AAS Exam 2

W.E.B Dubois

Definition: African American sociologist, writer, black nationalist, and activist. He was one of the creators and a leading figure of NAACP and a pioneer of Pan- Africanism. vs. Garvey: Sought to uplift blacks so as to reshape the perception of them within white America which in turn would be the means by which they would obtain equality. Significance: ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

South African Congress Alliance

Definition: Anti-apartheid political coalition run under the AMC, who played a major role in the development of the Freedom Charter Significance: ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Red Rubber

Definition: Atrocity occurring in Belgium's Congo under King Leopold's rule in which the goal to maximize the profits from the concessions in Congo would result in the placement of rubber quotas, and in the absence of meeting such quotas, cruel practices such as mutilation would be enacted and would eventually lead to the genocide of millions of Africans.

Battle of Adwa

Definition: Battle in which Ethiopians fend off Italy in their attempted colonial conquest. Would earn Ethiopia the prestige of being one of the few independent African countries during Africa's colonial period.

Steve Biko

Definition: Black South African nationalist; co founded all-black South African Students Organization, an anti-apartheid student body, and founded Black Consciousness Movement in South Africa, which called for black people to recognize their self-worth. Significance: Brings concept of black consciousness into South Africa, mirroring to the black consciousness movements going on in the diaspora, particularly in the Americas - one such circumstance of the phenomenon of reflex influence

Nelson Mandela

Definition: Black nationalist that successfully led the resistance against the apartheid system in South Africa and transitioned it to multiracial democracy. Incarcerated for nearly 2 decades for participation in armed struggle, Umkonto we Sizwe. Declared president after release upon which he becomes the first black president of South Africa. Significance: ~~~~~~~~~~~

Jack Johnson

Definition: First African American boxer to win the World Heavyweight title (1908) Significance: Sports as anti-racist vanguard; Propelled African-Americans to the forefront to be reconsidered as something other than inferior.

George Jewett

Definition: First African-American football player at the University of Michigan, and Northwestern University, and in the Big Ten Conference. Significance: Sports as a staging ground of integration; Example of the first moves made towards integration in America on the widespread, public platform of sports

Pinnacle Commune

Definition: First Rastafarian settlement situated in Jamaican hills. Founded by Leonard Howell, here would be were the belief system would be institutionalized, with doctrines refined and practices systematized.

African Steamship Company

Definition: Founded by Macgregor Laird in Scotland with the purpose of developing trade with Niger River region of West Africa

Negritude

Definition: French cultural movement launched in Paris centered about rejecting assimilation, and instead appreciating and affirming pride in African heritage. French equivalent to Pan-Africanism. Originated by Aime Cesaire and helped to develop by Leopold Sedar Senghor, as well as some other French students. Significance: Black empowerment movement that would serve to encourage blacks to reject Europe's infiltration of Africa and reclaim what is theirs...

Marcus Garvey

Definition: Jamaican-born activist and black nationalist. Founder of the UNIA. Organized the largest African-American mass movement in history, the 'Back to Africa' movement. vs. Dubois: Advocated for the blacks to develop their own autonomous state in Africa where they may build political power. Significance: Became the inspiration for many other civil rights activists...

King Leopold of Belgium

Definition: King of Belgium from 1865 to 1909. Infamous for the atrocities that went under way in Belgian colonies under his rule, notably in the Belgian Congo, which he passed off under the guise of philanthropy and "civilizing" the inhabitants of Central Africa. Significance: Most cruel practice of the colonial era...

Amy Jacques Garvey

Definition: Marcus Garvey's second wife who led UNIA while Garvey was imprisoned, helped write Garvey's speeches, and edited and wrote a column within the UNIA's propaganda newspaper, the Negro World. Significance: One of the key female leaders and feminists of the Pan-African movement.

Rastafari

Definition: Movement rooted in reclamation of black power and discovering the true order whilst rejecting the ideals of the New World. Derived from another movement led by Marcus Garvey characterized by black empowerment and dignifying the black race. Underlined the ancient prestigious pedigree of the African kingdom of Ethiopia.

