A&P lecture exam #3 - 11-17

because the genetic defect is usually dominant - whether inherited from a parent or due to a spontaneous mutation - an affected person has a ________ chance of passing on the disorder to each of his/ her children

50%

_______ provides nutrients & O2 for muscle contraction & removes waste

blood supply

fracture repair involves- conversion of the fibrocartilaginous callus into the spongy bone of a _________

bone (hard) callus by osteoblasts

_______tissue forms most of the skeleton, the framework that supports & protects our organs & allows us to move

bone (osseous)

weight-bearing activities, such as walking or moderate weightlifting help build and retain _______

bone mass

the opening of the voltage-gated Na+ channels allows Na+ to rush in and the propagation of the wave of depolarization along the sarcolemma that induces muscle contraction or ____________

EXCITATION.

________ occur when the muscle does not shorten but tension increases. Ex. holding a book in one position. Stretching and contraction oppose each other, creating tension.

ISOMETRIC CONTRACTIONS

_____ is a type of hernia that occurs when a portion of the small intestines may be forced through the inguinal canal, an opening of the abdominal wall that allows the passage of the spermatic cords and testis before birth

Inguinal hernia

____ is essential for absorption & utilization of calcium & phosphate from the digestive tract. it weakly promotes calcium reabsorption by the kidneys & calcium resorption by osteoclasts

calcitriol

____ is a rigid rod that moves on some fixed point called the fulcrum.

Lever

______ divides the H-zone, formed by proteins that connected adjacent thick filaments

M-line

__________ = maximum amount of oxygen that can be extracted from the external environment and transported to the working muscles. It is measured in ml of oxygen/ minute/ kg of body weight = VO2max. average 20 year old = 35-48. highly trained individual = 70-80

MAXIMUM OXYGEN UPTAKE

A motor neuron and the muscle fibers it stimulates form the _________

MOTOR UNIT

__________ is the wasting away of muscles and may be caused by disuse (disuse atrophy) or severing (damaging, cutting) of the nerve supply (denervation atrophy)

MUSCLE ATROPHY

________ refers to an increase in the diameter of muscle fibers resulting from very forceful, repetitive muscular activity, causing increases in the numbers of myofibrils, mitochondria, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and so forth.

MUSCULAR HYPERTROPHY

________ is a small globular protein MW = 16,700 Its heme group is similar to hemoglobin (in blood); it is capable of reversible oxygenation and deoxygenation

MYOGLOBIN

_______ is the increase strength of a contraction resulting from the application of a second stimulus before the muscle fiber has completely relaxed after the previous stimulus.

Wave (temporal) summation

___________ is the increase strength of a contraction resulting from the application of a second stimulus before the muscle fiber has completely relaxed after the previous stimulus.

Wave (temporal) summation

_______ is the most often prescribed drug to alleviate arthritis. but may cause stomach upset & not always effective. blocks prostaglandin formation (they are chemicals released at site of injury & mediate the pain & inflammation)

aspirin -nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

______ subjected to the weightlessness of space, loose bone mass as much as 1% per week

astronauts

near its target on the skeletal muscle, the axon branches into several __________, also known as synaptic end bulbs

axon terminals

the usual daily intake of elemental _______ in the US is 450-550 mg & falls well below the national research council's (NRC) recommended dietary allowance of 800 mg

calcium

When the nerve impulse (action potential) arrives at the axon terminal, _________ open allowing calcium (Ca2+) to enter the axon terminal. The increase in calcium induces the fusion of the synaptic vesicles with the membrane and the release of acetylcholine (exocytosis) into the synaptic cleft.

calcium channels

fracture repair involves -formation of a blood clot

called fracture hematoma - bone cells in this site die

a mass of repair tissue that bridges the broken ends of the bone

callus

in smooth muscle the regulator protein that binds Ca2+ in the cytosol is ______ (instead of troponin as in striated muscle).

calmodulin

Skeletal muscle fibers ________ and have limited powers of regeneration; -growth after the first year is due to enlargement of existing cells (hypertrophy), rather than an increase in the number of fibers (hyperplasia)

cannot divide

if Ca2+ levels are too high

cardiac arrest - heart stops

- unlike skeletal muscle tissue, ________ tissue contracts and relaxes rapidly (75 times/min), continuously, and rhythmically. - ATP is generated aerobically in large, by numerous mitochondria. - _______ muscle can contract without extrinsic (outside) stimulation and can remain contracted longer than skeletal muscle tissue. _______ muscle fibers contract in response to stimulation by a network of specialized cells - autorhythmic cells = PACE MAKER - which are self-excitable. -the heart rate can change in response to neural (autonomic, not motor) or hormonal stimulation. -_______ muscle has a long refractory period that allows time for the heart to relax between beats and thus prevents tetanus.

cardiac muscle

______ muscle forms the heart walls, is striated, usually mononucleated & involuntary. pumps blood to all parts of body

cardiac muscle

estrogen has been on the market for 50 years & it has an excellent record not only in treating osteoporosis but also in reducing a woman's risk for ________ & unwanted side effects of menopause, such as hot flashes

cardiovascular disease

most common cause of ______ is swelling of the membranes (tendon sheath or bursae) that normally surround & lubricate the tendons as they glide in the tunnel. the signs & symptoms may be mild, moderate or severe & usually worsen w/o treatment

carpal tunnel syndrome

_____ is the popular name for a complex of signs & symptoms that results from compression of the median nerve as it passes through the wrist in a narrow, rigid tunnel, which is surrounded by the bones of the wrist, filled w tendons & covered w a tight ligament called the transverse ligament.

carpal tunnel syndrome -is accompanied by the 9 tendons that flex the fingers & thumb.

Creatine phosphate can donate its phosphate groups to ADP to form ATP. The enzyme that catalyzes this reaction is _________. It transfers a phosphate group from phosphocreatine to ADP, to form creatine and ATP. Creatine phosphate acts as storage of energy, like a battery.

creatine kinase

some synergistic muscles in a group also act as ________, which stabilize the origin of the prime mover so that it can act more efficiently

fixators- (ex: scapular muscles stabilize the deltoid action)

_____ is caused by decline or elevation, respectively, of the medial longitudinal arches. also produced by muscular abnormalities - the feet are turned medially & inverted

flat footed & club foot

______ develops when pituitary gland secretes less hGH than normal. as a result person is shorter or smaller than usual & lacks the ability for normal growth. still has normal body proportions, mental capacity & sexual development. can be successfully treated by administering hGH. average height of dwarf is usually 50". they prefer being called "little people". midget & dwarf are offensive.

dwarfism

______ links actin filaments to the sarcolemma by association w other proteins. mutations in this protein are linked to muscular dystrophy

dystrophin

after menopause, a lack of _____ causes a net increase in osteoclasts, which results in a net loss of bone. estrogen seems to stimulate the production of osteoblasts. osteogenic cells, the cells that give rise to osteoblasts, have receptors for estrogen, so they can respond to estrogen levels circulating in the blood.

estrogen

connective tissue membrane that lines the medullary cavity & also contains osteogenic cells

endosteum

covers entire muscle

epimysium

ends - the distal & proximal extremities

epiphysis (anatomy of long bone)

the hormone ______, which is present in greater quantities in women than in men, regulates the bone deposition process

estrogen

in men, _______ & _______ are sex hormones involved in maintaining bone mass

estrogens & androgens -men have more estrogen than women after menopause so they are relatively protected from osteoporosis. however, men do get osteoporosis, just in lower #s.

another drug used to protect against bone loss without estrogen side effects approved by FDA is _________

evista or raloxifene it is the first approved selective estrogen receptor modulator = SERM SERMs are now being tested in clinical trials. these drugs function as estrogen on the bone but not on the other organs

_____ is the ability to respond to certain stimuli by producing electrical signals called action potentials (impulses). the stimuli are chemical, ie hormones or neurotransmitters

excitability

_____ has been known for many years to promote bone mineral accumulation. can be an effective way of combating osteoporosis without the risk of cancer

exercise

bones serve as levers and joints serve as _______

fulcrums

______ allow for conduction of action potentials

gap junctions

______ is a rare condition, occurs during childhood when the anterior lobe of pituitary secretes too much hGH. the height of the pituitary giant, defined by varying lengths above 7 feet, is caused by the late ossification or hardening of bones. the metabolic rate of a giant is increased to 20% above the normal rate. this causes hyperglycemia, which eventually leads to diabetes. life expectancy less than normal. condition can be treated w irradiation. tallest giant, robert wadlow, was 8'11" tall. giants are actually weak due to their medical condition

gigantism

________ antagonize the actions of vitamin D, which in turn leads to calcium deficiency

glucocorticoids

causes of osteoporosis: prolonged treatment w large doses of ____, as might be used for immunosuppressive or asthmatic therapy.

glucocorticoids

About 36 (skeletal muscle) or 38 (cardiac muscle) molecules of ATP are generated per molecule of ________.

glucose

The principal sites of injection are the ______, _______ & _________. When administering intramuscular injections into the gluteus maximus, the size of the needle must be chosen based on the patient's deposits of fat. If a needle is used that is too short to pass all the way through the fat into the muscle, then the injection will be made into the fat. Women tend to have more fat in this region than men, so the possibility of an intralipomatous (into fat) injection is significant.

gluteus maximus (buttocks), deltoid (upper arm), and vastus lateralis (thigh) muscles

When muscle contraction continues then glucose is oxidized to produce ATP. The partial catabolism of glucose to generate ATP occurs in the ___________, which is anaerobic.

glycogen-lactic acid system

_____ may be given orally or via injection to reduce joint inflammation & slow down joint destruction. mechanism not know.

gold compounds

_____ is a fibrous joint in which a cone-shaped peg fits into a socket ie, root of a tooth in its socket

gomphosis (synarthosis - immovable)

_____ is a condition in which sodium urate crystals are deposited in soft tissues of joints, causing inflammation, swelling & pain. if not treated, bones at affected joints will eventually fuse, rendering the joints immobile. increased blood levels of uric acid, a metabolite of nucleic acid digestion, may occur when the kidneys fail to excrete the chemical properly or when it is overproduced in the body. uric acid crystals may become deposited in the soft tissue around the body, particularly in the joints & kidneys

gouty arthritis

a bone fracture where one side is broken, the other is bent. due to pliability of pediatric bones, the bone does not completely fracture. the medial side of the radius is open where as the lateral cortex has simply buckled

greenstick

______ bone formation is: -when bone forms where it should not. osteoblasts develop where they should not -induced by chemicals, which leads to problems associated w calcium excreted & stored. most connective tissues can be subjected to this type of bone formation -extreme case may lead to deposition of bone around skeletal muscles, a condition known as myositis ossificans

heterotopic bone formation

thyroid gland

high blood calcium (>11 mg/dL of blood) --> secretion of calcitonin by the thyroid --> decreases to normal blood calcium

when raw bone articulates against raw bone. theres loss of mobility both range of motion & endurance. inflamed joint is so sensitive turning over in bed is painful & wakes you. adaptive changes transfer stress to neighboring joints placing them at risk of overload & damage. btw 80-90% of hips destroyed by rheumatoid arthritis can be restored to useful function& pain free. more than 100 implant designs on the market. main postoperative problem is loosening of prosthetic parts. computer-assisted designs help manufacturers produce custom size & shapes for special cases

hip replacement

gold standard for treatment of osteoporosis is ___________ because it has proved to be the best protection against bone loss

hormone replacement therapy (HRT) -the combo of estrogen & progesterone helps overcome the side effects of treatment w high estrogen levels

