AAAS midterm 1
What examples of African culture could be found in Black resistance movements in colonial America?
- A conjure man: gave them powders and incantations that would protect them - oaths and potions, chalk the cosmogram - secret societies: interracial crime ring
Despite the trauma of enslavement and the Middle Passage, enslaved Africans remained connected to their African past. In what ways did African culture influence Black people's spiritual beliefs in colonial America?
- The idea of the Cosmogram manifested in beliefs about life and death - transmigration- ones souls would return to Africa -wandering funerals: large parades that took the coffin through the neigborhood
What similarities existed between the major resistance movements during the colonial period? (1712 and 1741 revolts and the Stono Rebellion)
- burning the city down & escape or take over - consult the conjure man - all unsuccessful with them getting executed or shipped to the Caribbeans
What strategies did the colonists use to try to prevent future rebellions?
- not allowed to gather in groups more than 3 - not allowed out after dark - illegal for slaves to read
How did the Triangular Trade function?
- traders carried English goods or rum to West Africa and exchanged the goods for slaves -the traders then carried slaves to the West Indies and exchanged them for sugar, taking it back to England
What were the differing roles for men and women in most West African societies prior to European contact?
- women: women held most of the economic and spiritual power - men: Men held most of the power
What were the key factors that created a distinction between indentured servitude and slavery?
-RACE, length of servitude to be black was to be a slave and to be a slave was to be black
What were the major empires in West Africa prior to European contact, and what caused them to go into decline?
-The Empire of Ghana (Soninke)- defeated by trade competitors The Empire of Mali (Mandinka)- the death of Mansa Musa - Songhai Empire- Portuguese explorers and readers from Morocco moved into the region to seize the empires wealth
In what ways did the African Burial Ground demonstrate the retention of African culture among enslaved people? For example, what can we learn from Burial #340 or Burial #101?
-careful positioning of the body: westward means facing towards the sun, wrapped in linen in placed in coffins - Burial #340: beads were used to mark important passages of life -burial #101: symbols e.g. A Sankofa which means look to the past to inform your future
What factors caused Europeans to consider expansion?
-population boom: created a demand for space and resources, particularly land - high yield agricultural production: led to desire to expand trade and finance exploration - Renaissance: access to gunpowder, strong desire to accumulate wealth
In what ways did slavery expose contradictions in the ideology of the American Revolution?
-upheld the oppression and enslavement of their human property -the signers were slaveholders -not applied for the black population
In what ways did servitude in West Africa differ from slavery in the Americas
1. NEVER politically or economically dependent on slave labor 2. NEVER a permanent slave holding class 3. Opportunity for social mobility and status rarely inherited 4. no defining mark of "race"
According to historian Winthrop Jordan, what ideas did the English have about Africans prior to arriving in West Africa?
1. The English already had negative ideas about Africa and "blackness" before they encountered an African 2. Believed dark skin was a mark of inferiority 3. The English viewed them as heathens for not being christians 4. ideas of "savagery" wondered if they were human and the origins of Africa
What were the four stages of the Middle Passage, and what occurred in each phase?
1. capture- kidnapping developed once demand became higher through enforced warfare and gunpowder 2. the long march- tied together in coffles they marched as far as 200 miles from their home to the coastline 3. arrival on coast- sold by: waiting for a full cargo for up to 6 months or placed in permanent sites until a full ship was accumulated 4. sale on the coast-inspections and examinations to sell the slave for the most price
What laws (for example, the Negro Acts) were developed to restrict the rights of free Blacks during the colonial era?
1. denied all rights to vote, own property, testify in court, or have freedom of mobility 2. placed restrictions on rights of owners to free their slaves, prevent the creation of a free black population 3. in some states, laws prohibited the existence of free blacks in their territory
What strategies did Africans use to cope with their conditions during the Middle Passage?
1. depression- people died from "melancholy" 2. suicide 3. revolts
What were the primary ideological influences that shaped the American Revolution?
1. liberty is an individuals greatest right 2. a strong government is a threat to liberty, the power of government should be limited 3. people have the right to reject
What specific factors caused African elites to be willing to trade humans?
