydration is most likely due to:

inadequate blood volume for effective filtration Severe dehydration greatly reduces the volume of filtrate moving through the nephrons of the kidney. If fluid volume is too drastically reduced, the kidney will be unable to effectively do its job of filtering and maintaining homeostasis.

what could causes implantation of fertilized egg outside the uterus

inadequate number of cilia in fallopian tube

repeated expansion

incorporation of multiple copies of short base pair sequence in a row

duplication

incorporation of one or more copies of portion of dna sequence

what results in protein misfolding

incorrect amino acid incorporation

Antigotensin ll effect on blood pressure

increase blood pressure

interstitial volume and drug concentration.

increase in interstitial volume causes decrease in concentration

Bernoulli

increase in velocity, decrease in pressure of fluid larger the area, largest pressure smallest velocity

atomic radius trend

increase left down

increases in bicarb relative to all other molecules in blood

increase oxygen affinity binding free protons

acetylcholinesterase inhibitors

increase parasymphateticc activity at the acetylcholine receptors

random mating

increase population genetic diversity variation sor changesto the allele frequencies due to random mating will primarily Benefit POPULATION AS WHOLE

treatment with drugs that activate ACh. receptors

increase salivation

PTH secretion

increase serum calcium decrease serum phosphate indir

increasing interstitial volume effect on drug

increase the clearance of drug and causes the drug concentration within the brain to rise less quickly

stronger stimulus

increase the number of action potentials in receiving neuron

first ionization energy tends to

increase with increasing atomic number moving across period decrease moving down group

increased heterozygosity associated with

increased fitness increased fecundity

rate constant increases by

increased temp decreased Ea not affected by reactant concentration!

downward shift y intercept on lineweaver burk indicative of

increased vmax

as more proteins in plasma

increases OSMOTIC pressure Fluid: body tissues-->circulatory system

blocking the reuptake of serotonin in the presynaptic neuron

increases amount of time serotonin is a in available in the synaptic cleft to bind to the postsynap=tic neuron

in Michaelis menton model as [S] increases, Vo

increases at a slower rate at small [S] Vo increases rapidly however as [S]' increases Vol keeps slowing down until it reaches a maximum

leptin

increases fatty acid oxidation decreases fatty acid synthesis

flattening the cornea indicates

increases the radius of curvature

stirring effect

increases the rate of dissolution but NOT solubility

nucleophilicity in polar aprotic solvents

increases up the periodic table

atomic radius trend:

increases upper right to lower left

the reactivity of alkaline earth metals

increases with increasing atomic radius

∆G decreases (more negative) when

increasing T increasing Ka(decreasing pH)

charge vs m/z

increasing charge decreases m/z ratio

red shift

increasing wavelength and going opposite direction

Hills coefficient= 1

independent binding...no cooperativity

prions

induce misfiling an aggregation of proteins form highly stable amyloid fibers

absorption of uv light

induces electron excitation

cell fate is influenced by

inductive signaling between cells in the early embryo

when action potentials reach the synaptic knob(axon terminal), what happens

influx of calcium signaling vesicles to fuse with cell membrane (exocytose) to release the neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft

An intravenous infusion causes a sharp rise in the serum level of albumin (the major osmoregulatory protein in the blood). This will most likely cause an:

influx of tissue fluid to the bloodstream Albumin is one of the major plasma proteins. Plasma proteins can't cross the walls of the blood vessels, but water molecules can. The wall of the artery acts as a semipermeable membrane setting up the conditions needed for osmosis to occur. An increase in the plasma albumin will upset the osmotic balance because the blood will become hypertonic with respect to the tissue. Water will have to flow into the blood stream to reestablish equilibrium. So an increase in the plasma protein would cause fluid to enter the bloodstream

mitochondrial inheritance

inherited genes solely derived from MOM if dad affected, no affected spring if mom affected-->100%daughters have affected

cancer characteristic

inhibition of apoptosis

hyperpolariaiatno stimulat3ed

inhibitory input

excess orf unabsorbed rats in the intestines

inhibits normal water and electrolyte absorption INCREASES osmotic pressure-->diarrhea

bootstrapping

initial stage of grammatical development

dependent variable that determines mm parameters

initial velocity

proteins that start at high pH

initially deprotonated and negatively charged migrating away from cathode toward anode

action potential in heart

initiate in SA node-->stimulate atrial contraction-->AV node where slight delay-->ventricular contraction

hypothalamus

initiate stress response pituitary gland

frameshift mutation caused by

insertions dterm-1512eletions and result in change in reading frame of transcript and result in proteins with altered sequence of amino acids

K+ IS higher

inside cell

electrical synapsey

instantaneous firing of postsynaptic cell use gap junctions

hypodermis contains

insulating and shock absorbing adipose tissue

insulator vs conductor

insulators have valence electrons tightly bound to atom conductors have DELOCALIZED electrons, metallic bonds

pyruvate dehydrogenase stimulated by

insulin in liver

insulin and glycolysis stimulation

insulin stimulates glycolysis by activating PFK2, which synthesizes F26 BP

viral integrase

integrates viral dsDNA into host genome not required for (- sense stranded) rna viruses

when sound passes from air to the tympanic membrane

intensity decreases and velocity increases

langerhans cells

interact with helper t cells of immune system

cell infected with virus results in

interferons

keratin is example of

intermediate filament

Boiling point vs intermolecular hydrogen bonding vs intramolecular hydrogen bonding

intramolecular hydrogen bonding causes intermolecular hydrogen bonding to decrease-->and subsequently causes boiling point to decrease as boiling point is proportional to intermolecular hydrogen bonding

how are genes knocked out?

introducing mutations that result in nonfunctional proteins

blood osmolarity and urine osmolarity have

inverse relationship

Vapor pressure and boiling point are

inversely proportional

boiling point vs volatility

inversely proportional

cross sectional area and velocity of fluid

inversely proportional

hr and sv

inversely proportional

insulin release vs lipolysis

inversely proportional

vibration frequency proportionality

inversely: mass of atoms in bond proportional: strength of bond

brainstem responsible and main parts

involuntary actions** medulla(regulates CV and respiratory systems) pons(coordinates communication between motor cortex and cerebellum) midbrain(relay station for auditory and visual signals)

B vs Be

ionization energy of B is slightly lower than Be because electron is in alone in p orbital

what could adversely affect propagation of action potential?

irregularity of gap junctions

suicide inhibitortor

irreversible that inactivates irreversibly the enzyme

irreversible inhibitors vs reversible inhibitors

irreversible: form covalent bonds with enzymes and become more potent given sufficient time to react reversible: quickly form nonchalant bonds with target enzymes s and do not require much time to achieve their full effect

viscosity

is a measure of internal friction his a fluid. kinetic energy is dissipated by the viscous shear force between different layers of the fluid flow

isochoric vs isobaric

isochoric: constant volume isobaric: constant pressure

2 oxidative decarboxylation steps of tca

isocitrate alpha ketoglutarate ..they also produce NADH

Krebs cycle rate limiting enzyme

isocitrate dehydrogenase

TCA regulation

isocitrate dehydrogenase - allosterically stimulated by ADP, NAD+, Mg2+ ▪ NADH inhibits, ATP inhibitso alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase '▪ inhibited by succinyl CoA and NADH, its product

tautomer

isomer that differs from one another by the placement of a proton and a double bond (oh and c=o)

presence of glucose in the renal tube leads to excess water excretion becausep

it causes decrease in the movement of water through cells in the descending loop of henle higher the normal amounts of glucose in the urine means that urine osmolarity will be higher than usual and will result in less reabsorption's of water because the urine is concentrated so it wants to keep water

once protein is secreted from liver cells,

it enters the circulation and incorporated into the plasma, region composed of 90% water

if the velocity of a charged particle increases by a factor of 2 what happens to the KE?