Most skeletal muscles contain a mixture of all ___________, their proportions varying with the usual action of the muscle. All fibers of one motor unit, however, are the same

three fiber types

_____ is located just below the larynx and has right & left lateral lobes connected by the isthmus. it is the only gland that stores its products in large quantities, about a 100-a day supply

thyroid

_____ & ______ hormones also play an important role in bone growth

thyroid & parathyroid

thyroid hormones, such as ________, regulate the rate of metabolism & increase osteoblast activity

thyroxine

_____ is spasmodic twitching made involuntary by muscles that are ordinarily under voluntary control. May be of psychological origin

tic

Smooth muscle fibers have limited capacity for division and regeneration. Those in the ______ retain their capacity for division, and thus can grow by hyperplasia.

uterus

Smooth muscle fibers do not have motor end plates. The postganglionic autonomic neuron divides into branches, and each branch has a series of swollen regions called __________, which contain vesicles filled with neurotransmitter that is released when an action potential arrives.

varicosities

for skeletal muscle fibers contraction -________ also varies & resistance to fatigue also differs between fibers.

velocity

exaggerated lumbar curvature

lordosis

they settle on the surface of bones & are involved in bone resorption (specialized macrophages). they are huge cells w 50 or more nuclei, they remove bone matrix. they differentiate from monocytes, which derive from stem cells in the red marrow

osteoclasts

they are mature bone cells. when matrix surrounds osteoblasts, they are trapped & become _______. they function in bone maintenance

osteocytes mesenchymal cells --> osteogenic cells --> osteoblasts --> osteocytes

______ is the production of new bone by osteoblasts. osteoblasts produce the bone matrix, proteins & other organic compounds before calcification, this matrix is known as osteoid

osteogenesis

_____ is an inherited disease that results in abnormal bone formation. osteoblast function is impaired & the bones are fragile & contain too much cartilage. ligaments become very loose. its a genetic disorder of type 1 collagen - the protein scaffolding of bone & other connective tissues.

osteogenesis imperfecta

people with ______ have a faulty gene that instructs their bodies to make either too little type 1 collagen or poor quality type 1 collagen. the results are bones that brake easily.

osteogenesis imperfecta -often the disorder is mistaken for child abuse when health care professionals or child welfare workers see unexplained fractures in children

undifferentiated cells, derived from mesenchyma. they may undergo mitosis & give rise to osteoblasts. also known as osteoprogenitor cells

osteogenic cells

bone cancer that primarily affects the osteoblasts

osteogenic sarcoma

a protein mixture that when it mineralizes becomes bone

osteoid

____ is also called resorption. it is the release of stored minerals & calcium by osteoclasts carried out by proteolytic enzymes & acids produced by osteoclasts

osteolysis

inflammation of bone especially the marrow caused by a pathogenic organism

osteomyelitis

a mild condition related to loss of calcium & other minerals from the bone matrix (demineralization)

osteopenia we all suffer from it as we age

more extreme condition due to loss of calcium & other minerals from bone matrix. impairs proper functioning of bone. occurs mostly in females after age 30, as estrogen levels decrease.

osteoporosis

this system of ATP production (aerobic system) involves the complete _______ of glucose via cellular respiration (biological oxidation).

oxidation

The aerobic system will provide enough ATP for prolonged activity (hours) so long as sufficient _________ and nutrients are available.

oxygen

Elevated oxygen use after exercise is called recovery oxygen consumption or _______. This explains the "heavy breathing" that occurs long after exercise ceases.

oxygen debt

cardiac muscle contains a ______ system that causes the heart to beat intrinsically. property is called autorhythmicity

pacemaker

Some smooth muscle fibers generate action potentials spontaneously in the absence of any input. The potential change occurring during such spontaneous depolarization is called _________

pacemaker potential

_______ may be used in the future as a treatment for protecting against bone loss. it is instrumental in causing calcium ions to enter the body fluids & in restricting calcium losses. it may be used as an agent that repairs the skeleton

parathyroid hormone

arthroscopy method used in ACL repair uses the patellar ligament, which connects the patella to tibia. the middle 3rd of ligament & small portion of bone on either end is harvested & used as the new ACL. this is called ______.

patellar ligament autograph -individuals own tissue is used

a type of fracture that results from a weakening of the bone caused by a disease process: osteosarcoma (cancer), osteomyelitis (inflammation), osteoporosis (decreased bone mass)

pathological fracture

covers fascicles, bundles of 10-100 individual muscle fibers, bundles muscle fibers together in groups (fasciculi); carries larger nerves & blood vessels, as well as stretch receptors.

perimysium

connective tissue covering the area of the bone not covered by the articular cartilage. serves as point of attachment for ligaments & tendons & contains osteogenic cells

periosteum

abnormal growth hormones can lead to bone disorders --- which master gland is responsible for producing hGH (controls height)?

pituitary gland -it receives messages about hormone secretion from the hypothalamus & tells other glands when & what hormone to produce.

_______ women who are not treated w HRT (hormone replacement therapy) require about 1200 mg daily for calcium balance

post-menopausal

parathyroid glands are embedded on the ______ surfaces of the lateral lobes of the thyroid

posterior

once the ___________ is complete, ATP again combines with the ATP-binding sites on the myosin cross bridges; as ATP binds, the myosin head detaches from actin and the cycle may be reinitiated repeatedly. (muscle contraction)

power stroke

a muscle that causes a desired action is referred to as the ______

prime mover (agonist)

the parathyroid consist of ________, which secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) or parathormone

principle (chief) cells

fracture repair- mineral crystals in stressed bone generate small electrical fields & osteoblasts are attracted to these fields & start producing bone materials. a computer controlled therapy mattress is placed in the bed of the person to be treated. inside mattress are multiple coils, emitting pulsating electromagnetic fields. success rate is more than 80%. these fields are safe & give no side effects

pulsating electromagnetic fields

fascicular arrangement is correlated with the power of a muscle and the ________

range of motion

The process of increasing the number of active motor units is called ________

recruitment (multiple motor unit summation).

______ contains stem cells that produce mature blood cells. more than a billion white blood cells are produced & released each day replacing those that die in defense of the body or old age

red bone marrow

contains stem cells that produce mature blood cells - located within the spaces of spongy bone

red bone marrow

fracture repair involves - ________ of the callus to nearly original form

remodeling

______ is the ongoing replacement of old bone tissue. old bone is constantly destroyed by osteoclasts, whereas new bone is constructed by osteoblasts

remodeling -bone is restructured in response to stress & strain (wolff's law)

soon after, the Na+ gates close, and the opening of the K+ voltage gated ion channels allow K+ ions to rush out, causing __________ eventually back to the resting membrane potential. This time, the reverse in polarity is from +75mV back to -90mV (resting potential).

repolarization

if Ca2+ levels are too low

respiration may stop

____ refers to any painful state of the supporting structures of the body, such as bones, ligaments, tendons, joints & muscles

rheumatism

_____ is an autoimmune disease. involves chronic inflammatory disease characterized by the presence of activated white blood cells in synovial membrane converting the single cell lining into an engorged inflammatory tissue called pannus. within pannus, inflammation, proliferation & humoral & cellular immune response lead to release of metalloprotease enzymes & other mediators that degrade cartilage & connective tissue. the cartilaginous matrix of synovial membrane begins to brake down & the process accelerates as dying cartilage cells release lysosomal enzymes. the cause is not known - could be allergies, bacteria, viruses or genetic factors. exercise, PT, anti-inflammatory drugs & even immune suppressants may slow progression of disease down

rheumatoid arthritis

bone becomes too flexible due to the loss of calcium & deficiency in vitamin D. results in the inadequate mineralization of the bone

rickets in children & osteomalacia in adults

increase muscle tone without affecting reflexes.

rigidity

a state of muscular rigidity following death, results from a lack of ATP to split myosin-actin cross bridges. begins 3-4 hours after death & lasts 24 hours but disappears when tissue start disintegrating

rigor mortis

skeletal muscle consists of fibers (cells) covered by _________, which is = to plasma membrane

sarcolemma

the myofibrils are compartmentalized into ______

sarcomeres

_____ (surrounds the thick & thin filaments) is same as ER in other cells. it stores calcium (Ca2+). the release of Ca2+ from this induces muscle contraction

sarcoplasmic reticulum

new individual cells, however, may be derived from ________ - dormant cells found in association with skeletal muscles. They lengthen skeletal muscle fibers by fusing with them. May also fuse with each other to form new skeletal fibers.

satellite cells

lateral curvature, usually in thoracic region

scoliosis

On demand, skeletal muscle fibers can step up ATP production. But muscle contains low amounts of ATP. Only enough to power contraction for a few_______.

seconds

increased muscle tone associated with increase in tendon (stretch) reflexes

spasticity (stiffness)

a congenital defect caused by failure of the vertebral laminae to unite at the middle. may involve 1 or several vertebrae; nervous tissue may or may not protrude through bone. interferes w normal nerve function below the point of defect.

spina bifida can be diagnosed prenatally

a bone fracture where the bone is twisted apart. the wavy appearance of the fracture is due to torque through the bone. often seen in children when they twist their ankle or knee. can be extremely alarming when seen in children who are not yet walking - can be a sign of child abuse.

spiral fracture

most cases of osteogenesis imperfecta are caused by a dominant genetic defect. most children w OI inherit the disorder from a parent. however 25% of children w OI are born into a family w no history of the disorder. in these cases, the genetic defect was a _________

spontaneous mutation

_____ is a dysfunction to varying degrees of the tempero mandibular joint (btw upper & lower jaws). causes appear to be numerous: improperly aligned teeth, grinding or clenching the teeth, trauma to jaw or arthritis

temporomandibular joint syndrome (lock jaw)

bone to muscle attachment

tendon

____ enclose certain tendons & allow them to slide back & forth more easily. they contain a film of synovial fluid

tendon (synovial) sheaths

recruitment prevents fatigue and helps provide a smooth muscular contraction of skeletal muscle rather than a series of ___________

jerky movements

_______ occur in any place that 2 bones are joined. whether there is movement or not depends upon the structure of that junction.

joints or articulations

Most running injuries involve the ________. Other commonly injured sites are the calcanela (Achilles) tendon, medial aspect of the tibia, hip area, groin area, foot, ankle, and back. Running injuries are frequently related to faulty training techniques

knee

exaggerated thoracic curvature

kyphosis

not entirely understood are other causes of osteoporosis which include ________

lean build, smokers, excessive consumption of alcohol, caffeine. caffeine seems to decrease calcium absorption

bone to bone attachment

ligament

So the acetylcholine receptor in this case (nicotinic) is a ____________. When acetylcholine (ACh) binds to it the sodium (Na+)/potassium (K+) channel opens, Na+ rushes in first, changing the STRENGTH of the resting potential, causing a reverse in polarity from -90mV (resting potential) to +75mV, known as depolarization. Na+ is MOST important for depolarization.