NAACP

Definition: National Association for the Advancement of Colored People; Oldest and largest civil rights organization. Formation was provoked by the violence against African Americans in the country and the purpose was not only to participate in the fight for justice towards black people but also to uplift blacks. Significance: ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Kwame Nkrumah

Definition: Nationalist and pioneer of the Pan-African movement, who helped lead the Goad Coast, or present day Ghana, to independence from Britain. This would thus make the Gold Coast the first African country to achieve decolonization, with Nkrumah becoming its first prime minister. Founded Convention People's Party. Significance: ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Ahmed Sekou Toure

Definition: Nationalist that led Guinea to independence from France. Became the first President of Guinea. Significance:~~~~~~~~~~~

Patrice Lumumba

Definition: Nationalist that led the Democratic Republic of Congo to independence from Belgium. Became the first Prime Minister of Democratic Republic of Congo. Founded Mouvement National Congolais (MNC). Significance:~~~~~~~

Jomo Kenyatta

Definition: Nationalist who helped lead Kenya to independence from Britain. Would become the first president of Kenya. Led the Kenya African national Union (KANU) Significance: ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Leopold Sedar Senghor

Definition: Nationalist who helped lead Senegal to independence from France and would become Senegal's first president. Also played a role in the development of the black empowerment cultural movement, negritude. Siginificance: ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Legitimate Commerce

Definition: Non-human trade between Africa and Europe to replace the institution of slavery. Significance: Advocated by Paul Cuffe as a more profitable alternative than the system of slavery as well as serve to bring the black diasporic communities back into Africa.

Reflex Influence

Definition: Notion that the events occurring to the black community in the Americas and those occurring in Africa have mutual effects on each other and that consequently the fates of black people abroad and the fates of those in Africa are intertwined. Significance: source of inspiration for Pan-Africanism as it encouraged all Afro-descendants and Africans to unite and provide support to each other.

Homer Plessy

Definition: Octoroon (1/8 black) tests constitutionality of the law by sitting in a whites only cart on a train. In Plessy vs. Ferguson it is ruled that separate but equal laws would be permitted. Significance: Showcased that legal equality did not mean integration.

5th Pan-African Congress

Definition: Organized by Kwame Nkrumah in 1954 in Manchester, England. The conference congregated many key figures of the Pan-African movement, including W.E.B Dubois and Jomo Kenyatta. At this conference, they discussed the future of Africa, independence, and racial equality. Significance: At this conference, the standards were set for how decolonization would be achieved in Africa.

Leonard Howell

Definition: Patriarch of Rastafari, who helped to systematize the belief system at the Pinnacle.

Imperialism

Definition: Policy of extending power and dominion, often through direct territorial acquisition or gaining political and economic control. Significance: Africa fell victim to imperialism in the colonial period following the Industrial Revolution. The effects of this would serve to hinder Africa's growth to this day.

Convention People's Party (CPP)

Definition: Political party founded by Kwame Nkrumah. Primary mission was to obtain self-government. After Britain permits the Gold Coast's first general elections, this becomes the dominant party within the Gold Coast's government. Significance: This party were the main propellers of the efforts to gain independence in the Gold Coast.

David Livingstone

Definition: Scottish missionary, explorer, and abolitionist. Would popularize the use of quinine as a remedy to malaria, which proved to be fatal for several Europeans visiting Africa. Would also help shape attitudes towards Africa in Europe

Macgregor Laird

Definition: Scottish shipbuilder, explorer, and abolitionist who maintained that alternative trade with Africa would trump slavery in regard to economical gain. Contributed to knowledge of Niger River. Also made contribution to the technological advancements of ships.

Afrikaners

Definition: South African ethnic group descended from 17th century Dutch settlers. Significance: Introduction and settlement of Euro -descendants provokes the formation of race in South Africa which will in turn feed into the segregationary practices that plague South Africa into the 20th century and the legacy of such which remains today.

Sandra Laing

Definition: South African woman whose appearance - characterized by dark skin and curly hair - deemed her coloured although she was born to white Afrikaner parents. In the climate of apartheid South Africa, this would pose an issue as she would be subjected to the coloured experience despite being born into a white family. Significance: Served to showcase racism as a social construct

South Africa Apartheid

Definition: System of legislation enforcing racial segregation in South Africa, and favored white people. Significance: Such is an episode of the phenomenon of racism as it applied within Africa as opposed to within the diaspora.