it increases by a factor of 4

in order for an object to experience an increase in speed

it must accelerate

If protein colocalizes with PDC,

it must be in mitochondrial matrix and posses MITOCHONDRIAL TARGETING SEQUENCE to induce its transport to the mitochondria

if amount of compound is present its in excess of ksp

it precipitatesw

ligase

joins molecules, uses atp ex. carboxylase, synthetase

when blood pressure drops what happens with ras

juxtaglomerular cells release renin

single stranded binding proteins

keep dna unwound after helicase stabilize ssDNA binding to it

how can the effect of the inhibitor on the vmax and the apparent Km be determined?

keep enzyme concentration constant, varying substrate concentration, and either including or excluding the inhibitor

intermediate filament examples

keratin and desmin

keto vs enol

keto> enol stable except* aromatic enol(phenol>keto tautomer

cartilage

lacks nerves avascular

remaining water and electrolytes prior to water excretion is absorbed by the

large intestine

reactions that are more thermodynamically favorable

larger positive standard reduction potential

index of refraction vs velocity of light

larger the index of refraction, slower light travels in medium

periosteum

layer of think connective tissue covering bone

when lead storage battery discharged

lead oxide (pbo2) is reduced(gains electrons)

leading vs lagging

leading-continuous lagging-discontinuous

low blood ph

left shift increase respiration rate; blow off more co2 reduce H+ contration kidneys excrete more H+ and increase reabsorption of bicarb

Leptin vs ghrelin

leptin-adipocytes ghrelin-gastric cells

higher boiling point molecules have

less branching and more IMFs

As GFR decreases

less filtrate is produced and URINE OUTPUT decreases

type 2 B

little myoglobin lots of glycogen very fast contractile velocity very high for but fatigues very easily short term anaerobic

pCO2

low in lungs high in capillaries causes co2 to diffuse into the lungs of exhalation

ksp safe to swallow

lowest ksp

safe to swallow ksp

lowest ksp

what has the highest electrophoretic mobility

lowest mass in sds nonreducing

bacteria are moved from lymph in

lymph nodes

lysosomes vs peroxisomes

lysosomes------> digestion enzymes that break down PROTEINS and organelles BUDD OFF GOLGI peroxisomes------>contain oxidases that breakdown OH, LIPIDS; they BUDD qOFF ER

lytic cycled vs lysogenic cycle

lytic: virulent bacteriophage produces massive amounts of new visions until cell lyses lysogenic: virus integrates into host genome as provirus or prophage which can then repceoduce along with the gll

protein levels relate most directly to

mRNA

coding (sense) strand has same sequence and directionality as

mRNA transcript but with Ts instead of Us

langerhan

macrophages of skin

prions are

made solely of misfolded protein and no genetic material

deprotonation of water makes it

makes it more nucleophilic

LH (males and females)

males: triggers interstitial cells to make testosterone females:induce ovulation

FSH (males and females)

males:triggers spermatogenesis and stimulates sortoli cells females:stimulates development of ovarian follicles

B+ decay

mass number same atomic number decrease

electron capture

mass number same atomic number decrease

B- decay

mass number same atomic number increase

momentum formula

mass times velocity

velocity of ions is inversely proportional to

mass to charge ratio

Phospholipids in the cell membrane could be separated experimentally according to their differences in

mass, charge, solubility

inbreeding

mating 2 related individuals results in DECREASED HETEROZYGOSITY

outbreeding

mating two less closely relate individuals when compared to average population

inspiratory capacity

maximum amount of air that can be inspired IC=TV + IRV

total lung capacity

maximum amount of air the can fill the lungs TLC=VC + RV

glomerular filtration rate

measure of the rate at which fluid filtered into Bowmans capsule from the glomerulus

pull down method

measure proteins o protein interactions if you are able to measure affinity for certain protein, you can idealize where in the cell it is located

Gas Liquid Chromatography:

measures boiling points gas mobile liquid stationary high BPs: spend more time in liquid stationary and travel slowly to detector Low BPs: spend more time in gas mobile and reach detector more quicklytor

inspiration vs expiration

medulla oblongata signals diaphragm for contraction and stops signal during expiration diaphragm relaxes

hindbrain consists of

medulla, pons, cerebellum

most concentrated part of glomerular filtrate

medullary portion of the collecting duct

meosis results

meiosis 1-2 haploid daughter cells meiosis 2-4 haploid gametes

lysosomes

membrane bound vesicles contain hydrolytic enzymes

who is more likely to get recessive x linked traits

men because they only need one of the mutations whereas women need both X chromosomes to have mutation

oogenesis stops at

menopause

chelate formation

metal cation and ligand react to form one or more RINGS

nature of ligands in coordination sphere causes

metal's d orbitals to have different energies-->colors

The conductivity of metals vs electrolytic solutions

metal--> may be attributed to the loosely associated valence electrons within a metal whereas the conductivity of electrolytic solutions--> is directly proportional to the molar concentration of charged ions.

nonmetals vs metals

metals have lower ionization energies than metals

S35 is typically component of

methionine

T

methyl + carbonyl

heterochromatin is heavily

methylated

main cytoskeletal components

microfilaments intermediate filaments microtubules

macrophages of the central nervous system

microglia

eukaryotic cell cytoskeleton components

microtubles intermediate filaments microfilaments

minimum vs maximum relative velocity

minimum relative velocity = occurs when two things are moving in the same direction -->relative velocity is their difference maximum relative velocity = occurs when two objects are moving in opposite directions -->relative velocity is their addition

ray through focal point

mirror: REFLECTS parallel to axis lens:REFRACTS parallel to axis

ray to center

mirror: reflects back at same angle relative to normal lens: continues straight through with no refraction

mirrors vs lens

mirrors: reflect lens: refract

mitosis vs meios overview

mitosis -no tetrad -daughter cells identical to parents -diploid daughter cells meiosis -tetrad formation , cross over -daughter cells different from parental ccells -haploid 2n daughter cells -polar body formation

mitosis vs meiosis 2 differences

mitosis: no tetrad formation and diploidh (2n) daughter cells meiosis: tetrad formation and haploid daughter cells(n)

metaphase in mitosis vs meiosis

mitosis: sister chromatids align diploid meiosis 1: homologous chromosomes align meiosis 2: sister chromatids align haploid

anaphase in mitosis vs meiosis

mitosis: sister chromatids separate diploid meiosis 1: homologous chromosomes separate meiosis 2: sister chromatids separate haploid

salt solubility increases when

mixed with solution that reacts with ion such as acid/base and results in RIGHT SHIFT

salt solubility decreases when

mixed with solution with a COMMON ION which results in LEFT SHIFT toward reactants

mass spectrometry measures

molecular weight and produces positively charged ions and ionized fragments

Without an external energy input, how do molecules travel

molecules in the solution will diffuse from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration.