ligand gated-ion channel.

thin filaments are composed of _____, ______, _____

actin tropomyosin troponin

_____ & _____ are 2 contractile proteins in muscle

actin & myosin

_____ refers to surgical replacement of joints

anthroplasty

Evista was found to function as an _______ in the breast tissue by blocking the estrogen receptor; activation of the estrogen receptor can spur breast cancer growth; so Evista, by blocking the estrogen receptor on the breast tissue, might actually reduce the risk of breast cancer. Evista is only 1/2 - 1/3 as effective as estrogen in preventing bone loss

anti-estrogen

carpal tunnel syndrome can be treated with _________ and night splints which prevent wrist flexion. most cases will recur if the cause of the nerve compression persists. non operative treatment may be successful if significant improvement is noted early in the treatment phase. surgery is usually the treatment of choice for classic carpal tunnel syndrome. 80-90% of patients will have permanent relief of their symptoms following division of the wrist ligament (transverse carpal ligament) which covers the carpal tunnel. release of scar around the median nerve & partial removal of the tendon bursae (sheath) is added in selected cases.

anti-inflammatory drugs

when a tendon is flat & broad it is called an _____

aponeurosis

growth in thickness = ?

appositional growth

in men, testosterone is produced in the testis (95%) or peripherally (adrenal gland); an enzyme known as _________ converts testosterone to estrogen. it is present in male genital tract

aromatase

____ refers to many different diseases, most of which are characterized by inflammation of joints & often accompanied by stiffness of adjacent structures

arthritis

ACL can be reconstructed by _______

arthroscopy

_____ is a procedure for examining & repairing the interior of a joint w minimal incisions & anesthesia

arthroscopy

_____ surrounds a diarthroses, encloses the synovial cavity & unites articulating bones.

articular capsule

hyaline cartilage that convers the epiphysis, forming an articulation w another bone

articular cartilage

a ______ is hyaline cartilage that covers the adjoining bone surfaces

articular cartilage (diarthroses - freely movable)

fibrocartilage pads btw opposing surfaces in a joint

articular discs or menisci

The fluctuation in membrane voltage at the end plate is known as ________

"END-PLATE POTENTIAL"

negative feedback system for regulation of blood calcium

- Ca 2+ blood level goes down (hypocalcemia) -> -cells in parathyroid gland (neck) detect lowered Ca 2+ levels -> increase in synthesis & secretion of parathyroid hormone-> -osteoclasts increase bone resorption & kidneys retain Ca2+ in blood & produce calcitriol (vitamin D) -> increase in blood Ca2+ level -> return to homeostasis

FATIGUE is due to:

- depletion of metabolic reserves (ATP) - decline in pH - Sense of weariness (pain)

Muscle tissue has two CARRIERS of oxygen: 1. oxygen can diffuse into muscle fibers from ________ in the red blood cells 2. oxygen is also released from _______ inside muscle fibers

- hemoglobin - myoglobin

close correlation btw structure of joints & function of joints

- if 2 bones sewed together (suture) by short, tight fibers, the joint would allow little movement -if bones were connected w spongy cartilage, the joint would provide some movement -if bones were sewed together by long fibers, such a joint might have some movement -if the cartilage connecting the bones was rigid, there would be no movement. -hence synarthroses can be fibrous or cartilaginous. some cases - the 2 bones may fuse w time. -amphiarthroses can be fibrous or cartilaginous -however all synovial joints are diarthrotic & diarthrotic joints are synovial

Maximum oxygen uptake is:

- influenced by genetic make-up -increased by appropriate training -increased by altitude training - results in increased RBC numbers (red blood cells) - increased by cardiac output.

herniated (slipped) disc - intervertebral discs

- pain & disability that result is extreme - particularly in lumbar - natural discs transmit compressive loads & allow flexibility -disc is composite structure made of semifluid nucleus pulposes (core) surrounded by multi layers of annulus fibrosus -multiple layers of nucleus pulposes keeps annulus tight & maintains proper spacing btw discs. -water content of nucleus depends on external load on disc. -when load increases, pressure within nucleus also increases, squeezing water out for removal by vertebral capillaries -w recumbence (lack of pressure, lying down) the nucleus pressure decreases & water returns - this pump & bellows action supplies nutrients & removes metabolic products

what are the factors that affect movement of joints?

- shape of articulating bones - strength & tensions of ligaments - arrangement & tension of muscle (tendons) -apposition of soft parts -hormones such as relaxin (secreted by ovaries & placenta) - relaxes the pubic symphysis during birth (in humans/ not well established)

The PHOSPHAGEN system can power maximal muscle contraction for about _______ of brisk walking or ______ of sprinting or fast swimming and is used for maximal short bursts of energy (e.g. 100-meter dash). The phosphagen system is present in skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle cells as well as in neuronal tissues.

-1-min -six seconds

an articulation is a point of contact btw ______

-2 or more bones -cartilage & bone -teeth & bone

herniated disc contin.....

-at age 30 there is a gradual change in composition of the proteoglycans in nucleus & a loss of water - mutlilayered structure of annulus becomes susceptible to delamination & damage -nucleus is not fixed within the annulus but is able to move during flexion of spine -as nucleus desiccates (looses water) w age & loads on annulus increase, fibrous layers of annulus may separate & radial fissures may appear, allowing the nucleus to migrate toward the periphery of the disc -prolapse of nucleus through layers of annulus occurs most often posterolaterally, where protruding disc may impinge upon spinal nerve root causing pain. -many prosthetic (artificial replacement) devices intend to relieve pain by restoring the function of degenerated disc -an ideal prosthetic would respond to cyclic loading the same way s disc does & therefore would prevent further degeneration.

how skeletal muscles produce movement:

-by exerting force on tendons, which in turn pull on bones or other structures, such as skin - most muscles cross at least one joint and are attached to the articulating bones that form the joint - when such a muscle contracts, it draws one articulating bone toward the other

future protection against osteoporosis

-diagnostic tools, treatment options, and better treatments are under development. the disease ought to disappear in the next century

calcium excess - 12 mg/dL

-hypercalcemia (too much calcium in the blood) -depression of the nervous system -cardiac arrest

calcium deficiency - 6 mg/dL

-hypocalcemia (deficiency of calcium) -excitability of the nervous system -tetany (muscular spasms)

________ smooth muscle is found in large blood vessels, large airways, arrector pili muscles, and the iris of the eye. The fibers operate singly rather than as a unit. Fewer gap junctions. Only one fiber contracts upon stimulation. No coordination.

-multi-unit

parathyroid hormone (PTH) or parathormone:

-regulates homeostasis of calcium by increasing blood calcium levels -increases the # of activity of osteoclasts (bone destroying cells), resulting in increased bone resorption -acts on the kidneys to increase the rate of removal of calcium from urine returning it to the blood -induces formation of calcitriol, synthesized from vitamin d, in the kidneys -calcitriol, in turn, increases absorption of calcium from the digestive tract into blood -calcium levels in blood control the secretion of PTH

a warm-up is necessary for muscles because it:

1) Increases blood flow to the heart & muscles 2) Increases muscle & core body temperature 3) Muscles will function more EFFICIENTLY: a) O2 delivery is increased b) Nerve transmission & metabolism accelerated c) MOTOR UNIT recruitment accellerated

treatments for running injuries include:

1) RICE therapy 2) Alternating moist heat and ice. massage may be used as a follow-up treatment. 3) Sometimes, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or local injections of corticosteroids are needed; an alternate fitness program is necessary to keep active during the recovery period followed by a careful rehabilitative exercise.

myogram includes 3 periods:

1) latent - time between application of stimulus and the beginning of contraction; Ca2+ is being released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (2 milliseconds) 2) contraction - 10 - 100 msec - upward tracing 3) relaxation - 10-100 msec - downward tracing. Ca2+ gets back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

bone disorders can be classified into 7 things:

1. abnormal bone formations (ie osteogenesis imperfecta) 2. abnormal growth hormone levels (ie dwarfism) 3. relevant to bone tissue (ie rickets) 4. relevant to abnormalities of the skull (ie cleft lip) 5. relevant to abnormalities in the vertebral column (ie scoliosis) 6. relevant to abnormalities of the upper limbs (ie carpal tunnel syndrome) 7. relevant to abnormalities of the lower limbs (ie clubfoot)

bone grows in diameter as a result of ________ & _______

1. appositional growth = addition of new bone tissue by osteoblasts around the outer surface of the bone 2. internal bone dissolution - to a lesser extent - by osteoclasts in the bone cavity

bone's role in calcium homeostasis

1. bone is major reservoir for calcium 2. normal calcium & phosphorus levels in blood 3. negative feedback system for the regulation of blood calcium 4. calcitonin - secreted by thyroid gland. it decreases blood Ca2+ level. is produced when Ca2+ blood level goes up (hypercalcemia)

many diarthroses also contain:

1. bursae 2. tendons 3. fat pads 4. articular discs or menisci 5. accessory ligaments

types of muscle tissue

1. cardiac - involuntary 2. smooth - involuntary 3. skeletal - voluntary

classification of bones

1. compact (dense) bone tissue - comprise 75% of bones in body 2. spongy bone - 25% of bones in the body -consist of trabeculae (thin plates of bone) surround red marrow filled spaces -form most short, flat, & irregular bones & epiphysis of long bone -store red marrow & provide support

the anatomy & innervation of skeletal muscle tissue:

1. connective tissue 2. nerves 3. blood supply

what would happen if pituitary gland malfunctions or develops a tumor?

1. dwarfism 2. gigantism 3. acromegaly

extension of deep fascia

1. epimysium - covers entire muscle 2. perimysium - covers fascicles 3. endomysium - surrounds individual muscle fibers & includes capillaries & nerve endings that reach every muscle fiber

levers are categorized into three types, according to the position of the fulcrum, effort, and resistance on the lever:

1. first class - fulcrum between the effort and resistance EFR (seesaw - neck) 2. second class - fulcrum at one end, effort at the other, resistance in the middle. FRE (wheelbarrow - raising body on the toes) 3. third class - fulcrum at one end, resistance at opposite end and effort in the middle. FER - the most common - flexing the forearm at the elbow.

