(A) C. 1: Scientific Thinking in Psychology:

Determinism (a) & Discoverability (b)

(a) The assumption made by scientists that all events have causes. (b) The assumption made by scientists that the causes of events can be discovered by applying scientific methods. ∙In psychology, we ultimately would like to know what causes behavior (determinism), and it is with the tools of science that we can discover those causes (discoverability).

Systematic Observations

(a) precise definitions of the phenomena being measured, (b) reliable and valid measuring tools that yield useful and interpretable data, (c) generally accepted research methodologies, and (d) a system of logic for drawing conclusions and fitting those conclusions into general theories.

Use of Reason

2 Premises: Syllogisms ∙Primates are capable of using language. ∙Bozo the chimp is a primate. -its logical for us to conclude that Bozo the chimp has the ability to use language. BUT... depends on the truth of the first of the two statements- "language must be defined!!" ∙The key point is that the value of a *logically drawn conclusion depends on the truth of the premises, and it takes more than logic to determine whether the premises have merit.*

Pseudoscience

A field of inquiry that attempts to associate with true science, relies exclusively on selective anecdotal evidence, and is deliberately too vague to be adequately tested. -->∙ (a) a false association with true science, (b) a misuse of the rules of evidence by relying excessively on anecdotal data, (c) a lack of specificity that avoids a true test of the theory *HARD TO DISPROVE-falsify* and *appeal to population* (d) an oversimplification of complex processes. Ex: Phrenology (Gall)- skull bumps desc. behavior Ex: Magnetic theory- magnetic fields alter NS and behavior Ex: Graphology (handwriting) *With actual physical measurements being made, one gets the impression of legitimacy.* & *often confuse their pseudoscience with the legitimate science of document analysis, performed by professionals* ALSO: ∙has great consumer appeal, especially in psychology. ∙RELIES ON: -*anecdotal and testimonial evidence* -*sidestep the all‐important falsification criterion* - *take complex phenomena (e.g., character, personality) and try to convince you these phenomena can be understood by relying on simple‐to‐understand concepts (e.g., head shape, handwriting shape)*

Empirical question

A question that can be answered by making objective observations. -->questions that are precise enough to allow specific predictions to be made

Empiricism

A way of knowing that relies on direct observation or experience. ∙Empiricism as a way of knowing, that experience is *susceptible to such biases as confirmation bias, belief perseverance, and the availability heuristic.* -asking "empirical questions" is an important component of scientific thinking *BUT....there are biases...* -->experiences are necessarily *limited and our interpretations of our experiences can be influenced by a number of what social psychologists refer to as "social cognition biases."*

A Priori Method

A way of knowing, proposed by Charles Peirce, in which a person develops a belief by reasoning and reaching agreement with others who are convinced of the merits of the reasoned argument. That is, a belief develops as the result of logical argument, before a person has direct experience with the phenomenon at hand

Effort-Justification

After expending a large amount of time or effort to obtain some goal, people giving the effort feel pressured to convince themselves the effort was worthwhile, even if the resulting outcome is less positive than expected. -> Following from *Leon Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance*, the idea is that after people expend significant effort, they feel compelled to convince themselves that the effort was worthwhile.

Scientific Determinism

An assumption made by research psychologists that behavioral events can be predicted with a probability greater than chance.

Data-driven Conclusions

Describes the belief of research psychologists that conclusions about behavior should be supported by data collected scientifically. -->how the terms were defined in the study (e.g., driving performance), the exact procedures used to collect the data, the type of statistical analysis that was done, and so on. EXAMPLE: Galton's (1872) most unusual attempt to draw a data‐based conclusion was a controversial study on the "efficacy of prayer." -->test empirically the notion that prayers "worked." -->to see if prayer was effective, he reasoned, then sick people who pray for a return to health should recover sooner than those who do not. -->Similarly, people who do a lot of praying for a living (i.e., the clergy) or who are the object of a great deal of prayer (i.e., the king and queen of England) should live longer than the general population. *None of these predictions were supported by the data*

Anecdotal evidence

Evidence from a single case that illustrates a phenomenon; when relied on exclusively, as in pseudoscience, faulty conclusions can easily be drawn. -> anecdotal evidence is selective; examples that don't fit are ignored (you might recognize this as another example of a confirmation bias).

Side-Stepping all Falsification

Instead of allowing an apparent contradiction to damage the theory, they sidestep the problem by *rearranging the theory a bit or by adding some elements to accommodate the anomaly.* ∙ *the apparent falsification winds up being touted as further evidence in support of the theory!* ∙ for pseudoscience, any *contradictory outcome can be explained or, more accurately, explained away.* ∙ Another way that falsification is sidestepped by pseudoscience is that research reports in pseudoscientific areas are *notoriously vague* and they are never submitted to reputable journals with stringent peer review systems in place.

Introspection

Method used in the early years of psychological science in which an individual would complete a task and then describe the events occurring in consciousness while performing the task. - basically a form of precise self‐report. *The problem with introspection:* ∙ Although introspectors underwent rigorous training that sought to eliminate bias in their self‐observations, the method was fundamentally subjective—*I cannot verify your introspections and you cannot verify mine. The problem was articulated nicely by John B. Watson, in a paper that came to be known as the "Behaviorist Manifesto"*

Barnum effect

Numerous studies have shown that if subjects are given what they think is a valid personality test (but isn't) and are then given a personality description of themselves, filled with a mix of mostly positive traits, they will judge the analysis to be a good description of what they are like. This occurs even though all the subjects in a Barnum effect study get the exact same personality description, regardless of how they have filled out the phony personality test!