NM junction location

motor end plate

The Na +/Ca2+ exchanger, an antiport transport protein, utilizes the concentration gradient of sodium to actively force calcium ions across the cell membrane. Given this information, the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger must:

move calcium ions out of the cell BECAUSE sodium is higher in concentration outside side so it NATURALLY moves in SO calcium will move out

negative test cha

move in opposite direction of field lines travel from low potential to high potential

kinesins

move intracellular cargo along MICROTUBuLES in ANTEROGRADE axonal transport (away from nucleus and toward distal sites)

pons

movement and balance, fine motor control and coordination, equiliibrium

rt pcr measures

mrna levels of specific protein

a high replacement dose of glucocorticoids can result in

muscle weakness

allosteric regulation can be disrupted by

mutations that result in instability of normal conformations

voltage gated ion channels in myelinated neurons vs unmyelinated neurons

myelated: concentrated in nodes of ranvier unmylinated: evenly distributed across entire axon

voltage gated ion channels in myelinated vs unmyelinated neurons

myelinated-concentrated in nodes of ranvier unmyelinated-evenly distributed across entire axon

# of possible peptides: n! (factorial)n: AA Tripeptide: 3 x 2 x 1 = 6ABC tripeptide: ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB, CBA.

n! (factorial)n: AA Tripeptide: 3 x 2 x 1 = 6ABC tripeptide: ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB, CBA.

N + 1 splitting

n=number of hydrogens on adjacent carbon

the resting membrane is restored by the

na k pump

relative refractory period

na+ channels switch from inactivat3ed to closed (deinactivated) when cells are too negative, K+ channels close, near K+ equilibrium

group selection

natural selection on group not individual

microtubules that involve in intracellular transport origination

near nucleus in CENTRIOLESand radiate toward plasmas membrane

Beta ox

need 2 ATP to activate Fatty acid For each 2C removed, need 1 FAD+ and 1 NAD+

in fatty acid synthesis

need 2 NADPH for each 2 carbons added

to mimic the effect of phosphorylation

negative charges of aspartate or glutamate substituted at regions where phosphorylation normally occurs

atp

negatively charge

cation exchange

negatively charged and bind cations increasing the pH can release bound molecule and the peptides with higher pI values are a higher pH to elute than peptides with low pI values anion exchange is the opposite

in a gel electrophoresis chamber

negatively charged cathode at top positively charged anode at bottom

CNS derived from

neural tubes

non adapting neuron

neuron consistently fires at a constant rate

fast adapting neuron

neuron fires as soon as the stimulus starts then stops firing. Starts again when stimulus stops

32P contains additional

neutron

MISSENCE mutation

new amino acid

Guanine has

nh2 2 carbons away from carbonyl

erythrocytes

no DNA no organelles relay on glycolysis for atp synthesis; lose their nuclei during maturation

ideal gas

no attractive or repulsive forces size (molecular volume) of individual gas molecules is negligible collision between ideal gas molecules are completely elastic average kinetic energy that is directly related to temperature

adiabatic

no heat is transferred to or from the system by its surroundings--thermal ene rgy of system is constant throughojut process

noneveloped viruses

no phospholipid bilayer mores sensitive to heat detergents and changes in moisture than enveloped viruses antibodies bind directly to capsid protein

pauli exclusion

no two electron in same atom have the same quantum number, same spin

ion exchange in myelinated neurons occurs at

nodes of ranvier

nonmetals vs nonmetals electron accepta

nometals tend to accept electrons more readily than metals

electrolytic cells are

non spontaneous -Ecell

dielectrics

nonconducting material, inserting dielectric between plates of capacitor INCREASES the capacitance by -increasing Q(if V is constant) - or decreasing V(if Q is constant)

protein protein binding involves

noncovalent interactions

how to antibodies bind epitopes

noncovalently

exposure to spindle fiber that inhibits microtubule polymerization could result in

nondisjunction

antibodies binding directly to capsid indicates

nonenveloped virus-->no phospholipid bilayer

nonpolar solvents vs polar solvents for mobile phase

nonpolar solvents decrease affinity for mobile phase relative to stationary phase polar solvents increases affinity for mobile phase in column chromatography

peptide bond formation and peptide bond hydrolysis are both

nonspontaneous

NOREPI/EPI: by inhibiting enzymes that mediate glycogen synthesis,

norepi and epi inhibit glycogenolysis

emmetropia

normal vision

dna hybridization negative control

not hybridized to target sequence and this dna could be derived from species that do not express gene or region of dna of interest

what feature do eukaryotes have that prevents them from simultaneous transcription and translation

nuclear envelope

nuclear proteins require

nuclear localization domain dna binding domain

what do transcription factors have

nuclear localization sequences that facilitate their entry into the nucleus where they regulate expression of target genes

endothelial cells

nuclei held together by gap junctions surrounded by astrocytes

primary amine

nucleophile forms IMINE

serine and cysteine frequently act as what but they are what so they are often what

nucleophiles that are weak bases so deprotonated

enamines are

nucleophilic at alpha carbon so can do SN2

autosomal genes are found in

nucleus

rna needed for rtpcr ass could be extracted from

nucleus endoplasmic reticulum cytoplasm

value of of slope depends on

number of moles

volume is directly proportional to the

number of moles

molar concentration of solution at given time

number of moles of analyte/sample volume in liters

PCT primary function

nutrient reabsorption

reduction in number of chromosome number

o End to end fusion (telomere to telomere) of two chromosomes and inactivation. Of one of the centromeres o Breakage of chromosome at the centromere and fusion of each chromosomal portion to the ends of other

angiotensin ll increases blood pressure by

o Induces release of aldosterone from adrenal cortex (increasing blood pressure by increasing blood volume through water retention) and constriction of arterioles (increasing blood pressureh

· Lac repressor

o Prevents transcription of lac operon o Glucose availablerepressor helps conserve atp by inhibiting expression of unrelavent genes o Glucose depleted and lactose availablelac genes expressed

· Under physiological conditions, peptide bond formation and degradation both require enzymes, but only formation requires coupling to GTP hydrolysis. Based on this information, peptide bonds under physiological conditions are:

o Thermodynamically unstable and kinetically stable

Capillary System

o2-->tissues co2-->circulation

what determines normal force of an object on a sliding surface

objects mass kinetic friction DEPendent on objects mass

inbreeding depression

occurs due to increases in frequency of homozygous recessive alleles

positron emission

occurs during B+ decay atomic number decreases by one and mass number stays the same

overextension

one class of objects o other objets that bear only superficial resemblance ex. doggie for cow

For a singly charged protonated ion,

one data peak would be observed with a molecular weight one unit greater than the unprotonated form.

between puberty and menopause

one egg per month is ovulated into the peritoneal sac

Ternary enzyme complexes include

one enzyme and two substrates

each mole of nadh breaks

one mole disulfide bond

inactive X chromosome in female is

one of last to replicate

question asks, given compounds all have sigma bonds bound to sulfer atom. which one has largest bond

one with largest atomic radius bound

SDS disrupts

only noncovalent bonds. a protein containing multiple covalently bound polypeptide subunits will present as a single band in SDS-PAGE electrophoresis. When SDS-PAGE is performed under reducing conditions, a reducing agent (eg, 2-mercaptoethanol) is added to disrupt disulfide bridges, allowing each subunit to separate as individual polypeptides.