3 groups joints can be put in based on their structure

1. held together by fibrous connective tissue 2. held together by cartilaginous connective tissue 3. held together by ligaments but containing a space or cavity btw bones, lined w a synovial membrane (synovial)

matrix of bone contains:

1. hydroxyapatite (inorganic material) --tricalcium phosphate & some calcium carbonate -- where bone gets its rigid strength & density from - confer hardness on bone\ -- calcification & mineralization 2. osteoid (organic material) consists of: -- protein -- collagen fibers (type 1) -- collagen fibers give bone its great tensile strength (force required to pull something to the point where it breaks)

3 groups joints can be put in based on their function

1. immovable - synarthroses 2. slightly movable - amphiarthroses 3. freely movable - diarthroses

functions of muscle tissue

1. motion -muscles provide for movement of body, ie walking, running etc. movement is also dependent on functioning of bones & joints. muscles also move substances within the body, such as food through digestive tract, sperm & ova through reproductive tract etc.. 2. stabilizing body positions - maintains body in stable position like standing/ sitting 3. regulating organ volume - prevents outflow of a hollow organ, ie stomach or urinary bladder 4. generating heat - contraction of muscle generates heat as much as 85% of body heat.

examples of motor units

1. motor unit in larynx that controls the vocal cords have 2-3 muscle fibers per motor unit 2. muscles of the body that perform hard physical work contain 2,000 fibers per motor unit, such as in the biceps

the articular capsule is composed of 2 layers called:

1. outer fibrous membrane - which may contain ligaments 2. inner synovial membrane - which secretes a lubricating & joint-nourishing synovial fluid

fascicular arrangements include:

1. parallel (or fusiform) with longitudinal axis of the muscle. 2. Convergent (triangular), almost parallel, but taper at one end. 3. Pennate - shorter in relation to the muscle length and the tendon extends nearly the entire length of the muscle. 4. Circular - arranged in a concentric circular pattern to form a sphincter enclosing an orifice.

the lever is acted on by two different forces:

1. resistance which opposes movement (load) 2. effort, force exerted to achieve an action. (motion is produced when the effort exceeds the resistance) Example: Biceps bending the forearm at the elbow (fulcrum) to lift a weight. The weight of the arm and weight of the hand are the resistance. The shortening of the biceps pulling the forearm up is the effort.

what are the 2 types of fascia?

1. superficial fascia - under skin 2. deep fascia - around muscles & organs

bone tissue consists of _______ & _________

1. widely separated cells 2. large amounts of matrix

each sarcomere contains 5 things:

1. z-line (disc) 2. a-band 3. i-band 4. h-zone 5. m-line

metaphysis consts of 5 zones:

1. zone of reserve cartilage -hyaline no signs of bone 2. zone of proliferating cartilage - w dividing chondrocytes 3. zone of hypertrophic cartilage - chondrocytes mature, no more mitosis 4. zone of calcified cartilage - mineral deposition, cartilage calcification 5. zone of bone deposition - dead chondrocytes, because matrix surrounding them is calcified. osteoclasts absorb the matrix & the area is invaded by osteoblasts.

normal phosphorus levels in blood

3.5 - 4.0 mg/dL

Some lactic acid, when converted back to pyruvic acid, may be used by heart muscle, kidney cells, and liver cells to produce ATP. This system can provide enough energy for about _____ seconds of maximal muscle activity (e.g. 400-meter race).

30-40

normal calcium levels in blood

9.2 - 10.4 mg/dL

____ is the darker area w mostly thick filaments & the portion of the thin filaments that overlaps

A-band

The fluctuation in membrane voltage that spreads to areas of the sarcolemma next to the end plate is known as ______

ACTION potential

1) According to the __________, a given muscle fiber (one muscle cell) contracts when all of its sarcomeres shorten simultaneously. Each sarcomere shortens by a little, but all of them acting together can develop a considerable force.

ALL-OR-NONE principle

-the immediate, direct source of energy for muscle contraction is _______ (muscle contraction)

ATP

An ________ (on the myosin head) splits ATP into ADP + Pi and the released energy activates (energizes) myosin cross bridges. Myosin binds to actin and the movement occurs as the oars of a boat in water. (muscle contraction)

ATPase

____ are drugs to relieve pain. They may act upon the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) to lessen the perception of painful sensations or the effect may be localized to prevent stimulation of nerve endings at the site of injury or disease. Ex: Aspirin, acetaminophen (tylenol), codeine, ibuprofen (advil, motrin).

Analgesics

______ is a painful spasmodic contraction

CRAMP

Though it is highly toxic, it is used in minute doses both to treat painful muscle spasms, and as a cosmetic treatment in some parts of the world. It is sold commercially under the brand names _______ or Dysport for this purpose.

Botox

_________ comes from SR (sarcoplasmic reticulum) and ECF (=extracellular fluid), via voltage-gated calcium channels and other calcium channels.

Ca2+ influx

The concentration of ________ is _________ lower in the sarcoplasm of a relaxed muscle than in the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Ca2+ is 10,000 times

_________ - botulinum toxin produced by bacteria (Clostridium botulinum) prevents the release of Ach at synaptic terminals. It produces a severe and potentially fatal muscle PARALYSIS. -After absorption into the blood stream, botulinum toxin binds irreversibly to receptors on the presynaptic nerve endings, inhibiting the release of acetylcholine by cleaving the protein components of the neuroexocytosis apparatus within the cell -it is the most potent lethal substance known, 15,000 to 100,000 times more toxic than SARIN, the nerve agent used in a terrorist attack in the subway system in TOKYO in 1995.

Botulism

(Muscle relaxation) Ca2+ is removed from the sarcoplasm by re-entering the sarcoplasmic reticulum; Ca2+ removal is accomplished by active transport pumps; a calcium-binding protein called __________, present in the sarcoplasmic reticulum binds and stores the calcium within the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

CALSEQUESTRIN

______ is characterized by generalized spasms, poor muscle control, spasticity or paralysis resulting from brain injury that occurs during: 1. pregnancy [due to infection of mother by the Rubella virus (German measles)]; 2. birth (lack of oxygen during birth), 3. after birth, or before age 5 (hydrocephalus during infancy). It is not progressive & cannot be cured; physical and occupational therapy may improve muscle control

CEREBRAL PALSY

_______ muscle fibers cannot divide or regenerate

Cardiac

a fracture of the distal end of the lateral forearm bone (radius) in which the distal fragment is displaced posteriorly

Colles' fracture

_____ helps limit and reduce swelling, which slows down healing. Some people also experience pain relief from it. An easy way to ____ the area of the injury is to wrap an ACE bandage around the swollen part. If you feel throbbing, or if the wrap feels too tight, remove the bandage and re-wrap the area so the bandage is a little looser.

Compression

_______ occurs when muscle shortens and pulls on another structure such as bone. Ex: Pick up a book.

Concentric contractions

_______ is an amino acid analog synthesized by the liver, kidney and pancreas and then transported to muscle fibers.

Creatine

________ constitute the phosphagen system. (muscle sources of ATP)

Creatine phosphate (phosphocreatine) and ATP

90% of _______ solution may be used as anti-inflammatory drug. applied on the skin. side effects include allergic reaction, headaches, nausea, diarrhea, burning on urination. mechanism of action unknown.

DMSO - dimethyl sulfoxide

____ is a type of hernia that occurs when the abdominal organs slide into the thoracic cavity through the opening for the esophagus. it is a birth defect.

Diaphragmatic hernia

In the United States, three of every 10 persons who get tetanus die from it. The tetanus vaccine is usually given together with diphtheria and pertussis vaccines in a shot called _________

DtaP

-The most common form of muscular dystrophy is _________ muscular dystrophy, for which there is hope that gene therapy may someday be employed to replace the responsible gene with one that can halt muscle loss. It strikes boys almost exclusively. The gene is carried on chromosome X, therefore usually "carrier" females have a copy of the normal gene in one X chromosome, and the mutant gene in the other X chromosome. However, any male who receives the defective X chromosome will have the disease, because they only have one X chromosome. -incidence is roughly 30 out of 100,000 male births; the child may require a wheelchair by age 12

Duchenne

________ occurs when muscle increases in length (stretches). Ex: Lowering the book to place it back. D

Eccentric contractions

_____ an injury reduces swelling. It's most effective when the injured area is raised above the level of the heart. For example, if you injure an ankle, try lying on your bed with your foot propped on one or two pillows.

Elevating

______ depends on aerobic training. Includes isotonic contractions such as in jogging and aerobic dancing, which increase the blood supply to skeletal muscle, and therefore the blood flow. Relies on the aerobic production of ATP. Endurance is required for prolonged activities.

Endurance training

_____ is the involuntary twitch of a muscle visible under the skin. May be involved in multiple sclerosis or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

FASCICULATION

On the basis of structure and function, skeletal muscle fibers are classified as: 1. ________ - also called fatigable fibers, white muscle fibers, fast-twitch glycolytic fibers, or type II-B fibers. They are the largest in diameter and have low myoglobin content, relatively few mitochondria and blood vessels. They contain large amounts of glycogen. They are white. They fatigue easily and obtain ATP from glycolysis. Muscles of the arms contain many of these fibers.

FAST (=FAST GLYCOLYTIC)

_____ is similar to fasciculation, but not visible under the skin

FIBRILLATION

_______ varies as do the cell's allocations of myofibrils, mitochondria and sarcoplasmic reticulum

Fiber diameter

__________ refers to a group of common non articular rheumatic disorders that are more common in women and are characterized by pain, tenderness, and stiffness of muscles, tendons, and ligaments. Due to inflammation of muscle. Frequent sites are the lower back (lumbago), neck, chest, thighs and legs (charley horse) associated with pregnancy (due to lack of sleep, depression or anxiety)

Fibromyalgia

_____ is narrow, in the center of each A band contains only thick filaments

H-zone

If plasma (blood) calcium falls too low neuronal permeability to sodium increases, neurons depolarize, and the nervous system becomes hyperexcitable. In its most extreme form, _________ causes sustained contraction (tetany) of the respiratory muscles, resulting in asphyxiation.

HYPOCALCEMIA

very hard running, results in a ______, which is a tearing of some of the muscle fibers and rupturing of the blood vessels in the hamstrings

Hamstring strain or pulled hamstring

______ may develop during strenuous weight lifting exercises, involving isometric contractions. Pressure in the abdomen is so high that it may cause some of the visceral organs to protrude through an opening.

Hernias

___ is a type of hernia that protrudes a portion of the stomach through the diaphragm

Hiatal Hernia

_________ refers to increased muscle tone and may be expressed as either

Hypertonia

__________ refers to decreased or lost muscle tone; such muscles are said to be flaccid.

Hypotonia

_____ contains the rest of the thin filament but not the thick filaments. ___ passes through the center of each of these bands. alternating btw ___ band and a-band gives the muscle its striated appearance.

I-band

on the basis of structure & function, skeletal muscle fibers are classified: 3. ___________ also called fast-twitch oxidative fibers or type II-A fibers. They are intermediate in diameter and have many mitochondria, myoglobin and blood vessels. They split ATP at a faster rate than slow fibers and their contraction velocity is rapid. They are not quite resistant to fatigue as the slow fibers. These fibers are uncommon in humans.

INTERMEDIATE (= FAST OXIDATIVE - glycolytic)

This route of drug administration is generally considered less hazardous and easier to use than the intravenous route. The onset of action is typically longer than with intravenous administration, but shorter than with subcutaneous administration. Patients generally experience more pain via this kind of injection compared to intravenous administration. this injection is made into the skeletal muscle fibers that are under the subcutaneous layer of the skin.

INTRAMUSCULAR INJECTIONS (IM)

During ________ exercise there is movement of the joint during the muscle contraction. A classic example of an _____ exercise is weight training with dumbbells and barbells. As the weight is lifted throughout the range of motion, the muscle shortens and lengthens. Calisthenics are also an example of _____ exercise. These would include chin-ups, push-ups, and sit-ups, all of which use body weight as the resistance force.

ISOTONIC

_________ occur when a constant load is moved through the range of motions possible at a joint. The tension remains constant, but the length changes.