Free Will- PROBLEM

Personal belief about free will must be an individual decision, arrived at through the use of reason (perhaps supplemented with reflection on our experiences and/or the ideas of authority figures). What scientists can do is examine scientifically such topics (a) the extent to which behavior is influenced by a strong belief in free will, (b) the degree to which some behaviors are more "free" than others (i.e., require more conscious decision making), and (c) what the limits might be on our "free choices" ∙Vohs and Schooler (2008) argued that a *belief in free will has value, perhaps increasing the chances that people will behave ethically.* EXAMPLE... In two studies, they found that encouraging a *belief in determinism* INCREASED the tendency for subjects to cheat on academic‐type tasks, whereas subjects *believing in free will* and reading statements promoting free will were LESS likely to cheat.

Science Produces Tentative Conclusions

Related to the data‐driven attitude that characterizes researchers is the recognition that *conclusions drawn from data are always tentative, subject to revision based on future research.* SUBJ. TO REVISION: *HRT for menopausal woman* ->science is a self‐correcting enterprise ->conclusions are not absolute, yet there is confidence that research will eventually get one ever closer to the truth. *Skepticism about the current reach of science*, does not imply diminished enthusiasm for the attempt to improve provisional explanations.* MAIN IDEA: *Beliefs not based in science tend to be resistant to change, because they bring social cognition biases into play. Beliefs rooted in scientific methodology, however, are always subject to change based on new data.*

Falsification

Research strategy, advocated by Popper, that emphasizes putting theories to the test by trying to disprove or falsify them. Theories *must generate hypotheses* producing research results that could come out as the *hypothesis predicts (i.e., support the hypothesis and increase confidence in the theory) or could come out differently (i.e., fail to support the hypothesis and raise questions about the theory).*

Objectivity

Said to exist when observations can be verified by more than one observer. defining the terms and research procedures precisely enough so that *any other person can repeat the study, presumably achieving the same observable outcome.* ∙ form of *defining the terms and research procedures precisely* enough so that any other person can *repeat the study*, presumably achieving the same observable outcome. ∙ John Watson: behaviorist perspective

Confirmation Bias

Social cognition bias in which events that confirm a strongly held belief are more readily perceived and remembered; disconfirming events are ignored or forgotten. *EXAMPLE* persons believing in (ESP) will keep close track of instances when they were "thinking about Mom, and then the phone rang and it was her!" Yet they ignore the far more numerous times when (a) they were thinking about Mom and she didn't call, and (b) they weren't thinking about Mom and she did call. They also fail to recognize that if they talk to Mom about every two weeks, their frequency of "thinking about Mom" will increase near the end of the two‐week interval, thereby increasing the chances of Mom actually calling. *Confirmation bias often combines with another preconception called belief perseverance*

Availability Heuristic

Social cognition bias in which vivid or memorable events lead people to overestimate the frequency of occurrence of these events. EXAMPLE An example of an availability heuristic of relevance to students is when students change their answers on multiple‐choice tests. Many students believe that the most frequent outcome of answer changing is that an initially correct answer will be changed to a wrong one. *Students tend to hold that belief because when such an event does occur, it is painful and hence memorable (availability heuristic)*, perhaps making the difference between an A and a B on a test.

Example of Bias' Together

Students tend to hold that belief because when such an event does occur, *it is painful and hence memorable (availability heuristic)*, perhaps making the difference between an A and a B on a test.once the belief starts to develop, it is *strengthened whenever the same kind of outcome does occur (confirmation bias)*, and it *doesn't take too many instances before a strong belief about answer changing develops (belief perseverance begins).* It is not uncommon to hear students tell others not to change answers but to "go with your initial gut feeling," a phenomenon that Kruger, Wirtz, and Miller (2005) call the "first instinct" fallacy.

Belief Perseverance

Unwillingness to consider evidence that contradicts a strongly held view; similar to Peirce's principle of tenacity. -to hold on doggedly to a belief, even in the face of evidence that would convince most people that the belief is false. ∙∙∙ Strongly held prejudices include both belief perseverance and confirmation bias. *Those with racist attitudes, for example, refuse to consider evidence disconfirming the prejudice and seek out and pay attention to information consistent with the prejudicial belief.* ∙They will argue that experience is indeed the best teacher and that their experience has taught them about the superiority of their own group and the inferiority of members of another group.

Authority

When we accept the validity of information from a source that we judge to be an expert, then we are relying on authority as a source of our knowledge. ∙Pros: Its easy!! ∙Cons: BIASES- we overlook the fact that *authority CAN be wrong* -textbooks and professors are sometimes wrong or their knowledge may be incomplete or biased, and doctors can miss a diagnosis or prescribe the wrong medicine.

The Goals of Research in Psychology

∙ DESCRIBE: behaviors are accurately classified or sequences of environmental stimuli and behavioral events are accurately listed -1st step -observe relationships -survey methods, questioners for making predictions ∙ PREDICT: statements about the future occurrence of a behavioral event are made, usually with some probability. *determinism* ∙ EXPLAIN: the causes of events are sought (a) the explanation makes sense with reference to some theory or some already existing sets of laws, and (b) other possible explanations for Y occurring in the presence of X can be ruled out. ∙ APPLICATION: basic principles discovered through scientific methods are applied in order to solve problems. --->*TRANSLATIONAL* research: A form of research that is done for both better understanding of a particular phenomenon as well as for its application to promote physical and psychological well‐being.