1. military and political weakness: could not resist against European encroachment & advanced waeponry 2. economic dependence: West Africans became dependent upon the luxury items Europeans provided 3. issues of identity: Africans did not see each other as members of the same group
In what ways did European expansion into the Americas influence the development of the slave trade?
1. process of expansion: agricultural developments 2. financial motivation: US conductive to make coffee, rice, sugar, cotton, & tobacco
What major differences existed between Northern slavery and Southern slavery during the colonial period?
1. size of the African population: more blacks in South 2. type of labor performed: more physical labor in the south and less urban slavery like the North
What was the legal structure of slavery and how did it develop?
1641- Massachusetts because the 1st to define slavery as a legal institution bc they really invested 1663- Virginia court ruled slavery would be inherited
lineage
A type of clan in West Africa, in which members claim descent from a single ancestor. Was important in defining one's personal status and identity. Your sense of identity is from the relationship from the other people in your family. Status is inherited.
What was the nature of slavery in the Chesapeake region and how did it compare to conditions in the Carolinas?
Africans tolled long hours in the field, performing back breaking work under the watch of their master. The Carolinas was unpleasant work as well, labor intensive, and spent long hours in the hot humid weather
How did the gang system compare to the task system, and what would it have meant for the lives of enslaved people?
After finishing these task, they could work on plots of land assigned to them or do what they pleased W/O white supervision. This meant they could preserve their African heritage
What was significant about Anthony Johnson's story and what does it tell us about the nature of slavery and freedom in colonial America?
Anthony was the first slave to purchase his freedom after 14 years of service and own 250 acres of land. Tells us America quickly became racialized and laws were being passed which denied Black rights
How, for example, did a region like New England profit from slavery?
Based more on trade and shipping, they controlled most ships going from Africa to the Caribbean and the South
How did African Americans align themselves during the American Revolution, and what was their overall strategy?
Blacks aligned themselves not based on loyalty but the principal for their right for freedom. Their overall strategy was to side with the group they thought would extend freedom
Who profited from the Triangular Trade and who did not?
Did: Spain, Portuguese, France, England, and the Dutch did not: africans
In what ways did the English and the Americans betray their promises to African Americans following the war?
English Betrayal: re-enslavement American betrayal: black patriots not given their freedom and denied veteran benefits
why did Europeans specifically begin exploring the west coast of Africa?
For Gold
Prince Henry the Navigator
From Portugal, they authorized and finanaced explorations seeking a route around Africa to the indies
what criteria did slaveholders use to determine if the "seasoning" process had been successful?
Gave them Christian names, learning European languages, were able to train other slaves, easily acculturated; psychologically accepted your status
Stono Rebellion
Happened in South Carolina in 1739. In the early hours Africans gathered to plan to march into the city and burn it down. The rebels planned to escape to maroon societies in Spanish Florida. They went to the conjure man who used powders to protect them. Grew as large as 100 but confronted by the militia and some executed, captured, or escaped
In what ways was the system of slavery profitable in the North?
It esta. itself in the shipping industry and the maritime trade. Africans were utilized as sailors, shipbuilders, or in menial labor loading and unloading ships
What was the significance of Lord Dunmore's Proclamation and the Phillipsburg Proclamation and in what ways did they influence both African Americans' lives and the outcome of the American Revolution?
Lord Dunmore's Proclamation: promised freedom to all enslaved men who fled their masters and sought protection with the English army Philipsurg Proclamation: Guaranteed freedom to any black person (men, women, children) who sought refuge with the British army and promised to provide full security and occupations outcome: massive enslaved people fled their plantations to join the British
How did the major West African empires differ in structure from the societies that emerged in the Senegambian region and the Kongo/Angola region?
Politically decentralized with local leadership (kings). - Where before they were ruled under one person now each village has their own king making the region vulnerable to the rise of the slave trade
Mansa Musa
Ruled Mali from 1312-1337. Under his rule the empire of Mali was wealthy, he distributed pounds of Gold as gifts along his voyages. He became a target for conquest for the Moroccans and Portuguese. This led to Arab and European exploration into West Africa and the rise of the slave trade.
What impact did it have on West Africa in particular?
Slaves became available as a result from conflict
What explanations have historians offered to explain how slavery in the Americas became based on race?