ISOTONIC CONTRACTIONS

Use ___ bags, cold packs or even a bag of frozen peas wrapped in a thin towel to provide cold to the injured area. Cold provides short-term pain relief. It also limits swelling by reducing blood flow to the injured area. Keep in mind, though, that you should never leave it on an injury for more than 15-20 minutes at a time. Longer exposure can damage your skin. The best rule is to apply cold compresses for 15 minutes and then leave them off for at least 20 minutes.

Ice

_______ injections generally result in lower but more sustained blood concentrations than after intravenous administration. Part of the reason is that ___ injections require an absorption step which delays the time to peak concentrations. When a formulation is injected, a "depot" (deposit) forms inside the muscle tissue, which acts as a repository for the drug. The absorption rate from this depot is dependent on many physiological factors such as muscle exercise, depth of injection, local blood flow supply, etc.

Intramuscular injections

___________ exercise utilizes machines that control the speed of contraction within the range of motion. ___________ exercise attempts to combine the best features of both isometrics and weight training. It provides muscular overload at a constant preset speed while the muscle mobilizes its force through the full range of motion. For example, an isokinetic stationary bicycle set at 90 revolutions per minute means that despite how hard and fast the exerciser works, the isokinetic properties of the bicycle will allow the exerciser to pedal only as fast as 90 revolutions per minute. Machines known as Cybex and Biodex provide isokinetic results; they are generally used by physical therapists and are not readily available to the general population.

Isokinetic exercise

the polio Vaccine was developed by ________ not too long ago - 1955; - he was born in NYC in 1914 and died in 1995. his vaccine is composed of "killed" polio virus, which retains the ability to immunize without the risk of causing the disease; the vaccine is given by injection; -Another vaccine available, consists of the live virus taken orally (sabin vaccine). it should not be given to people who have impaired immune system.

Jonas Salk

______ is too much cartilage at the epiphyseal plate - leads to extremely long & slender limbs. caused by defective fibrillin gene leading to abnormal elastic fibers

Marfan syndrome

_______ appears to be the major contributing factor to muscle soreness that follows bouts of strenuous exercise

Microscopic muscle damage

_____ may function to decrease muscle spasm, rigidity or spasticity by acting upon the central nervous system or directly on muscle tissue. ______ that affect the central nervous system do so by occupying some of the receptor sites normally filled by neurotransmitter during nerve impulse conduction across synapses. Ex. Chlorzoxazone, diazeipam (valium). The other type of muscle relaxants decreases muscle's responsiveness to nerve impulses. Ex.dantrolene (dantrium).

Muscle relaxants

_______ are inherited muscle-destroying diseases that are characterized by degeneration of individual muscle fibers, leading to progressive atrophy of the skeletal muscle (Jerry Lewis Kids).

Muscular dystrophies

__________ is an autoimmune disorder characterized by great muscular weakness and caused by antibodies directed against Ach (acetylcholine) receptors at the neuromuscular junction; more ACh receptors are affected as the disease progresses, making the muscle increasingly weaker. More common in females. Muscles of neck and face are most often affected. Drugs that inhibit acetylcholinesterase (neostigmine) may be a potential treatment. Other treatments include corticosteroids (prednisone) to inhibit antibody production, and removal of the thymus gland to inhibit antibody production.

Myasthenia Gravis

_______ is an enzyme in muscle that catalyzes the phosphorylation of one molecule of ADP by another, yielding ATP and AMP (andenosine monophosphate).

Myokinase

_________ results from infection with the poliovirus. The virus may attack the motor neurons, therefore weakening the respective muscles and results in paralytic ______. Successful immunization has resulted in almost complete elimination of it from the US.

Polio

smooth muscle - The motion it provides is important in mechanisms such as constriction of blood vessels and airways, propulsion of foods through the gastrointestinal tract called _______ and contraction of the urinary bladder and gallbladder.

PERISTALSIS

the type of fracture where the distal end of the lateral leg bone (fibula) has serious injury of the distal tibia articulation

Pott's fracture

________ disease is characterized by massive osteoclastic resorption & extensive bone formation. bones grow abnormally large but soft. excessive remodeling.

Paget's disease -can undergo sarcomatous degeneration on rare occassions and other known cancers such as prostate can metastasize to bone involved w pagets. relatively common finding on bone scrintigraphy & should not be confused w more serious diseases. when very intense uptake is seen involving large portions of bones in an older patient, pagets should be considered. a small % of bones involved w pagets may undergo malignant degeneration; comparing radiographs may be useful in this setting

pain associated with inflammation due to chronic irritation of the plantar aponeurosis near the heel bone is called _______.

Painful heel syndrome- plantar fasciitis

________, stem cells found in association with the endothelium of blood capillaries, can differentiate into smooth muscle cells.

Pericytes

_______ is debilitating. a progressive disease that slowly worsens over time, from diagnosis to late stages, typically three to ten years. The causes remain unknown, but the disease is similar to Parkinson disease without the characteristic tremors. Some of the symptoms are balance difficulty, rigidity in the limbs, slowness of movements and loss of coordination of eye movement. Additional symptoms include memory problems, slurred speech and difficulty swallowing. As a result of physical deterioration, depression is quite common in later years. The actor Dudley Moore had many of the symptoms.

Progressive supranuclear palsy -- "Supranuclear"- the area of the brainstem that controls up and down eye movements. "Palsy"- a weakness, referring to the "palsy" of moving the eyes.

___ is a strain in the distal or proximal attachments of the adductors causing pain in the buttocks, pelvis and lumbar spine

Pulled groin

Most running injuries can be treated initially (first 2-3 days) with ____

R.I.C.E. therapy - Rest, Ice, Compression, and Elevation

________ have high myoglobin content and are specialized for aerobic cellular respiration

Red muscle fibers

If you are injured, stop playing, get medical attention if necessary and _____. this is important immediately after injury for two reasons. 1. it is vital to protect the injured muscle, tendon, ligament or other tissue from further injury. 2. your body needs it so it has the energy it needs to heal effectively.

Rest

Tumors in muscle tissue are very rare, but when they do occur, they are usually benign and non-threatening to life. However, _______, the name for malignant muscle tumors, is a very serious type of cancer since these tumors metastasize extremely rapidly. For this reason, even though the incidence of malignancy is rare, it is always prudent to consult a physician if a lump is found in a muscle anywhere in the body

Rhabdomyosarcoma

patellofemoral stress syndrome or _____ is an aching and tenderness around the patella tendon in the knee area. Instead of the patella moving between the femoral condyles it moves laterally increasing the pressure on the tendon - rubbing against the condyles.

Runner's knee

excitation-contraction coupling - the actin and myosin filaments slide past each other. The filaments never change size; their sliding past each other is what causes the change in the width of the sarcomere.

SLIDING FILAMENT MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

on the basis of structure & function, skeletal muscle fibers are classified: 2. _______- also called red muscle fibers, slow-twitch oxidative fibers, type I fibers, or fatigue resistant fibers. They contain many mitochondria, large amounts of myoglobin and many blood capillaries. They are red. They have a slow contraction velocity, as they split ATP slowly. They are quite resistant to fatigue. Ex: soleus (calf) and neck muscles that hold head upright.

SLOW (= SLOW OXIDATIVE)

_____ is a sudden, involuntary contraction of a single muscle.

SPASM

____ is pain along the tibia, which is due to tendinitis of the tibialis posterior, inflammation of the periosteum around the tibia or to stress fractures of the tibia

Shin splint syndrome

____ is a tear or overstretching in ligaments

Sprain

____ is a tear or overstretching in muscles/tendons

Strain

________ depends on anaerobic production of ATP (glycolysis), isometric contractions such as working out with immovable weights. Increases the synthesis of muscle proteins (myofilaments) therefore increasing the diameter of the muscle fiber (muscle hypertrophy). Builds muscle strength.

Strength training

_____ is a rhythmic involuntary contraction of opposing muscle groups

TREMOR

A _________ is a single stimulus-contraction-relaxation sequence of a muscle fiber in response to a single action potential.

TWITCH contraction

When one muscle fiber contracts in all-or-none fashion, it is called a ______

TWITCH.

_______ also known as lockjaw- caused by another toxin produced by a bacterium Clostridium tetani. The toxin (tetanospasmin) affects the mechanisms responsible for controlling motor neuron activity. Inhibits glycine & GABA release from inhibitory neurons in central nervous system. It results in sustained muscle contraction, and one of the first symptoms is difficulty in opening the mouth - that is why it is also known as lockjaw, but it may affect all muscles.

Tetanus

________ enters the body through a wound. It can get in through even a tiny pinprick or scratch, but prefers deep puncture wounds or cuts, like those made by nails or knives. ______ germs are found everywhere, usually in soil, dust, and manure. Once they enter a wound, they can produce a poison, which spreads throughout the body. The first signs of _____ infection are usually a headache and spasms of the jaw muscles. The victim may become irritable. As the poison spreads, it causes muscle spasms in the neck, arms, legs, and stomach. The victim may get painful convulsions, which can be severe enough to cause broken bones. People with ______ may have to spend several weeks in the hospital under intensive care.

Tetanus

___________ is two or more stimuli applied one after the other, before the relaxation time is over. Results from the release of Ca2+ from the 2nd stimulus when there is still Ca2+ around from the first contraction. Most voluntary muscle contractions involve tetanic contractions.

Tetanus

________ is the time when a muscle fiber has temporarily lost its excitability.

The refractory period -because all Na+ gates are still open but inactive, the 2nd stimulus cannot open additional Na+ gates. -skeletal muscles have a short refractory period -cardiac muscle has a long refractory period

In the _________ , each of the first few contractions is a little stronger than the previous one. Stimuli arrive too far apart for wave summation to occur

Treppe (staircase effect)

________ is caused by infection with a parasite Trichinella spiralis. The larvae invade the skeletal muscle and lodge themselves in the perimysium and endomysium. The larva is passed on by eating uncooked pig meet. Produces diarrhea, weakness and muscle pain.

Trichinosis

__________ vary in duration depending on the type of muscle, its location, internal and external environmental conditions, and other factors.

