A&P 2 Ch 17 Blood

Blood

is a fluid and is considered a connective tissue Whole blood is blood with all components. Blood components are: 1. Plasma = liquid matrix Formed elements = cells and cell fragments

Erythropoiesis

is the process of red blood cell formation. Erythropoiesis occurs only in red bone marrow

Formed elements

red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets - Includes blood cells and fragments - Makes up ~45 percent of whole blood - 99 percent of formed elements are red blood cells

Reticulocyte

when presant means bone marrow is working

A. Red blood cells (RBCs)

· Also called erythrocytes · Makes up 99.9 percent of formed elements · Function: Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide transport Rouleux- forms stacks a mucleated- no nucleus lifespan 120 days hemoglobin packs the cell

A. White blood cells (WBCs)

· Also called leukocytes · Make up < 0.1 percent of formed elements · Function: Body defense; five classes, each with different functions

Platelets

· Make up < 0.1 percent of formed elements · Small membrane-bound cell fragments involved in clotting

Coagulation phase of hemostasis

• Begins 30 seconds or more after the injury • Blood clotting (coagulation)

Granular leukocytes

, or granulocytes • Abundant cytoplasmic granules (secretory vesicles and lysosomes) that absorb histological stains. The granular leukocytes are neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.

Antigens

- Antigens are proteins substances that can elicit immune response Our cells have surface antigens embedded in their plasma membranes that are recognized as normal, or self, by the immune system • > 50 blood cell surface antigens • Three most important: 1. A 2. B Rh (or D) on the cell surface, marks your cells as yours

Rh blood group

- Based on presence or absence of Rh surface antigen on RBCs - "Rh" comes from original discovery in Rhesus monkeys Rh positive (Rh+) has Rh surface antigen • Indicates presence of Rh surface antigen Rh negative (Rh-) lacks Rh surface antigen - Included in full blood type as + or - . Examples: O negative (O-), AB positive (AB+)

Intrinsic pathway

- Begins with activation of proenzymes (Factor XII) exposed to collagen fibers at injury site. Pathway proceeds with PF-3 (factor released by aggregating platelets), Ca, and Factors VIII and IX coming together to activate factor X activation factor (an enzyme) (factor 12,6,8,9, Ca+)

Extrinsic pathway

- Begins with release of tissue factor (factor III) from damaged endothelial cells or peripheral tissues - Tissue factor combines with Ca2+ and another clotting factor (factor VII) - this is called Tissue factor complex (factor 7,3, Ca+ tissue fac complex)

Blood typing tests

- Drops of person's blood are mixed with solutions containing antibodies to surface antigens A, B, and Rh. Clumping (agglutination) occurs where sample contains the corresponding antigen • Example: Type A blood will clump with anti-A antibodies - Typing is necessary to avoid transfusion reactions. Cross-reactions occurring from transfusing mismatched blood. • Donor and recipient blood types must be compatible so to ensure that cross-reaction does not occur

Hemopoiesis/Hematopoiesis

- Is the process of making formed elements - Formed elements are produced by stem cells in red bone marrow

Vascular phase of hemostasis

. This mean that the smooth muscle inside blood vessels contracts=vasoconstriction Lasts ~ 30 minutes after injury

Thrombocytes

another name for platelets, help with clotting

Plasma

- Makes up 55 percent of the volume of whole blood - Plasma is made up of water, plasma proteins, and other solutes. >90 made in liver - Plasma is the fluid in blood. Similar to interstitial fluid (IF) because it is constantly exchanging water, ions, and small solutes across capillary walls. However, primary differences include, it dissolves: respiratory gases - oxygen, carbon dioxide and dissolved proteins A. Water § Makes up 92 percent of plasma B. Dissolved proteins: § Are called plasma proteins. -Plasma also contains active and inactive enzymes and hormones

Genetics of blood type

- Presence of anti-A and/or anti-B antibodies is genetically determined • Exposure to foreign RBCs not needed to develop the antibodies - Anti-Rh antibodies are not automatically present • Rh-negative person will not have any anti-Rh antibodies until exposed to Rh-positive RBCs (sensitized); then develops anti-Rh antibodies

Hemostasis

- Process responsible for stopping blood loss through walls of damaged blood vessels by initiating a complex cascade. Establishes framework for tissue repairs Three Phases ​Vascular phase ​Platelet phase ​Coagulation phase

White blood cells (WBCs), or leukocytes

- There are various types of white blood cells all of which contribute to the body's defenses - WBC have nuclei and other organelles, unlike RBCs - Five types—"Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas" - White blood cell counts Number can be increased in response to infection, inflammation, or allergic responses

platelet phase of hemostasis

Begins with attachment of platelets to sticky endothelial surfaces, basement membrane, exposed collagen fibers, and other platelets

Oxyhemoglobin

Hemoglobin combined with oxygen

Fibrinolysis

Process of clot dissolving Begins with activation of: • Plasminogen by thrombin (from common pathway) • Tissue plasminogen activator, or t-PA, from damaged tissues Produces plasmin—erodes the clot