That it was economically motivated by the Caribbean system which produced tremendous profit and it was convenient to slave Africans It was going to be racial based all along
what kinds of laws were established to reinforce the differences between indentured servitude and slavery?
The Slave codes 1. made slaves based on race 2. sanctioned slavery for life 3. made slave status hereditary
What was the purpose of "seasoning"?
The process by which newly arrived Africans were broken into slavery in the Americas.
What promises did the English and the Americans make to African Americans during the American Revolution and what was the outcome
They recognized that success in the war would go to whoever "can arm the Negro faster" so they crated policies to win Black support
What did the English think about Africans after encountering them, and how did these ideas serve to justify slavery?
They still felt the same way about them making it justifiable about slaving them
What was the purpose of "secret" societies in West Africa and how did they function?
They were the functional equivalent of social, cultural, and governmental agencies responsible for bringing security and rules in society and they functioned under 3 things: social, cultural, and political
Ethiopian Regiment
What: 2,000 Black men served with the English including 300 men who wore uniforms emblazoned with the slogan " Liberty to slaves" When: 1775 American Revolution Who: Under Lord Dunmores Proclamation it promised freedom to enslaved men who fled their masters and sought protection with the army How: was designed to provide the enlgish with much needed troops and frightened the American rebels
Geneva Club
What: A secret society which began as an interracial crime ring When: 1741 rebellion Who: from an indentured white servant who was trying to protect herself How: Structured like an African secret society, complete with secret oaths, rituals, and titles
Sankofa
What: An Akan symbol which means "look to the past to inform your future" Where: found in the Burial #101 Who: on a slaves coffin the lid had 51 metal tacks arranged in heart pattern
Burial #101
What: a burial founded that enslaved Africans used to resist against slavery in a cultural way How: it was distinctive bc the lid contained 51 tacks arranged in a heart pattern. The heart pattern symbolized a Akan symbol called an Sankofa. The Sankofa meant look to the past to inform your future
cosmogram
What: a spiritual map on life and death Why: Believed that death was another phase in the life cycle and did not necessarily mean the end of the spirits existence Who: West Africans The Bakongo cosmogram depicts the world as a cross with the realm of the living above the cross's horizontal line, the realm of the dead below. At the center a circle represents water that separates the two worlds.
Ebo (Igbo) Landing
What: a story about a group of Africans who after receiving a particularly vicious beating from their master, reportedly drowned themselves. they committed mass suicide, but it was told they flew back to Africa.
tight packing
What: conditions on board Who: Africans going to the Americans When; Atlantic slave trade how: allowed ship captains to transport more Africans and potentially receive more profit
Maroon Societies
What: independent communities by free slaves and runaway slaves Where: Spanish Florida Who: enslaved Africans When: During the Stono Rebellion in 1739 the rebels planned to escape Florida and join them
Olaudah Equiano
Who: A slave who provides a vivid account of a West Africans capture, sale to traders, and voyage to America through English. When:1775 What: significant for his account of the Atlantic slave trade and his service in the British struggle against that trade How: describes the experience of enslavement from how they felt, suicide, conditions on board, and how they coped
El Mina
Who: Black slaves & Portuguese What: Originally built for selling Gold and then it became a slave dungeon When: 1481 Where: West Africa
The Philipsburg Proclamation
Who: British commander-in-Chief Sir Henry Clinton issued the Philipsburg Proclamation, which expanded Dunmore's promise What: It guaranteed freedom to any Black person-man, woman, or child who sought refuge with the British army and promise to provide "full security" and an occupation" to every Black person who escaped from their Patriot owners When: 1779, American Revolution Where: Americas How: designed to cause economic collapse in the South
Bacon's Rebellion
Who: William Berkeley & Bacon What: Bacon demanded Berkeley's support for the raid on Native Americans and his policy of extermination. Led to fighting between Bacon's followers and colonial authorities bc Berkeley did not approve of killing the Native Americans When: 1676 Where: Jamestown, Virginia Why: Frustrations among indentured servants and wealthy landless settlers, over the slow process of land distribution in Virginia. Bacon's followers recruited enslaved Africans urging them to flee their masters and join the rebellion
Conjure man
Who: a slave who everyone went to because he had highly envelop spiritual powers What: Slaves consulted "Peter the Doctor" who gave them powders and incantations which they believed would protect them when they went to "war" against the whites when: the 1712 revolt in NYC How: used in all the revolts African spiritual influence: incorporated various aspects of African culture including the use of loyalty oaths sealed by a potion of gravey yard dirt
Titus Cornelius
Who: black slave who joined the Ethiopian Regiment What: After the regiment, Tye formed 800 men into a guerrilla army that aggressively targeted wealthy white patriot families throughout New Jersey When: 1775-1783 Where: New York city Why: Tye served in the Black Brigade which protected NYC against a patriot attack and destroyed general George Washington's ability to bring reinforcements into the region
Anthony Johnson
Who: slave who was released from service after 14 year and gained his own land and servants What: his story suggest some Africans could gain freedom and have their own property How: After his death the court denied the provisions of his will and gave his land to a white man Why: the court determined since Johnson was black, he was not a citizen of the colony and therefore had no rights to property
How and why did the trade in humans from Africa to the Americas begin?