Magnificent African Cake

Definition: Tag relating to the manner in which the European powers apportioned the entire African continent into colonies to be distributed among themselves. Significance: Refer to "Scramble for Africa - Significance"

Rubber Vulcanization

Definition: Technique discovered by Charles Goodyear that would facilitate the production of rubber and increase the demand of rubber. The political economies of a number of African colonies would become based upon the production of this commodity. Significance: The growth in demand for rubber would pave the way for Leopold's goal to monopolize the industry and lead to the atrocity in the Belgian Congo

Essay 4: What are the central characteristics of Afro-diasporic cultural practices and in what ways does transculturation reflect/perform/sustain the links between Africans and diasporans? In addition, how do these cultural practices serve as platforms for racial categories to be contested, negotiated, solidified, reversed?

Definition: Transculturation refers to the merging of cultures. As Africans are brought over to the New World, however as they are brought into new environments and inevitably made to assimilate, they preserve their past culture through Africanizing the new customs to which they are exposed. Santeria and Capoeira. These new cultural elements in turn tend to be uniquely black and can enforce racial categorizing. The ban on Capoeira was a means of policing Afro-Brazilians. Ban on Santeria was a means of policing Afro-Cubans.

Essay 2: 2 different racial systems and how they operated differently as well as their effects on racial politics

Definition: U.S. 2-tiered system (black/white) Systems in Latin America tended to have a lot more dimensions to it, such as 3 tiered systems that added dimension to the black spectrum, adding in mulatto, octoroon, etc.

UNIA

Definition: Universal Negro Improvement Association; Largest mass movement in African-American history. Sought to unite all people of African descent, and through mutually beneficial exchanges between African diaspora and Africa, develop an autonomous black power in Africa, with thriving economical, political, social, and industrial conditions. Significance: One of the biggest Pan-Africanist movements in the Americas, which would encourage blacks to repatriate Africa in search of true freedom.

Mestre Bimba

Definition: Would be the first to develop a systematic training method for capoeira, which would serve to legitimize the sport and ultimately lead to its legalization. Founded the first Capoeira academy.

1968 Mexico City Olympics

Definition: 2 athletes, Tommie Smith and John Carlos, after winning medals in the 1968 Mexico City Olympics, hold up black power raised-fist salute. Significance: Sports as a stage of protest; The athletes use the platform given to them as winners to draw attention to the racially-driven social issues occurring in the U.S. at the time, and actively express solidarity with African-Americans and the Black Power Movement.

Quinine

Definition: A 19th century wonder drug derived from the cinchona tree that served as a remedy for malaria and enabled more thorough European exploration of Africa. Significance: Imperial technology that paved the way for colonialism

Walter Rodney

Definition: A Guyanese academic, Pan-Africanist, and political activist. Most influential legacy being his book How Europe Underdeveloped Africa that analyzed the lasting damaging effects of colonialism which he argued still directly impact the state of the continent today. Significance: Presented a groundbreaking perspective on the reason for Africa's widespread underdevelopment and highlighted the different aspects in which colonialism damaged Africa.

Berlin Conference

Definition: A meeting from 1884-1885 bringing together the powers of Europe to formalize their claims to African territory. Significance: This was the formal starting point of imperialism in Africa.

Emigration

Definition: Act of leaving one's country to settle in another. Key element of Pan-Africanism, which sought to unite all peoples of African descent.

White Man's Grave

Definition: Africa becomes tagged as this due to the high mortality rates of visiting Europeans as they fell vulnerable to a variety of diseases endemic to Africa.

George Washington Williams

Definition: African American historian notable for publicizing the atrocities occurring in the Congo Free State under King Leopold's colonial rule. Significance: Example of reflex Influence - Cruel practices in Belgian Congo resemble the cruelties of slavery.

Joe Louis

Definition: African American professional boxer, who reigned as the world heavyweight champion, but also became renowned as a national hero for his fight against the German Max Schmeling in light of the anti-Nazi sentiment during the World war II Significance: Sports as anti-racist vanguard; Louis would become the first African American national hero, thus using sports as a platform to uplift the African-American race.

Essay 5: Forten and other African-American supporters of colonization and emigration had ideas as to why a "return" to Africa would produce a "reflex influence" upon both Africa and the diaspora. Explain these terms and their significance to the emergence of Pan-Africanism as both a movement and ideology.