Erythropoiesis

The production of red blood cells (erythrocytes) § Erythropoiesis occurs only in red bone marrow, or myeloid tissue (sites are vertebrae, ribs, sternum, skull, scapulae, pelvis, and ends of limb bones).o Fatty yellow bone marrow can convert to red bone marrow in cases of severe, sustained blood loss and make RBCs o Erythroblasts begin producing Hb → Normoblasts lose their nuclei and become reticulocytes → Reticulotyes contain ~80 percent of the Hb of mature RBCs. Enter bloodstream after 2 days

Function of blood

Transportation materials to and from cells Transports nutrients, carries O2, waste products, hormones to their target cells, regulates body temperature, protects against bacteria and viruses

Hemolytic disease of the newborn

- is a RBC-related disorder caused by a cross-reaction between fetal and maternal blood types - Background Blood type is determined by combining genes from both parents • Child can have blood type different from either parent Most commonly involves Rh- mother who has carried Rh+ fetus · Maternal anti-Rh antibodies can cross placenta and destroy fetal RBCs, causing severe anemia · Fetal demand for RBCs increases. This leads to erythroblasts entering bloodstream before maturity. This is where alternative name, erythroblastosis fetalis came from. (RhoGAM) shot needed

Hematocrit

- packed cell volume, PCV) • Is the percentage of whole blood from formed elements Overall average 45 percentMales average 47 percent and females average 42 percent. Men have a higher hematocrit because androgens stimulate RBC production

Plasma solutes

1. Electrolytes—essential for vital cellular activities. Major ions: Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl-, HCO3-, HPO4-, SO42- 2. Organic nutrients include lipids, carbohydrates, and amino acids. Used for cell ATP production, growth, and maintenance 3. Organic wastes carried to sites of breakdown or excretion • Examples: urea, uric acid, creatinine, bilirubin, NH4+

Phagocytes

a type of cell within the body capable of engulfing and absorbing bacteria and other small cells and particles. eosinophils, neutrophils, monocytes

hemolysis process

a. RBC can rupture (hemolysis). Macrophages then remove Hb molecules and cell fragments Heme units stripped of iron. Iron is stored in phagocyte or enters blood and binds to transferrin (plasma protein). Heme is broken down as follows: Heme → biliverdin → bilirubin → bloodstream → liver. In the liver, bilirubin is excreted in bile o In the large intestine, bacteria convert bilirubin to urobilins and stercobilins. They enter feces, giving it yellow-brown or brown color o In the kidneys, excrete hemoglobin and urobilins gives urine yellow color

hematuria

blood in the urine

hemolysis

breakdown of red blood cells

Chemotaxis

chemical signal that calls the cell to the area that is damaged

Agglutination

clumping together of RBCs. Occurs when surface antigens (agglutinogens) are exposed to corresponding antibodies (agglutinins) from another blood type.Also called a cross-reaction because it can form dangerous clumps or fragments of RBCs. These clumps can block small blood vessels leading to cutting off of blood supply leading to damage or destroys tissues. Cells may undergo hemolysis • Example: Giving type A blood to someone who is type B

Two pathways lead to common pathway

extrinsic and intrinsic

platlets function (clot)

factor 10 activator

deoxyhemoglobin

hemoglobin without oxygen

WBC differential count

identifies types and numbers of WBCs in a blood sample; reported as percentage (per 100 WBCs)

Macrophages

in the spleen breaksdown the old dieing cells

plasminogen

inactive form of plasmin which erudes the clot, stimulated by thrombin dissolves the clot

Hemoglobin (Hb)

made of heme + globin § : Two alpha (α) chains and Two beta (β) chains. Each chain has a single heme molecule. Each heme contains an iron ion that interacts with oxygen molecule to form oxyhemoglobin (HbO2). This means that iron in the heme is binds to iron and is responsible for oxygen transport.

Globulins

makes up ~35 percent of plasma proteins. Two important globulins: a. Antibodies (immunoglobulins) attack foreign proteins and pathogens b. Transport globulins bind ions, hormones, lipids, and other compounds

Fibrinogen

makes up ~4 percent of plasma proteins § Responsible for blood clotting by forming large insoluble fibrin strands

Albumins

makes up ~60 percent of plasma proteins. Important for osmotic pressure

Phagocytosis

one cell eats another

Agranular leukocytes

or agranulocytes—smaller secretory vesicles or lysosomes that don't absorb stains. The agranular leukocytes are are monocytes and and lymphocytes (nucleus not lobed)

Spleen

the organ for removing old blood cells

antibody

the protein produced by the body that destroys or inactivates foreign antigens you make when there's an intruder

1 molecule of heme

transports 4 molecule of Iron

common pathway

• Tissue factor complex and factor X activation factor both come together to activated factor X • Activated factor X activates prothrombin activator, a complex that converts the prothrombin (a proenzyme) to the enzyme thrombin • Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin Completes clotting process

Cougulation cascade

3 pathways intrinsic, extrinsic, and common pathway

Erythropoietin

A hormone produced and released by the kidney that stimulates the production of red blood cells by the bone marrow.

ABO blood group

Based on the presence or absence of A and B surface antigens (or agglutinogens) Plasma has antibodies that will attack "foreign" surface antigen(s). Antibodies are proteins on that immune cells will make to mount an immune response against "nonself" cells. Four ABO blood types