Why: Needed the labor to develop large agricultural developments How: Native Americans died easily of disease so it was convenient to slave Africans
Treaty of Tordesillas
an agreement between Spain and Portugal that divided up new territories for exploration and colonization. Spanish invaded and colonized the Americas. They became more aggressive and focus most of their time on South America
What was significant about the story of the African Burial Ground, and what can the findings teach us about life and culture among enslaved people in colonial New York?
burials and funerals were important rituals to ensure success of the afterlife during this time. The findings teach us enslaved Africans resisted slavery by remaining culturally and spiritually connected to their African past
What methods did enslaved people in the colonial era use to resist against slavery? Consider, in particular, both cultural resistance and physical resistance.
cultural: importance of community, spirituality, and burial physically: rebellion, escape, sabotage, suicide,
What strategies did ship captains use during the Middle Passage to try to maximize their "profit?"
dye their hair, oil bodies to conceal blemishes, rashes, and bruises, plug their anus for the ones suffering from dysentery to block the bloody discharge
What economic, political, and social similarities existed among West African societies prior to European contact?
economical: based on a combination of agricultural and trade political: politically decentralized social: villages were constructed around complex systems of family, community and local villages
How does your textbook describe the housing, food, and clothing for enslaved people in the colonial period? What does it tell us about slavery during this period?
housing: minimal and temporary, small log cabins predominated made of dirt floors, brick fireplaces, wooden chimneys, and hardly any windows food: corn, yams, salt pork, beef, fish, cabbage, greens, black eye pies clothing: men had shirts and trousers, women has shifts (loose dresses), slaves tried to retain as much as their culture as they could
How did the institution of slavery develop in the English colonies in North America?
initially, there was no formal structure except for forbid enslaving Christian souls
what was the cultural functioning of the "secret" societies?
provided formal education- told youth what they needed to know about the world, e.g. how to hunt, make weapons, etc.
What was the social functioning of the "secret" societies?
regulated acceptable standards of behavior and doled out punishment to those who violated the rules of society
What was the political functioning of the "secret" societies?
secrete societies were organized into lodges, or local chapters in all villages
In what ways were Black women's lives during the colonial era similar to their male counterparts? In what ways were they different?
similar: did the same type of work as their men different: were exposed to rape and molestation, had to nurse babies, and tend to their own family and the masters
What social, political, and economic forces caused the trans-Atlantic trade to develop?
social: issues of identity, Africans did not see each other as members of the same group political: weakened by conflict with invaders they could not resist against European encroachment and advanced weaponry economic: West Africans became dependent upon the luxury Europeans provided
Transmigration
the idea that one's soul would return to Africa after physical death and join the ancestors. Some examples were a woman spending her life collecting shells & beads she intended to take back with her. They would commit sucide declaring they would return to the motherland. There became stories of the "flying Africans"
seasoning
the process of newly arrived Africans were broken in to slavery in the americas.
How and why did slavery develop and expand in the Chesapeake region?
the temperate climate and fertile soil created a perfect situation for settlers who wanted tobacco plantations.
How did the nature of slavery differ in the urban areas vs. the rural areas?
urban: black community formation rural: less common and based on small farms and households, more isolated