Twitches

_____ separates one sarcomere from the other

Z-line (disc)

___________, technically called dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA), is used to measure bone mineral density in the spine, hip, & wrist, which are the most common sites for osteoporotic fractures. takes just a few minutes & result in very low x-ray exposure - about 1/10 that of a standard chest x-ray

a bone density scan (detects osteoporosis)

a ______ is where 2 bones attach

a joint

fracture repair involves - organization of the fracture hematoma into granulation tissue (actively growing connective tissue) called ________

a procallus

During this period, after exercise has stopped, OXYGEN is required for:

a) Conversion of lactic acid to glycogen b) Restore creatine phosphate and ATP c) Replacement of oxygen removed from myoglobin d) As body temperature is elevated, there is an increase in the rate of chemical reactions, leading to more ATP consumption, therefore more oxygen (O2) is needed to make additional ATP e) Heart and muscles used in breathing are doing more work than in the resting condition, therefore they use up more ATP, therefore more O2 is needed to make additional ATP

The amount of tension that a muscle fiber can develop depends on:

a) Frequency of stimulation b) Length of the filament c) Number of muscle fibers contracting within a MUSCLE

localized connective tissue thickenings of the capsule that attach bones to bones & prevent extreme movements that may damage the articulation

accessory ligaments (extracapsular & intracapsular)

________ released by the synaptic vesicles of a motor neuron triggers a muscle action potential

acetylcholine

in the case of the neuromuscular junction the neurotransmitter is called ________

acetylcholine

-when a nerve impulse (nerve action potential) reaches an axon terminal, the synaptic vesicles of the terminal release _________, which ultimately initiates a muscle action potential in the muscle fiber. (muscle contraction)

acetylcholine (ACh)

muscle RELAXATION is brought about when: -ACh dissociates from its receptor and is broken down by the enzyme ____________. this enzyme faces the extracellular matrix of the synaptic cleft.

acetylcholinesterase (AChE)

______ is caused, like gigantism, by over secretion of hGH. unlike gigantism, its characterized by over growth of the hands, feet & lower part of the face. occurs after puberty when most of the epiphyseal cartilages have closed. however cartilages respond to hGH resulting in the over growth of hands, feet, lower jaw, skull & clavicle. along w physical over growth, it can also cause weakness & diabetes mellitus, in which the pancreas produces little or no insulin. treatment can consist of surgical removal of hyper functioning tissue, irradiation & drugs that suppress growth hormone. recorded cases have existed since the ancient egyptians were around

acromegaly

_____ is a protein that is the main component of thin filaments. these individual molecules (g-actin) have an irregular shape. they are joined forming a helix w filaments (f-actin). on each of these molecules there is a binding site for the myosin cross-bridge. thin filaments are anchored directly to the Z-discs

actin

the muscle action potential causes the release of calcium ions that combine with troponin, causing it to pull on tropomyosin to change its orientation, thus exposing myosin-binding sites on ______ (muscle contraction)

actin

For skeletal muscle, a flat metal plate (=electrode) is positioned on top of the muscle to be studied. When a muscle is contracted, a small electrical potential is produced. Surface electrodes can sense this muscle action potential when placed over the muscle. The signal detected by the electrodes is amplified and recorded with instrumentation, and is known as the EMG. To the researcher, the EMG signal is virtually meaningless "as is." However when the signal is analyzed, a measure of work done by the muscle, called an __________, can be derived.

activity index

Muscle activity lasting more than 40 seconds depends on the ________ (reactions requiring oxygen).

aerobic system

The number of muscle fibers is thought to barely increase __________. Increase in size is under the control of human growth hormone and testosterone in males.

after birth

____ method uses a tendon from another source other than the individual's own body, such as a donated achilles tendon

allograft

spina bifida is suspected if there are high concentrations of fetal metabolite produced by fetal liver cells ________ in maternal blood sample. childbirth via c-section & surgical team should be ready at time of delivery to make necessary repairs. shunts may be used to drain excess fluid from brain. fetal surgery in uterus may be performed to correct this condition. first amniotic fluid needs to be extracted. can be associated w folic acid (water soluble vitamin b9) deficiency. sources of folic acid: veggies, cereal, & bread

alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)

within limits, bone has the ability to ___________ in response to mechanical stress by increasing deposition of mineral salts & production of collagen fibers

alter its strength

Although the number of skeletal muscle fibers does not change, the characteristics of those present can be ___________. For example, weight lifting increases the number of fast glycolytic fibers (FAST). Marathon runners have more slow oxidative fibers, while sprinters have more fast glycolytic fibers.

altered by various types of exercise

slightly movable joints

amphiarthroses

The use of _________ by athletes to increase muscle size, strength, and endurance has been shown to have very serious side effects, some of which are life-threatening. Side effects include liver cancer, kidney damage, increased risk of heart disease, aggressive behavior and mood swings. The steroids have to be taken in large concentrations to produce any effect, thus they have side effects.

anabolic steroids

______ can be used alone or in combo w anti-inflammatory drugs

analgesics (pain killer)

______ is an inflammatory disease that affects joints btw vertebrae & btw the sacrum & hipbone

ankylosing spondylitis

most movements are coordinated by several skeletal muscles acting in groups rather than individually, and most skeletal muscles are arranged in opposing _______ pairs at joints

antagonistic

athletes place stress on their knees. damage to ligaments such as ________ & meniscus. torn ligaments tend to be difficult to correct surgically. healing is slow.

anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)

The action potential then reaches the voltage-gated ion (Ca2+) channels on the T tubules [dihydropyridine (DHP receptors)]. These DHP sensitive calcium channels are in close proximity to a second type of calcium channels that are anchored on the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). When these SR calcium channels at the terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum open, they ultimately cause Ca2+ stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum to ____________ (muscle contraction)

be released into the sarcoplasm.

the fleshy portion of the muscle between the origin and the insertion is called the _______

belly

-they do not bind to estrogen receptors on bone progenitor cells; they enter bone directly -they may reduce the activity of osteoclasts, thereby reducing bone resorption they seem to be very effective in treatment of osteoporosis, but have no beneficial effect on cardiovascular system, thus do not reduce other symptoms of menopause including hot flashes

bisphosphonates

newest therapies for protecting against bone loss without estrogen side effects is a class of drugs called _______

bisphosphonates

caution - results from women's health initiative (WHI) showed that daily use of combined HRT (estrogen & progesterone) increased a woman's chances of developing __________.

breast cancer by about 25% if she took it for several years. women who took this combined HRT also had a higher risk of having breast cancer detected at a more advanced stage & were more likely to have abnormal results on mammograms

deformity of the great toe

bunion

saclike structures w synovial fluid which cushions & alleviates friction in some joints

bursae

_____ is inflammation of bursae caused by trauma, infection or by rheumatoid arthritis

bursitis

the hormone ______ is sometimes offered for treatment of osteoporosis

calcitonin -normally produced by the thyroid gland to help the body maintain appropriate concentrations of calcium -it can be given as a subcutaneous injection or as a nasal spray, because it is a protein & would be broken down in the stomach if taken by mouth. it is safe & its effects are minor

another thyroid hormone _______ plays a particularly important role in calcium homeostasis.

calcitonin (CT)

many diseases, some drugs, direct injury & even pregnancy may increase the fluid (swelling) in the bursae enough to compress the median nerve in the rigid tunnel. the median nerve functions to provide sensation to significant portion of the palm & fingers. in addition, it also is responsible for providing the motor control of some of the muscles of the palm & thumb.

cause of carpal tunnel

In practice, an activity index for a specific muscle is established as a benchmark. This benchmark is then compared to another activity index of the same muscle, but generated under a different set of conditions (such as after fatigue, or after the administration of a drug, etc.). This comparison provides a way of measuring the effect fatigue or the drug had on the muscle and is used to determine the

cause of muscle malfunction, weakness, or paralysis

muscular strength results from the ability of the muscle to change ______ (from ATP) into mechanical energy

chemical energy

______ results from a lack of fusion of portions of the maxillary & palatine bones during fetal development

cleft palate/ cleft lip - 50% of cases have hereditary component. high resolution ultrasound during pregnancy may be able to detect severe cases. each condition may occur singly or can occur together early surgical repair, speech therapy, and orthodontia can result in normal speech & few if any lasting effects.

_____ is an internal fracture, the bone does not protrude through the skin

closed simple fracture

a bone fracture that is broken into more than one fragment

comminuted

A sustained contraction that lacks even partial relaxation between stimuli is called _________

complete (fused) tetanus.

_____ is the ability to conduct (propagate) the action potential along the plasma membrane

conductivity

______ occurs when the head of femur lies outside of acetabulum of coxal bone. the socket itself often being poorly developed & shallow. the disorder runs in families & occurs more often in girls. prompt treatment allows the child to walk normally

congential dislocation of the hip in children

_____ is the ability to shorten & thicken (contract) generating force to do work

contractility

frequently injected into inflamed area. they depress white blood cell activity & block prostaglandin production

corticosteroid (steroidal) anti-inflammatory drugs

Duchenne MD is the most common childhood form of muscular dystrophy. Muscles first affected: Pelvis, upper arms, upper legs. Progression: Slow, sometimes with rapid spurts. Early signs of Duchenne, which usually occur between the ages of 2 and 6, include frequent falling, difficulty getting up from a sitting or lying position, and a waddling gait. Another hallmark is the apparent enlargement of the calf and sometimes other muscles, which is really due to an accumulation of fat and connective tissue in the muscle. A blood sample shows a very high level of ________, an enzyme (phosphagen system) that leaks out of damaged muscle. Progression varies somewhat from child to child. The use of orthopedic devices and physical therapy can prolong the ability to walk. Frequently, however, a wheelchair will be needed by age 12. Mild mental retardation has been noted in some (by no means all) boys with Duchenne dystrophy. Breathing becomes affected during the later stages of Duchenne, leading to respiratory infections. These are often successfully treated with antibiotics and respiratory therapy. Severe respiratory and heart problems mark the disease's final stages, usually in the boy's teens or early 20s. In 1986, researchers identified the gene that, when defective, is responsible for Duchenne muscular dystrophy. They discovered that the gene's failure to make a working version of the muscle protein DYSTROPHIN is the causeof the disease.

creatine kinase (CK)

______ fascia is dense, irregular connective tissue. located around muscles & organs. its function is to hold muscles together, allows free movement & fills spaces btw muscles.

deep fascia

the manner in which bones are joined determines the _________

degree of movement or lack of movement

strenuous exercise damages the muscle structure producing __________ - torn sarcolemma, damaged myofibrils & disrupted z-discs

delayed onset muscle soreness

removal of mechanical stress weakens bones through ______ (loss of bone minerals) & collagen reducation

demineralization

Under different conditions and ___________ and which point is fixed, many muscles act at various times as prime movers (agonists), antagonists, synergists, or fixators.

depending on the movement

The nicotinic ACh receptor is a ligand-gated channel. Two of its five-polypeptide subunits contain ACh binding sites, and the channel opens when both sites bind to ACh. The opening of this channel permits the simultaneous diffusion of Na+ into and K+ out at the motor end plate of the muscle fiber. The effects of the inward flow of Na+ predominate, because of its steeper electrochemical gradient. This produces a ______

depolarization

_______ are firm attachment btw cells

desmosomes

Isometric training is effective for________________. It is often used for rehabilitation since the exact area of muscle weakness can be isolated and strengthening can be administered at the proper joint angle. This kind of training can provide a relatively quick and convenient method for overloading and strengthening muscles without any special equipment and with little chance of injury.

developing total strength of a particular muscle or group of muscles

shaft - main portion of the bone

diaphysis (anatomy of long bone)

freely movable joints

diarthroses (diarthrosis - 1, diarthroses - > 1)

this type of bone fracture produces new arrangements of bony elements. refers to the change in anatomic axis of the one fragment w respect to another.

displaced fracture- the amount of displacement is measured as shaft width or %. the femur can be displaced 1/2 shafts width or 50% or a full shafts width or 100%.