x linked dominant conditions

only one copy of dominant allele is necessary to inherit this diseases characterzed by: -no father to son transmission -all daghters of affected father are affected affected MOTHERS have 50% probability of infected child

bond rotation

only single bonds rotate

histone acetylation results in

open DNA which makes transcription easier

pre ganglionic neuron

originate in CNS

during intracellular transport, microtubules:

originate in centrioles near nucleus and point outwards plasma membrane

post ganglionic neuron

originate outside CNS

ortho vs para: oh and nitro

ortho-->intramolecular hydrogen bonding para-->intermolecular hydrogen bonding para-->intermolecular hydrogen bonding-->increase boiling point-->stay in flask whereas ortho distills

venue end of capillary

osmostic>hydrostatic net efflux of water TO circulation

osteoprogenitor cells differentiate into

osteoblasts

Ca2+ and na+ are higher

outside the neuron than inside

electric field lines radiate

outward from positive source charge inward from negative source charge

fatty acid oxidation location fatty acid synthesis location

oxidation: mitochondria synthesis: cytosol

catabolism is

oxidative process that releases energ so oxidizing agents such as nad+ is reduced

high incidence of apoptosis induced by

oxidative stress during gestation higher frequency of cell damage at critical development periods during gestation higher cellular concentrations of free radicals during gestation lower levels of enzymes with antioxidant capabilities during gestatation

PPP oxidative vs nonoxidative

oxidative: irreversible non oxidative:reversible

hydroxylation requires

oxidoreductase

measure of electron transport chain activity

oxygen consumption

oxygen vs nitrogen ionization energy

oxygen ionization energy is slightly lower than nitrogen ionization energy

systemic circuit distributes

oxygenated blood-->high 02, low co2, low H+

Posterior pituitary hormones

oxytocin and ADH produced by hypo

at 1/2 equivalence point

pH=pka

Fat soluble compounds

packaged into chylomicrons enter lymphatic system through lacteals

petide vs steroid

peptide -RER -require secondary messenger protein steroid -SER -fat soluble

Glucagon hormone

peptide hormone

vasopressin/adh

peptide hormone stimulated by LOW blood volume and HIGH blood osmolarity increase permeability of collecting duct-->increase WATER absorption, increase BP, increase blood volume, decrease blood osmolarity

peptide vs steroid hormones

peptide hormones are hydrophilic and soluble in blood.-->no transport proteins Hormones that must bind transport proteins are steroid proteins, which are lipophilic.

large subunit responsible for

peptidyl transferase reaction

Doppler

perceived frequency>actual frequency-->source and detector moving towards eachother perceived frequency<actual frequency-->source and detector moving away

the equivalence point is equal to

pka of indicator

Electric field lines

point out from positive charges and into negative charges. Therefore, a positively charged plate repels positively charged ions, and the electric field lines point away from a positively charged plate.

critical concentration on actin polymerization

point which no net polymerization or depolymerization

Generally Polar solvents vs reaction rate

polar solvents increases the rate of reaction because their molecular dipole tends to polarize the bonds of polar reactants, thereby lengthening and weakening the, permitting the reaction to occur faster

electric fields point in the direction of

positive charge

most double stranded dna viruses transcribe

positive sense stranded mRNA from viral DNA

temperature vs volume graph always have

positive slope

charged particles and electric field

positively charged particles move with the electric field lines in the same direction negatively charged particles move against electric field Iines in the opposite direction

Histone proteins

positively charged with K and R residues so can bind to negatively charged DNA

oxytocin secreted in

posterior pituitary

positive feedback vs negative feedback

postive: increase amount of product synthesized by activating enzymes and stimulating production of precursor molecules negative: decreases synthesis of products by inactivating enzymes nd redacting production of necessary precursors

when amount of compound present is in excess of ksp

precipitate

part of brain responsible in experiencing positive emotions in appropriate scenarios

prefrontal cortex

nonsense mutation results

premature stop codon that casuses shorted TRUNCATED protein

probe binding to nucleus indicates

presence of genomic DNA

placental hcg

prevents degradation of corpus luteum

structure of glomerular capillaries

prevents entry of large molecules such as proteins into filtrate

etc generates protons that

produce electrochemical gradient gradient that drives phosphorylation of ADP

melanocytes

produce melanin and transfer it to keratinocytes

sperm production

produced in seminiferous tubules nourished by sertoli cells cells of leydig secret testosterone

product inhibition

product inhibits activity of enzyme that produces it

recrystallization

product is dissolved in a minimum out of hot SOLVENT if the impurities are more stable, the crystals will reform while the flask cools, excluding the impurities

natural cellular response to presence of misfiled proteins

production of heat shock proteins which help properly fold the defective protein molecules absence of heat shock suggest that cell is NOT experiencing any problems with protein aggregation which one of the hall marks of prion disease pathology

in endergonic reactions

products have HIGHER Gibbs free energy than reactants

in exergonic reactions

products have LOWER Gibbs free energy than reactants

prok vs euk

prok-polycistronic eukaryotic-monocistronic

prok vs euk translation

prok: needs several release factors eukaryotic: only 1 RELEASE factor (eRF1)

conjugation only occurs in

prokaryotes

Anaerobic conditions: ATP synthase

prokaryotes-active eukaryotes-inactive

which amino acids disrupt helix

proline and glycine

osteoblasts

promote the precipitation of calcium and phosphate from bloodstream and the transfer and incorporation into the matrix

endothelium

promotes blood fluidity and functions as selective barrier between blood and surrounding tissues

increasing hydrostatic pressure of RENAL ARTERY

promotes glomerular retention and INCREASES urine output

nodes of ranvier

propagation of nerve impulse along axon, facilities rapid conduction of nerve impulses action potential jumps from one node of ranvier to another and this jumping speeds up the conduction in the axon

penetrance

proportion of individuals with a specific genotype who express the corresponding phenotype

caspases

protease enzymes activated when lysomes rupture and cell shrinks during apoptosis

increase amount of free glutamate in food source

protein degradation

polyubiquination sis a signal for

protein degradation by proteosome

stop codons are recognized by

protein release factors NO tRNA binds stop codons

pyrimidine vs pur

pyrminidines are CUT from PURINES

basic unit of porphyrin ring

pyrrole 5 sided heterocycle

During prolonged fasting what enzyme is upregulated

pyruvate carboxylase as it converts pyruvate to OAA which goes through gluconeo to produce glucose

first step of gluconeogenesis

pyruvate-->OAA by pyruvate carboxylase...upregulated activity during prolonged fasting carboxylase and PEP carboxykinase bypass pyruvate kinase

oxidation of phenols

quinones

sn1 products

racemic mixture..

When the environmental temperature is 33C, vasodilation of cutaneous blood vessels helps to regulate the body temperature of a human by:

radiating excess body heat into the environment When vasodilation occurs, the blood vessels relax, allowing more blood to enter the area. The presence of increased blood within dilated vasculature in cutaneous tissue allows heat to escape from the surface of the body into the environment. Vasodilation increases blood flow and facilitates heat loss.

the greatest change in blood flow is achieved when

radius is increased Dor decreased by factor -eg. 2

focal length of mirror depends ONLY on

radius of curvature; f=r/2

genetic drift

random changes in population (allele frequencies as populaiton decreases greater the genetic drift effectsn\s; may result in extinction increase the probability that deleterious all being fixed within population

Glycerol during Prolonged Starvation

rapidly converted to G3P then oxidized into DHP

zero order reaction

rate is only dependent on the rate constant because substrate concentrations exceed the Km

lass of mass action

rate of reaction is proportional to the molar amount of each reaction component raised to a power of its reaction order

catalyst ONLY influences--no exceptions

rate of reaction.

hematocrit

ratio of rbs to total blood volume

activate carboxyl group by

reacting SOCl2 with COOH forming acyl chloride

rna polymerase 2

reads dna strand in 3 to 5 direktion to generate 5 to 3 premRNA

converging lens: do>f

real inverted reduced

electrolytic cell

recharging battery

diopter is

reciprocal of focal length

restriction enzymes

recognize palindromic dna sequences

small subunit responsible for

recognizing mRNA and binding to SHINE DELGARNO sequence

what kind of shift to stars have

red shift because frequency decreases and they moving away from us

enzymes

reduce energy of activation of reaction energy of products and reactants is not affected

deleterious gene

reduced fitness

crossover

reduces linkage baby

apoptosis effect on membrane potential

reduces membrane electrical potential

reducing/nonreducing sds page vs native sds page

reducing/nonreducing sds page destroy tertiary and quaternary structures native sds page does not destroy quaternary structure as it is not denaturing

pass easily through epithelial cells and therefore readily enter brain through transcellular diffusion

relatively small lipophilic--nonpolar gases such as co2 and o2 steroid hormones such as testosterone

cholecystokinin

releases biles out of gallbladder and stimulates release of pancreatic juices; satiety

prolonged osteoclast activation due to PTH secretion

releases mineral components into the blood and decreases cortical bone mass

rod has excess of positive charge created by

removing a number of electrons

Total water loss

renal water loss + extrarenal water loss

viruses cannot

replicate by themselves-host specific

\autsomal recessive trait

require presence of two copies of defective gene for diseases about 25% children infected if both parents have one copy of defective gene

as add resistors to parallel

resistance decreases and current increases

as add resistors to series

resistance increases and current decreases

in order to keep the current constant during discharging cycle

resistance must be continually decreased

cancer cells

resistant to apoptosis stimulate angiogensis(cause new blood vessels to grow to nourish the.ycancer cell

hyperventilation causes

respiratory alkalosis

myogenic activity

respond to nervous input but do not require external signals to undergo contraction smooth and cardiac muscle

dna gyrase

responsible for uncoiling dna ahead of replication fork

resting membrane potential vs action potential threshold

resting membrane potential: -70m V action potential threshold--55 mV

Limiting factors

restrict or control the rate of reaction by establishing the maximum level at which the reaction proceeds.

if palindromic sequence is methylated

restriction enzyme will leave it alone but if it is NOT, restriction enzymes cleaves the strand into two sticky ends if the sticky ends come into contact with one another, since they are complementary they will reanneal

disruptive selection

results from 2 extreme differing phenotypes average phenotype-->selected against

Disruptive selection

results from 2 extreme differing phenotypes average phenotype-->selected against 2 extreme phenotypesbh-->selectedfor

wash

reverse of extraction, in which a small amount of SOLUTE dissolves impurities is run over the compound of interest

prence of +ssRNA indicates

reverse transcriptase activity to convert

nadph is

ribose pentoses. vv v. 5

Foreamen ovale

right atrium to left atrium

high blood ph

right shift decrease respiration rate; and hold more co2 in co2 which is acidic increase H+ concentration kidney secrete more bicarb and increase reabsorption of H+

as concentration of reactants increases

right shift, increase in cell potential, delta g becomes more negative

increasing concentration of 2,3BPG results in

right shift-->less tightly bound

peptide bond!

rigid/planar resonance stabilized free rotation around ALPHA carbon

needed for mature mRNA transcript

rna polyermase TF (sigma factor) transcription bubble formation NOT stop codon as only needed for termination of translation

ribosome-mRNA complex translocates to

rough ER

secretory proteins synthesized

rough er

anterograde transport

rough er-->golgi-->wherever

M line

runs down the center of the sarcomere and through the middle of the myosin filaments

method of action of action potentials in myelinated axons

saltatory conduction

Force that helps stabilize protein

salvation shell which is a layer of solvent surrounding protein

Disproportionation reaction

same element at given oxidation state undergoes both oxidation and reduction with some of the atoms being oxidized and others of SAME element being reduced

variable expressivity

same genotype varying phenotype

kcat is used to describe rate limiting step of catalysis under

saturated conditions

kcat used to describe rate limiting step of catalysis under

saturating conditions

RTKs often initiate

secondary messenger cascade

chief cells

secrete pepsinogen(zymogen to pepsin)

interstitial cells of leydig

secrete testosterone

Estrogen

secreted in response to FSH in embryo, stimulates development of the reproductive tractin adults, leads to iniyial thickening of lining of uterus (endometrium) in preparation for implantation of zygote

PTH

secreted in response to low blood calcium levels and stimulates bone reabsorption by osteoclasts causing an increase in blood calcium

signal sequence domains are required for

secretory pathways

how to increase heterozygosity

selective outbreeding with individuals from distinct populations is required

disruptive selection

selects against average trait and selects for both extremes

fractional distillation can be used to

separate diasteromers

PAGE

separates dna by size dsDNA traverses gel in unaltered native states nondenaturingf

region of rna responsible for binding ribosomes during prokaryotic translation

shine delgarno sequence upstream from start codon on mrna sstra d

short tandem repeats

short sequences of dna that are 2 to 6 base pairs long

which bonds have higher bond energy

shorter bonds

smaller the atomic radii of atoms,

shorter stronger bonds

increase in pressure shifts

side with less moles of gas

increase in volume shifts

side with more moles of gas

simple distillation vs vacuum distillation

simple distillation bp>vacuum distillation boiling point

how is purity represented on a tlc plate

singe spot

Triple bond vs double bond vs single bond

single bond: -longer -less bond energy and strength -less rigid

archaea

single celled single circular chromosome divide by binary fission or budding similar to bacteria

single copy vs repetitive dna

single copy-associated with euchromatin repetitive-associated with heterochromatin

cytochrome c is

single electron carrier

if question stem indicates prokaryotes and indicates proteins are produced from

single mrna transcribed from a single promotor sequence UPSTREAM of the operon

single crossover vs double crossover

single: affect ends of chromosomal arms double: affect segments of chromosome closer toward middle

the coefficient of kinetic friction is independent of

size of contact surface and speed between the two surfaces

skeletal muscles vs cardiac and smooth muscles

skeletal: voluntary, somatic nervous system cardiac/smooth: involuntary, autonomic nervous system

stratified squamous

skin

velocity vs time graph

slope=acceleration area=displacement

displacement vs time graph

slope=velocity

the rate law of the overall reaction applies to

slow rate limiting step

high melting point signifies

slower denaturation rate, more stable structure, stronger IMFs

light speed

slower in glass faster in air

larger the energy barrier

slower the rate and smaller the k

what conditions give better separation?