______ drugs decrease uric acid production, while others increase excretion of excess uric acid

drugs for gouty arthritis

______ is the ability to return to original shape after contraction or extension

elasticity

recording of resting & contracting muscles

electromyogram (EMG)

this type of ossification: - refers to the formation of bone within a hyaline cartilage model -mesenchyma is transformed into chondroblasts, which produce a hyaline cartilage that is replaced by bone -cartilage model grows by interstitial (in length) and appositional (in thickness) growth -primary ossification center of a long bone is formed in diaphysis -cartilage degenerates, leaving cavities that merge to form the medullary cavity -osteoblasts lay down bone -secondary ossification centers develop in the epiphyses, where bone replaces cartilage, except for the epiphyseal plate

endochondral (intracartilaginous) ossification

type of ossification with a preset shape

endochondral ossification

surrounds individual muscle fibers & includes capillaries & nerve endings that reach every muscle fiber

endomysium

promotes bone mineral accumulation

exercise -weight (load) bearing exercises considered more effective - stresses your bones against your full body weight such as walking, running, tennis, step aerobics or stair climbing

_______ is artificial stimulation of bone repair. needed when fractures are not fully repaired. these techniques induce bone repair

exogenous

_____ is the ability to be extended (stretched) w/o damaging the tissue

extensibility

sheet or broad band of fibrous connective tissue

fascia

skeletal muscle fibers (cells) are arranged within the muscle in bundles called _________. the muscle fibers are arranged in a parallel fashion within each bundle, but the arrangement of the _______ with respect to the tendons may take one of four characteristic patterns.

fascicles

AGING AND MUSCLE TISSUE 1) Beginning at about 30 years of age there is progressive loss of skeletal muscle, which is replaced by _______ 2) There is also a decrease in maximal strength and a slowing of muscle fiber reflexes.

fat

adipose tissue pads that protect the articular cartilage

fat pads

fracture repair involves -subsequently transformed by fibroblasts & osteogenic cells into a ______

fibrocartilaginous - soft callus

-If damaged, skeletal muscle tissue undergoes __________ which = substitution by connective tissue.

fibrosis

It is obvious that a muscle as a whole can have graded contractions to perform different tasks; -The extent of a muscle contraction depends, for example, on _________

how many of its muscle fibers (cells) are being stimulated.

prior to puberty ______ & ________ stimulate bone deposition & changes during growth. variations from normal levels of these hormones can lead to either gigantism or dwarfism

human growth hormone (hGH - produced by pituitary) and insulin growth factor (IGF - produced in bone & liver under influence of hGH)

when a limb is placed in a cast, the _________ can result in loss of bone minerals. this is true for _____ in general

immobilization

During ISOMETRIC exercises muscles contract (=develop tension), however there is no motion in the affected joints. The muscle fibers maintain a constant length throughout the entire contraction. The exercises are usually performed against an __________ such as pressing the hand against the wall. The muscles of the arm are contracting but the wall is not reacting or moving as a result of the physical effort.

immovable surface or object

_______ drugs reduce the body's immunological capabilites thereby slowing down the destruction of joint tissue. side effects may be severe

immunosuppressants

A sustained muscle contraction that permits partial relaxation between stimuli is called _______

incomplete (unfused) tetanus

treatment w high estrogen levels seems to ______

increase the incidence of breast & endometrium cancer

the attachment to the other tendon from the muscle to the movable bone is the ________

insertion

______ (from the pancreas) also stimulates bone growth

insulin

fibers may branch & have only one nucleus. fibers are attached to each other by transverse thickenings of the plasma membrane known as ______ w gap junctions & desmosomes

intercalated discs

-smooth muscle fibers contain ________ and dense bodies. Dense bodies function as Z discs - smooth muscle fibers do not contain transverse tubules

intermediate filaments

_________ is a sheet of connective tissue that joins 2 neighboring bones ie, tibia & fibula

interosseous membranes (amphiarthroses - slightly movable)

because of the activity of the metaphysis, the diaphysis of a bone increases in length by ________. once the epiphyseal line is formed (a remnant of the epiphyseal plate) the bone stops growing

interstitial growth

bone growth in length = ?

interstitial growth

_______ are very important in regulating smooth muscle contraction. the concentration of ______ depends upon the balance btw the calcium that enters the cells, the calcium that is released from intracellular storage sites (ie, SR) & removal of calcium either back into storage sites or out of the cell. calcium is re-sequestered to the SR by an ATP-dependent calcium pump. calcium is removed from the cell to the external environment by either at ATP- dependent calcium pump or by the sodium-calcium exchanger (antiporter)

intracellular calcium concentrations

this type of ossification: -occurs within fibrous connective tissue membranes of the embryo & adult -an ossification center forms -matrix surrounds the cells & then calcifies as the osteoblasts become osteocytes -the calcifying matrix centers join to form bridges of trabecular that constitute spongy bone w red marrow inside -periosteum forms a collar of spongy bone that is then replaced by compact bone

intramembranous ossification

type of ossification with no preset shape

intramembranous ossification

calcium levels in blood control the secretion of PTH

low blood calcium (<9 mg/dl (milligram/deciliter) of blood) --> secretion of PTH --> increases to normal blood calcium -PTH has the opposite action of calcitonin

calcitonin (CT)

lowers the blood level of calcium & phosphates by: -inhibiting bone resorption by osteoclasts (breakdown of bone matrix) -increasing osteoblast activity & therefore calcium uptake by bone matrix -increasing calcium excretion in urine by kidneys -calcitonin is produced in the parafollicular (known as "C" = clear located on thyroid) cells -calcium levels in the blood control the secretion of calcitonin -calcitonin also controls levels of phosphates -calcitonin is not essential for the maintenance of calcium homeostasis. calcium levels are still maintained in the absence of the thyroid, as long as parathyroid levels are normal

it makes joints slicker than wet ice. when our bodies cant produce enough glucosamine & chondroitin, however the normally thick synovial fluid becomes thin & watery. in this state it cant to the job it was intended to do as a lubricant

lubricate

_____ is caused by bacterium transmitted to humans by deer ticks. symptoms include rash followed by flu-like illness. this may be followed by cardiac or neurologic problems. principle complication is arthritis.

lyme disease

Highly trained individuals may increase the ____________ uptake. They may double this rate. Therefore they are capable of greater muscle strength and endurance. They will produce more molecules of ATP.

maximal oxygen

contains the yellow marrow

medullary (marrow) cavity

increased calcium intake may prevent age-related bone loss in _____

men

calcium metabolic balance studies indicate a daily requirement of about 1,000 mg of calcium for ______ & _______ women

menopausal & estrogen-treated women

epiphyseal plate consists of hyaline & transitional zones on each side. the one facing the marrow cavity is the ________

metaphysis

where the diaphysis joins the epiphysis. contains the epiphyseal plate, which consists of hyaline cartilage that will be substituted by bone

metaphysis (anatomy of long bone)

for the 2 cells to communicate w each other a chemical is released from the first cell that reaches the 2nd. cell. the chemical is called a ________

neurotransmitter

carpal tunnel syndrome complaints

most frequent complaints- - numbness & tingling of the palmar surface of any of the 5 digits,except for the little finger. -dropping things due to numbness -radiating pain into the forearm symptoms often worsen at night due to normal fluid shift to the extremities & normal wrist flexion during sleep. prolonged symptoms signal progressive or severe nerve compression & thumb muscle weakness can follow. -locking of fingers is complaint in 25% of cases because it can also be caused by tenosynovitis

______ results from alternating contraction (shortening) & relaxation of muscles

motion

the _______ has receptors for the neurotransmitters

motor end plate

a single ________ may innervate as few as 10 or as many as 2,000 muscle fibers, w an average of 150 fibers being innervated by each _____

motor neuron

____ convey impulses for muscle contraction

motor neurons

a motor neuron & the muscle fibers it stimulates form the ___________

motor unit

the fibers of a motor unit ______

move all at the same pace & time

The inability of a muscle to maintain its strength of contraction or tension is called ________ . It occurs when a muscle cannot produce enough ATP to meet its needs.

muscle fatigue

strength of contraction; force generated by the sliding filaments

muscle tension

It is the firmness resulting from a sustained partial contraction of portions of a relaxed skeletal muscle.

muscle tone

In hypocalcemia, fewer of these calcium ions are present, so there is less charge difference between the two sides of the membrane. Sodium channels in the plasma membrane are sensitive to this charge difference, and when the difference is diminished, sodium channels open more easily and stay open longer. This allows sodium ions to enter the cell too freely. The inflow of sodium is the normal process that excites nerve and muscle cells. In hypocalcemia, this excitation is excessive and may result in _____

muscle tremors, spasms, or tetanus (inability of the muscle to relax)"

muscle fibers arise from fusion of many embryonic muscle cells known as _________

myoblasts

muscle cell = muscle fiber = _______

myofiber

each muscle fiber (one muscle cell) contains ______ that consist of thin & thick filaments. they contribute to the striated aspect of the skeletal muscle fibers

myofibrils

each muscle fiber contains myofibrils that consist of thin & thick filaments called _____. they contribute to the striated aspect of the skeletal muscle fibers

myofilaments

All skeletal muscle fibers are not identical in structure or function. Color varies according to the content of _______, an oxygen-storing reddish pigment

myoglobin

A record of a muscle fiber contraction is called a __________

myogram

______ is a protein shaped like 2 golf clubs (2 polypeptides) twisted together. the tails point to the M-line in the center of the sarcomere. projecting myosin heads are called cross bridges & contain actin & ATP-binding sites. they project out towards the thin filaments. the tails of neighboring myosin molecules lie parallel to each other.

myosin

thick filaments are composed mostly of _____

myosin

calmodulin activates the enzyme _____, which facilitates myosin-actin binding & allows contraction to occur at a relatively slow rate

myosin light chain kinase

______ is a structural protein that wraps around thin filament & anchors it to the z-disc

nebulin

a motor neuron transmits a _________ (action potential) to a skeletal muscle where the _____ serves as a stimulus for contraction.

nerve impulse

regulation of smooth muscle contraction - smooth muscle fibers contract in response to _______ (autonomic, not motor), hormones (epinephrine released from the adrenal gland causes muscle relaxation in the airways), and local factors.

nerve impulses

a _______, or myoneural junction refers to an axon terminal of a motor neuron & the portion of the muscle fiber sarcolemma in close approximation w it (motor end plate)

neuromuscular junction

this type of fracture retains the normal alignment of the bone

non displaced fracture

synovial fluid acts as a ______ carrier. cartilage itself is avascular - it doesnt have any blood vessels. hence the synovial fluid must carry raw materials from the blood to the cartilage. it can occur via diffusion, which is slow. it can occur by convection, more efficient & achieved through exercise. with this method our own bodies can re-build & replace the worn-out cartilage as fast as possible

nutrient carrier

_____ fracture where the bone protrudes through the skin - more dangerous due to infection because of contact w the environment. they are most commonly seen in vehicle or motorcycle accidents & they are at high risk for infection or osteomyelitis

open compound fractures

the antagonist produces an ______ action. Antagonists are placed in the opposite side of the prime mover

opposite

the attachment of the muscle tendon to the stationary bone is the ______

origin

bone forms by a process called _______, which begins when mesenchymal cells become transformed into osteogenic cells, which undergo cell division, giving rise to cells that differentiate into osteoblasts & osteocytes

ossification (osteogenesis) begins the 6th or 7th week of embryonic life & continues throughout adulthood. involves the replacement of preexisting connective tissue w bone

_____ center forms from mesenchymal cells as they convert to osteogenic cells, then to osteoblasts that lay down the osteoid matrix

ossification center

________ is characterized by demineralized, weakened & deformed bones, resulting from a condition of hyperparathyroidism

osteitis fibrosa cystica

________ is a degenerative joint disease commonly known as wear & tear arthritis. characterized by deterioration of articular cartilage & bone spur formation. it is non-inflammatory & primarily affects weight-bearing joints

osteoarthritis

they do not divide and form the bone. their immediate precursors are fibroblast-like preosteoblasts. they secrete collagen & other organic compounds essential to build bone. they produce the osteoid

osteoblasts

another autograph method for ACL repair uses the ________ tendons, which connect muscles in the back of thigh to lower leg. small portion of these 2 tendons is removed through small incision in leg, then looped to form a strong new ACL

semitendinosus-gracilis (hamstring)

at puberty the ________, estrogen (females) & testosterone (males) stimulate a sudden growth & modifications of the skeleton to create the male & female forms

sex hormones -in general women are shorter than men because estrogen seems to induce epiphyseal closure faster than testosterone (androgens)

synovial fluid acts as a _________ or hydraulic fluid. belongs to a group of liquids called dilatant liquids. these kinds of liquids become thicker when shear is applied to them. synovial fluid in knees & hips assumes viscous nature at moment of shear in order to protect the joints & then thins out again to its normal viscosity instantaneously to resume its lubricating function btw shocks. this happens over & over during the course of vigorous exercise, ie sports, dance, walking etc. when we cant produce enough GC this whole mechanism brakes down. viscosity is dramatically reduced, giving thin, watery sf which fails as a shock absorber & lubricant it normally excels at. results in pain stiffness & decrease mobility, which is osteoarthritis

shock absorber

____ occurs when membranes of the paranasal sinuses become inflamed due to infection or allergy. blockage of the outlets into the nasal cavity may cause painful buildup of pressure in the sinuses

sinusitis

during contraction of a ________ muscle, most (as much as 85%) of the energy produced is released as heat -if body temperature decreases, shivering can help elevate it to normal. Shivering signals are initiated in the hypothalamus. This is a Negative feedback regulation to produce heat.

skeletal

______ muscle attaches to bones, is striated (contains light & dark bands) & is voluntary - made to contract & relax by conscious control. long cylindrical fibers w many nuclei at the periphery of the cells

skeletal muscle

______ system provides leverage & supportive framework for this movement

skeletal system

At a given moment, a few muscle fibers within a muscle are contracted while most are relaxed. This _____________ of contraction is essential for maintaining posture. Example: Neck muscles that keep the head in position without pulling it all the way back.

small amount

-smooth muscle - fibers are considerably ________ than skeletal muscle fibers and are thickest at the center, tapering at the ends. -Its cells are small and spindle shaped with only one nucleus -gap junctions allow the cells to contract as a single unit (walls of intestine) or -few gap junctions - contract individually - iris of the eye. -each fiber contains thick and thin filaments, although the arrangement of the myofilaments is not in orderly sarcomeres as in skeletal muscle tissue

smaller

relaxation of ________ muscle in blood vessels, dilates the vessels, more blood flows to the skin, permitting exchange with the environment. When the blood vessels contract, less blood is brought to the skin resulting in heat conservation.

smooth

_______ are found on walls of hollow internal structures (blood vessels & viscera), are non striated & usually involuntary, also has autorhythmicity. cells are small & spindle shaped w only 1 nucleus. some have gap junctions allowing cells to contract as a single unit (walls of intestines). some dont have gap junctions - contract individually ie iris of eye. they provide motion ie, constriction of blood vessels & airways, propulsion of foods through gastrointestinal tract, contraction of urinary bladder & gall bladder.

smooth (visceral) muscle

in _______, smooth muscle fibers can stretch considerably without developing tension; this phenomenon is termed the stress-relaxation response

smooth muscle tone

a type of bone fracture that is a common result of overuse or stress on the bone. catch them before they become complete fractures because they are not displaced & in perfect anatomic alignment. tend to heal well w appropriate treatment.

stress fracture

the joints _____ determines how it functions, allowing no movement, slight movement or considerable movement

structure

____ fascia contains areolar connective tissue & adipose tissue. located under skin, it's function is to store water & fat, reduce rate of heat loss, provide mechanical protection against traumatic blows, provide a support for nerves & blood vessels to enter the muscles

superficial fascia

treatments for herniated disc:

surgery, chiropractors, tens (transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation - increases endorphin production)

dead bone, bone fragments, living bone from another site or from cadavers can be inserted within the fracture to provide a bony model for the repair process. this is called ______ grafting

surgical bone grafting

support is lent to articulations & joint capsules, as well as by action of ______

surrounding muscles

____ is a fibrous joint composed of thin layer of dense fibrous connective tissue that unites skull bones ie, coronal suture

suture (synarthroses - immovable)

The same neurotransmitter can produce an excitation in one fiber and inhibition in the other. Varicosities from a single axon may innervate several fibers and a single fiber may receive varicosities from both ________ and _______ neurons.

sympathetic parasympathetic

______ is a cartilaginous joint in which the connecting material is a disc of fibrocartilage ie, intervertebral discs (btw bodies of vertebra)

symphysis (amphiarthroses - slightly movable)

excitable cells (neurons & muscle fibers) communicate at specialized regions called _____

synapses

2 neighboring cells are not in close contact w each other, there is a space known as the _______

synaptic cleft

axon terminals or synaptic bulbs contain many _______ w neurotransmitters

synaptic vesicles

immovable joints

synarthrosis

_______ is a cartilaginous joint in which the connecting material is hyaline cartilage ie, epiphyseal plate

synchrondrosis (synarthroses - immovable)

_______ is a fibrous joint in which there is more fibrous connective tissue than in a suture ie, distal articulation of the tibia & fibula

syndesmosis (amphiarthrose - slightly movable)

most movements also involve muscles called _______, which serve to steady a movement, thus preventing unwanted movements and helping the prime mover function more efficiently - placed alongside the prime mover

synergists --(ex: extensor carpi acts as a synergist for the flexor digitorum)

______ is suture replaced by bone - epiphyseal line

synostosis (synarthroses - immoveable)

diarthroses contains a space btw bones called the _______. all diarthroses are synovial joints

synovial (joint) cavity

carpal tunnel syndrome occurs more often in women, typically after age 30. a non-specific inflammatory swelling of ______ is the common cause. tasks that require rapid, repetitive bending of the fingers, the use of vibratory tools, or a prolonged power grip are known to hasten the onset of symptoms.

tendon bursae (tenosynovitis)

white fibrous cords that attach muscles to bones

tendons

_____ are extensions of connective tissue beyond muscle cells that attach the muscle to the periosteum of the bone

tendons & aponeuroses

_____ is inflammation of the the tendon sheaths & synovial membranes of certain joints, especially those of the wrists, shoulders, elbows (producing tennis elbow), fingers, & ankles

tenosynovitis

at each side of transverse tubule there are dilated sacs of the sarcoplasmic reticulum called ________. they form a triad w the transverse tubule, on either side of it.

terminal cisternae

bone is the major reservoir for calcium Ca 2+ in the body

the blood level of calcium ions is very closely regulated due to calciums importance in cadiac, nerve, enzyme & blood physiology

the _________ of contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle is longer than in skeletal muscle

the duration

-Acetylcholine (ACh) then binds to its (nicotinic) receptors on the sarcolemma or plasma membrane at _____________

the motor end plate of the muscle fiber.

The muscle fiber develops its greatest tension when there is an optimal overlap between ______ & _________

thick and thin filaments

during muscle contraction, myosin cross bridges pull on thin filaments, causing them to slide inward toward the H zone; Z discs come towards each other and the sarcomere shortens, but the ______ & _______ do not change in length. The sliding of filaments and shortening of sarcomeres causes the shortening of the whole muscle fiber and ultimately the entire muscle. (muscle contraction)

thick and thin filaments

a protein in the z-disc is known as ______. is also known as connectin. it anchors the thick filaments of myosin to the z-discs & helps stabilize the position of thick filaments. it connects the m-line to the z-disc & is the major component of the elastic filaments

titin (huge molecular weight & is the 3rd most abundant protein in muscle)

_____ occurs frequently in the knees of athletes & is damaging to the articular discs that lie btw the ends of some bones. removal, to prevent erosion & arthritis, is usually accomplished by arthroscopy

torn cartilage

the type of fracture where there is a brake of the shaft bone across its long axis

transverse fracture

the fibers (=cells) contain sarcoplasm, nuclei, sarcoplasmic reticulum & ______, which are continuous with sarcolemma)

transverse tubules

_____ is a tunnel-like infolds of the sarcolemma, which penetrate toward the center of the muscle at right angles to the myofilaments. they are filled w extracellular fluid. allow the whole large skeletal muscle fiber to receive the signal for contraction very quickly & simultaneously.

transverse tubules (t-tubules)

______ is present in thin filaments and is a rigid rod-shaped protein that lays in the long axis grooves on either side of the actin filament, thereby stiffening the filament. in relaxed muscle this covers the myosin-binding sites on actin & thus blocks the binding sites of the myosin heads

tropomyosin

_____ & _______ are the regulatory proteins in muscles

tropomyosin & troponin

_______ is made of 3 polypeptides & contains a binding site for tropomyosin & it is thought to position the complex. it is responsible for the shift in position of tropomyosin to expose or hide the myosin binding sites in actin. _______ binds calcium

troponin

During glycolysis, there is a NET production of ______ molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose utilized. In the absence of enough oxygen the pyruvic acid resulting from the breakdown of glucose is converted to lactic acid. The lactic acid diffuses into the blood, arrives in the liver where it is converted back to pyruvic acid and glucose (gluconeogenesis).

two molecules

________ smooth muscle is found in the walls of hollow viscera and small blood vessels; the fibers are arranged in a network. Connected by gap junctions, these smooth muscle fibers contract at the same time, as a single unit.

visceral (single-unit)

sunlight helps convert precursor (7-dehydrocholesteral) of vitamin _____ to an intermediate product (D3), which is then converted to calcidiol by the liver & then to the active form calcitriol, by the kidney.

vitamin D -1 hour of sunlight/ week is sufficient to activate body's vitamin D precursor. also found in milk. deficiency can arise if skin is kept covered outdoors, if one rarely goes outdoors or does not drink milk

the sarcolemma areas next to the end plate contain _______ some specific for Na+ & some for K+

voltage-gated ion channels

in the ______ conditions of space travel, the astronauts also suffer from generalized osteoporosis. although they are not immobilized, the lack of weight bearing activity by their muscles & bones leads to osteoporosis

weightless

1. provides support for soft tissue & attachment sites for muscles 2. provides protection from injury to internal organs 3. movement (leverage) provides leverage for muscle contraction 4. mineral homeostasis (calcium & phosphate ions) - minerals stored in bones & can be mobilized when needed elsewhere in the body 5. blood cell formation - occurs in red marrow (connective tissue) called hematopoiesis or hemopoiesis 6. storage of energy - occurs in lipids in yellow marrow (adipose cells)

what is the function of bones?

the myoglobin content of _________ is low and they are adapted for glycolysis.

white muscle fibers

contains lipids - located within the medullary cavity of bones

yellow bone marrow