slowly increasing temperature

what can form h bonds with water

small atomic radii such as O F N but not Br

thermodynamic enolate

small base (MeOH) high temperature -->more stable substituted product

pancreatic lipase in

small intestine

viroids

smaller than viruses and are made of single stranded circular rna

thicker the lens

smaller the focal length

focal length and lens

smaller the focal length, stronger the lens

fluorine

smallest halogen and highest first ionization energy

golgi resembles

smooth er especially when looking under electron microscope

spliceosome

snrna + snrnp bind to ends of introns

what is excluded from equilibrium constant

solids and liquids

somatic vs autonomic

somatic is voluntary control whereas autonomic is involuntary control

delta cells

somatostatin, which inhibits both insulin and glucagon secretion--generalized inhibitory effect on digestion function

deprotonation of water during amide hydrolysis

sp2-->sp3-->sp2

transverse tubule

specialized muscle fibers that facilitate action potential propagation through individual muscle fibers

calculation protein yield

specific activity x total protein

DURING RME,

specific extracellular targets bind their corresponding receptors and are incorprated into INTRacellular vesicles that mature into ENDOSOMES

% object submerged

specific gravity x 100%

bends toward normal

speed decreases light enters medium with higher index of refraction

bends away from normal

speed increases light enters medium with lower index of refraction

as the area of the vessel is cut by 2

speed increases by 2

ovum(female)=

spermatazoan(male)(

anaphase

spindle fibers shorten sister chromatids separate and migrate toward poles

gate control theory

spine contains gate that allows/blocks pain signals

bacteria is moved from blood in

spleen

expression of endogenous DNA involves

splicing

bacteria lack mechanism for

splicing out introns

galvanic cells are

spontaneous +Ecell

when ∆S and ∆H are both positive

spontaneous at high temperatures(-∆G) nonspontaneous at low temperatures(+∆G) ENDOTHERMIC

when ∆H and ∆S are both negative

spontaneous at low temperatures (-∆G) nonspontaneous at high temperature (+∆G) EXOTHERMIC

force static friction vs force kinetic friction

static friction force is always greater than kinetic friction force

on friction vs applied force graph

static friction is shown as increasing force that transitions into kinetic friction with a SUDden drop TO Constant force

reverse phase

stationary: nonpolar mobile: polar *most polar elutes first

normal phase

stationary: polar mobile: nonpolar *most nonpolar elutes first

statistically significant means that.

statistically unlikely for results to be accounted for by random chance

greater instantaneous velocity

steep and positive slope -a less steep, but positive slope has a greater instantaneous velocity than a more steep and negative slope -graph: time vs displacement

aldosterone

steroid hormone decreases blood potassium, increases WATER and SODIUM reabsoprtion in distal convoluted tubule, increase BP

nonhydrolyzable lipids

steroids, prostaglandins, fat soluble vitamins

F16 bp regulation

stim: ATP, glucagon inhib: AMP, insulin

Glycogen phosphorylase regulation

stimulated: glucagon in liver, AMP and EPi in skeletal muscle inhibited: ATP

Glycogen synthase regulation

stimulated; G6P, insulin inhibited: Epi,yglucagon

cholecytokinin

stimulates bile release from gallbladder, stimulates pancreatic juices too involved in satiety

Drug blocks release of ACTH. Oh shit what happens?

stimulatory effect of ACTH on the adrenal cortex would be blocked subsequently decreasing the release of cortisol

simple columnar

stomach and gut

amber codon

stop codon

nonsense mutation

stop codon

inversion

stretch of dna breaks off and then reattaches in opposite orientation

what type of muscle use ach

striated muscles

external urethral sphincter

striated skeletal muscle, voluntary control

stronger binding affinities have

stronger complexes

strong acid vs weak acid dissociation constant

strongt- ka>1 and high [H+] weak- ka<1 and low [H+]

sphingolipids

structural lipids that help influence the fluidity and curvature of biological membrane long hydrocarbon chain of sphingosine head group cannot be readily hydrolyzed and not primary means of energy storage

in order to remove water from frozen sample and keep mixture cold and maintain protein in its native state

sublimate under reduced pressure

single band on sds page signifies

subunits very close in mass or only one subunit present

charge cannot accumulate indefinitely because

successive charges brought to plates are repelled by charges accumulated earlier

satellite cells

support ganglia (neuronal bodies of pns)

nitrogen atoms can

switch from sp3 to sp2 to free up a p orbital for resonance

adrenal medulla is what part of pns

sympathetic component of ans

adrenal medulla is only innervated by

sympathetic nervous system

ns response and glycogen: S vs PS

sympathetic-breaks down glycogen to release glucose into blood parasympathetic-synthesizes glycogen for storage from glucose

pupils during sympathetic vs parasympathetic

sympathetic-pupil dilation parasympathetic-pupil constriction

Which of the following cellular processes would most likely lead to increased genetic diversity in a population of organisms?

synapsis involving two homologous chromosomes

prophase 1

synapsis, crossing over

dna polymerase 3

synthesizes nucleotides onto LEADING strand from 5 to 3

dna polymerase 1

synthesizes nucleotides onto PRIMERS on LAGGING STRAND forming OKAZAKI fragments

oxygen consumption of etc

takes place in COMPLEX 4 with the consumption of REDUCED cytochrome c

even though that fructose is ketone it can undergo

tautomerization

temperature vs resistivity vs current

temp up resist up current down

what can be used to selectively predicate compounds during separations of mixture?

temperature and common ion

Arrhenius equation expresses

temperature dependence of k

temperature vs batteries

temperature is directly proportional to the effectiveness of batteries for example.e, lead acid batter work poorly and fail in cold weather

more positive overall reduction potential indicate

tendency to accept electrons

more negative overall reduction potential indicate

tendency to lose electrons

T state

tense state, low oxygen

insertion of ddNtp

terminates replication and create various strand with different legends that correspond to specific nucleotides. therefore the gel can be read from bottom to top to determine the nucleotide sequence. the smaller the fragment, the further migration in the gel

structure most important for enzymatic function

tertiary

quaternary format signifies

tetrahedral 109.5degrees

as the angle of inclination increases

the NORMAL FORCe DECREASES and therefore kinetic friction decreases

the kcat is dependent on

the ability of the folded protein to catalyze the reaction

one factor that could determine whether antibiotic resistance cells persist in the colon is

the ability to produce more descendants than do the other bacteria

what maintains the saltiness of the renal medulla?

the active transport of NaCl from the ascending LOH, which facilities passive water reabsorption from the descending limb and collecting duct

what maintains the high salt concentration in the kidney medulla?

the active transport of NaCl from the ascending limb of the loop of henle and this facilities the reabsorption of water from the descending limb

actin myosin in muscle contraction

the binding of ATP is required for releasing the myosin head from actin. It is the dissociation of ADP and Pi from myosin that is resonsible for the powerstroke, not the hydrolysis of ATP

How do you determine the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable?

the condition in which all independent variables are absent should be tested initially

If oligonucleotides such as mRNA were not degraded rapidly by intracellular agents, which of the following processes would be most affected?

the coordination of cell differentiation during development The destruction of mRNA prevents continuous protein production, allowing the cell to change its protein expression over time. The coordination of cell differentiation during development is very sensitive to the timing of mRNA turnover, while the other responses are not affected as much by the timing of mRNA turnover

test cross

the crossing of an individual of unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive individual to determine the unknown genotype

In a galileo thermometer as the temperature of the solution decreases,

the density of the solution increases, and becomes denser than the bulb

the substrate is bound to every active site in the solution when

the enzyme operates at vmax

the amount of product formed in a reaction is dependent on

the equilibrium constant of the reaction

genetic recombination

the farther apart two genes are, the more likely they are going to recombine.

as temperature increases in dna melting curves

the fluorescence decreases as dsDNA becomes single stranded

the colder the surface when comparing two,

the greater the thermal conductivity

fluid flow rate vs IMFs

the higher the flow rate, the greater kinetic energy and subsequently IMFs become weaker and more transient

light frequency vs index of refraction

the higher the light frequency , the higher the index of refraction and greater refraction than low frequency

the higher the electron affinity

the higher the reduction potential

substrate concentration vs enzyme turnover rate

the higher the substate concentration, the more saturated the active site

factor and ksp

the higher the temperature, the more soluble

intermolecular hydrogen bonding vs boiling point

the isomer that experiences increased intermolecular hydrogen bonding has a higher boiling point compared to isomer that experiences increased INTRAMOLECULAR hydrogen bonding

the more mRNA

the more level of expression and the more protein made

the more positive the reduction potential

the more likely it is to reduced

the lower temperature is with -∆H and -∆S,

the more likely ∆G is to be negative

ring strain vs reactivity

the more membered a ring, the less reactive due to ring strain

proteins vs osmotic pressure

the more proteins, the more oncotic pressure

the larger the ksp,

the more soluble

the more s character signifies

the more stable

the move volume under constant pressure

the more work

what would happen if you put DNA polymerase in a reduced ph environment?

the negatively charged aspartate would be protonated and unable to bind to the positively charged Mg2+ ion cofactor

if the direction of the loads velocity is positive and since friction acts in the opposite direction

the net force and acceleration are negative

for random reactions

the order in which substrates bind is not important and does not impact the progress of the reaction

Hydrostatic pressure is t and the difference between two points in a fluid

the pressure exerted by the weight (potential energy) of a fluid. The hydrostatic pressure difference between two points in a fluid is proportional to the fluid's density, the gravitational acceleration, and the vertical displacement between the two points.

during western blotting, which protein is visible

the protein of interest bound to the radiolabeled antibody

given a constant reaction rate the amount of product formed during a reaction can be calculated as

the rate multiple by the time in which the reaction proceeds

if two products are formed,

the reaction is not stereospecific

for a thermodynamic mixture of isomeric products the relative mole ratio of products is directly related to

the relative STABILITY of these products higher the %-->more stable

Henrys amazing law

the solubility of gas will increases with increasing partial pressure of gas

as the y intercept decreases and subsequently as the vmax on a line weaver burk increases

the turnover number does as well

When the volumetric blood flow rate is the same in two vessels,

the vessel with the greater pressure difference has the greater resistance to flow.

reversible signifies

thermodynamic control -->most stable (most -∆G)

a random population off cells will likely contain some cells in each phase of the cell cycle study of their progress through the cell requires

these cells first be brought to the same phase of the cell cycle (synchronized) and these synchronized cells can then be monitored when they are released and process through the cell cycle together

how do peptide hormones induce a signaling cascade?

they act as first messengers and must bind extracellular receptors to induce a signaling cascade via activation of intracellular second messengers

why are lipids long term storage compared to carbs

they have carbons with lower average oxidation states

when RBCs pass through capillaries single file

they maximize surface area exposed and increase gas exchange

bond in succinylcoa that is cleaved

thioester bond

occludins

tight cell to cell junctions

endothelial cells connected by

tight junctions

sarcoplasmic reticulum

tightly regulates INTRACELLULAR calcium concentration

exposure to what components start coagulation cascade

tissue factor and collagen

to determine whether cell expresses specific gene

tissue incubated with labeled RNA strand that is complementary to mRNA of interest-->labeled RNA hybridizes with mRNA in cells that express it but is washed away from other cells

purpose of curvette

to compare spectra absorption when identical optical properties are present

Dopamine

too much-schizophrenia too little-parkinsons

vital capacity

total amount of air that can be expired after fully inhaling VC=TV + IRV + ERV

why do capillaries have lower pressure and lower velocity of blood flow compared to arteries?

total cross sectional area of capillaries is greater than arteries

total activity (TA)

total protein(mg) x specific activity (u/mg)

mrna and location

transcript mrna does not represent wwhere protein will be localized

ossicles amplifyin sound

transfer vibrations from tympanic membrane (large area) to oval window (small area)

methylation requires

transferase

bond length

triple bonds are shorter thandluble bonds which are shorter than single bonds

often used as a loading control

tubulin which ascertains \\an equal amount of protein loading in each lane

dna hybridization

two complementary ssDNA molecules form a single double stranded molecules through base pairing

electric potential energy decreases

two like charges move away from each other two opposite charges move towards each other

parallel evolution

two or more closely related species DESCENDED FROM MORE RECENT COMMON ANCESTOR continue to evolve same characteristics

helicase

unwind dna at replication fork

how do you separate enantiomers?

use a resolving agent

abc transporters

use atp hydrolysis to transport

purpose of DNA ladder

used to determine size of molecules that are being electrophoresed

dna hybridization postive control

uses DNA sequences known to hybridize via complementarity as the probe

glomerulus

uses passive flow due top pressure difference and filters blood into Bowmans capsule

imporatance. f soutner bloto

uses restriction digest to differentiate between the mutant and wild type the mutation should either create or eliminate restriction site

wave velocity equation

v = fλ

no doppler shift occurs when

v=0 (peak of a time vs displacement graph)

vacuum distillation conditions vs simple distillation conditions

vacuum-reduced pressure simple-atmospheric pressure

effective nuclear charge

valence electrons - core electrons(2) protons-core valence

hydrophobic amino acids with branched alkyl chains

valine, leucine, isoleucine

common features of mitochondrial diseases

variable expressivity and incomplete penetrance

body temp below normal

vasoconstriction of skin arterioles

blood pressure and vasoconstriction and vasodilation

vasoconstriction: increase blood pressure vasodilation: decreases blood pressure

vasoconstriction vs vasodilation

vasoconstriction: increases bp and decrease blood flow vasodilation: decrease bp and increase blood flow

Epi is a powerful

vasoconstrictor

histamine effect on blood vessels

vasodilation

body temp above normal

vasodilation of skin aerteriole

electron spin

vector quantity with +1/2(positive spin) and -1/2(negative spin)

endosomes

vesicles that transport material to lysosomes

amino acids to alpha keto acids

via transamination -amino group transferred to alpha ketoglutarate alpha keto acid can then undergo oxidation forming acetyl coa or tca intermediates

diverging lens always

virtual upright reduced

CoA precursor

vitamin b 5 pantothenic acid

uv radiation that strikes the skin induces

vitamin d synthesis

noncompetitive inhibitor

vmax decrease km samD

kcat

vmax/[E]

if at a constant concentration of enzyme (vmax vs kcat)

vmax=kcat

avagadro

vn

as capacitor discharges

voltage across drops falls

axon hillock has highest concentration of

voltage gated Na+ channels

if threshold is reached,

voltage gated ion Chanels open and the membrane rapidly depolarizes

relative refractory period:

voltage gated sodium channels are closed but responsive action potential can be generated with greater than normal membrane depolarization

absolute refractory period:

voltage gated sodium channels inactive and cannot respond to depolarization generation of section action potential is impossible, no matter the intensity of the stimulus

the magnet strength used in flowmeter increases

voltage increases

basal nuclei/ganglia

voluntary motor control

during condensation reactions

water is released

DCT primary function

water reabsorption

elevated osmolarity triggers

water reabsorption

Water soluble electrons carriers Lipid soluble electron carriers

water- FADH2 NADH Lipid-FMM CoQ

hydrolyzable lipids

waxes, TAGs, phospholipids, sphingolipids

buffer is formed by

weak acid and salt of conjugate base of acid weak base and salt of its conjugate acid

weak acids vs weak bases

weak acids deprotonated by strong base weak bases protonated by strong acid

electric field and charge

when electric field is there, and a charge enters that charges experiences a force the farther from the charge, the weaker the electric field

in a circuit when is the electric potential energy the greatest

when leaving the battery

Total internal reflection may only occur

when light leaves a medium with a higher refractive index and enters a medium with a lower refractive index

amino acids that are far away from each other in the linear primary sequence may be brought closer in space when the

when the protein folds

constructive interference

when the sum of the amplitudes results in a larger amplitude

destructive interference

when the sum of the amplitudes results in a smaller amplitude

4 kinematic equations

x=xi + vt ∆x=vit + 1/2 at^2 vf=vi + at vf^2=vi^2 + 2ad

embryogenesis(must be good, nah)

zygote-->morula-->blastocyst(enters uterus via implantation)-->placenta morula, blastula, gastrula, neurula

trypsinogen

zymogen form of trypsin and released from pancreas

insulin resistance vs in sensitivity

· An organism is considered insulin sensitive if only a minimal amount of insulin is needed to induce an appropriate reduction in glucose levels. In contrast, insulin-resistant organisms need substantially more insulin to take up the same amount of glucose.

trait clues

· If passage states the following, then they are autosomal - males in the first cross were heterozygous, suggesting that they had two different copies of the gene. - males and females have the same ratios of normal-shaped eyes to elongated eyes. If they were sex-linked, all females would have elongated eyes (dominant) and all males would have normal eyes (recessive). \ - Because PTP is on the same chromosome as Abl, it must also be autosomal

reducing vs nonreducing

· Reducing sugars contain free anomeric carbons that provide reducing power when they are oxidized. In linear form the anomeric carbon is an aldehyde or a ketone, and in cyclic form reducing sugars have hemiacetal or hemiketal configurations. Nonreducing sugars contain acetal or ketal structures in their cyclic forms.

Gpe

· expressed using negative numbers and is inversely proportional to radial distance between masses

Graham's law of effusion

E1/E2=(√MW₂)/(√MW₁)

alkyl groups are

EDG

inside of cell is more

negative than outside

complex I inhibition

buildup of NADH

what stores energy

capacitors and batteries

linkage

closer genes are together on one chromosome more likely they will be inherited together

strict control of stereochemistry of new formed bond

forms new stereocenter

pyloric sphincter

connects stomach to duodenum

Two wires attract if

current in same direction

Agranulocytes

monotypes and lymphocytes

equilibrium favors position of

weaker acid

sphingolipids contain how many hydrolyzable fatty acyl chains?

1

pdc products

1 ACETYL COA 1 CO2 1 NADH

1 Pa

1 N/m^2

EDG EWG effect on acidity

EDG: decrease acidity EWG: increase acidity

Absorptive state vs post absorptive state:

absorp--fed state post absorp--fasting state

C

amino

proteins secondary and tertiary structures are determined by their

amino acid sequence

peptide bond formation

amino group attacks carboxyl eliminate OH and forms amide

transcription factors are

in nucleus

emf only influenced by

AREA of loop OR rod has to MOVE

freeazing p0oint and molar

lower the freezing point, greater the molar concentration

Granulocytes

B-basophils E-eosinophils N-neutrophils

ionization energy vs reactivity

lower the ionization energy, the more reactive

Ecell=

Ecathode-Eanode

BOTH glycogenic and ketogenic

FITTT

Ea vs K

K decrease as Ea increases

Formal Charge Shortcut

Should (valence e) - Have(valence e)

electron capture

atomic number decreases by one and mass number stays the same

blood tissue

connective tissue

bladder is derived from

endoderm

Vapor pressure and Boiling point have

inverse relationship

what can be reduced by dopamine release

prolactin

Peripheral composed of

somatic and autonomic

notochord is derived from

the mesoderm

dalton

total pressure exerted equal to partial pressures

-di

virtual

limiting reagent fukkkkkinggg awesome trick

# moles of the reactant/coefficient in balanced chemical reaction

small intestine order

Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum

S configuration corresponds to

L sugars

astrocytes

blood brain barrier

reduction of phenols

cyclohexanol

post ganglionic neurons in sympathetic ns use

epi

nondividing states of cell cycle

Go G1

nucleoli

ribosome production

the more color

the greater conjugation

acetyl coa contains what functional group

thioester

Specific gravity vs density vs buoyancy force

↑ specific gravity = ↑ density = ↑ buoyancy force

nonspontaneous process

∆E negative ∆G postive electron flow: high to low reduction potential

Spontaneous process

∆E postive ∆G negative electron flow: low to high reduction potential

positive entropy signifies

∆G decrease with temperature

negative entropy signifies

∆G increases with temperature

Power w/t=

∆KE/t

ohms law for flow

∆P=Q x R the group of vessels with the greatest pressure drop across its length, the arterioles, is the main source of peripheral resistance.

An inactive tetramer of IN is expected to have approximately what molecular weight? (IN monomer is 288-residues)

√]=The enzyme is composed of 288 amino acids, which have a molecular weight of about 32 kDa (the avg molecular weight of an AA is about 110 Da; 288 x 110 --> 3200 Da or 32 kDa). Thus, a tetramer will have a molecular weight of about 128 kDa

Lorentz Force

F= Felec + Fmag F= q(E + vB)

sarcomere anatomy

HAM IZ

universal donor

O

dystole

heart relaxes as atria pump blood to ventricles

Pauli exclusion

s-1 p-3 d-5 f-7

retinal disparity aka

sterreopis s

cos 0 90 180

1 0 -1

∆G ATP

-35 kJ/mol

charles

v t

when collecting date or samples from participants in a study researchers should assess

whether the time at which the data/sampelsa re collected could impact the validity of thee experiment and then adjust their experimental design to compensate

white matter vs grey matter

white matter has myelinated axons whereas grey matter does not have myelinated axons

work vs charge

work is done when charge moves from one equipotential line to another

nucleosides end in

-dine

sin 0 90 180

0 1 0

tca pneumomnic

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EmF

Ecell=Ered-Eox

coenzyme complex I etc

FMN

freezing point directly proportional to

IMFs

gluconeogenesis rate limiting enzyme

f16 bp

largest molecular weight

guanosine

beta cells

insulin

1 N=

kg*m/s^2

secondary amine

nucleophile forms ENAMINE

rer synthesizes

secretory proteins

converging lens: do<f

virtual upright enlarged