Definition:

Four Great Migrations

Definition: Africa to the America via slave trade (17th century) : refers to the forced relocation of millions of Africans from their countries by the Middle Passage to be sold into slavery in the New World. It shaped racial formation as it was the first major introduction of black people into white European populations that would provoke the institutionalization of race. Seaboard South to cotton production (19th century) : refers to the relocation of slaves from the upper South to the lower South in order to support the booming growth cotton industry, primarily by means of domestic slave trade. This period highlights the more inhumane periods of slavery, as slave families were separated and they were forced to march hundreds of miles south in heavy chains. That is to say that during these times, the dehumanization of blacks would be most clearly showcased. Rural south to the urban North (20th century) : known as the Great Migration which occurred after the Civil War. The prevalence of white supremacy, anti-black sentiment, and racism in the South in combination with the onset of World War I that banned European immigration, would drive many blacks to the urban North, where there was new demand for industrial labor. This would prove to be impactful as at the beginning of the 20th century, the majority of America's black population was situated in the South. This event would serve to disperse black people across America and inevitably also prejudice. Africa / Caribbean to the Americas via voluntary immigration (20th century - today) : refers to the ongoing immigration of Africans and other Afro-descendants into the United States in order to take advantage of the country's better opportunities. This accounts for ¼ of the growth of today's black population in America.

Capoeira

Definition: Afro-Brazilian martial arts style. Becomes targeted as a means of policing Afro-Brazilians but then is legitimized, eventually making its way to become Brazil's national sport. Capoeria-Regional : Aerial. Brought to the forefront and legitimized by Mestre Bimba. Capoeira-Angola : Afro-Brazilian martial arts style which retains the traditions of the ancestral African fighting style. Characterized by its close proximity to ground, occupation of space, and slower pace. Preserved by Mestre Pastinha.

Reconstruction

Definition: (1865 - 1877) Post Civil War era, during which the primary issues were on how to reintegrate the South into the U.S. and rebuild the nation in wakes of the eradication of slavery. Significance: For the first time, the U.S. is faced with the question of how to accommodate African-Americans as equals in society.

Black Star Line

Definition: (Economic venture) Auxiliary establishment under UNIA, developed as a means to support the economic independence that was to be the basis of Garvey's vision for an autonomous black state in Africa; A steamship line, controlled by black people, meant to connect the communities of, as well as increase trade among, the United States, West Indies, and Africa Significance: Was one of the most promising endeavors that would convince blacks that Garvey's vision may be realized and encouraged them to support his movement

"Jump Jim Crow"

Definition: 1828 song with an associated dance performed by Thomas D. Rice, supposedly mimicking a disabled African American man named Jim Crow, with the use of blackface and featuring of other stereotypes. Significance: Would provide the symbol for the set of racial segregation laws of the late 1800's.

14th Amendment

Definition: 1868 amendment passed after the emancipation of African-Americans from slavery, granting all US-born persons citizenship and guaranteeing equal protection under the law. Significance: Instated with the intention of explicitly attempting to defend blacks from further oppression following the ban on slavery.

Mau Mau Uprising

Definition: 1952 rebellion involving a Kikuyu (Kenyan ethnic group) dominated group called the Mau Mau. Directed against British settlers in Kenya and their ownership of land. Significance: This rebellion would serve to trigger Kenya's decolonization process.

Sharpeville Massacre

Definition: 1960 nonviolent protest at a police station in Sharpeville, South Africa that results in the police releasing fire on the protesting crowd and the killing and injuring of several protesters. Significance: Turning point in anti-apartheid movement that would trigger the resort to other measures of resistance than nonviolence.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Definition: 1964 legislation that put an end to the segregationary practices prevalent in America. Significance: This would signal the beginning of desegregation in America.

Paul Cuffe

Definition: Born as a free black man, Cuffe was a captain, entrepreneur, abolitionist, and Pan-Africanist. Sought to connect the communities of African-Americans and other blacks in the diaspora with the African community by means of "legitimate commerce" which would provide the economic foundation of an independent African nation. [Discussion: Paul Cuffe, was a free black captain, entrepreneur, and abolitionist. He had acquired a great deal of wealth through his business and suggested the system of "legitimate commerce" would be much more efficient than the slave trade, and would serve to bring together the blacks of the diaspora back into Africa. With this system, he envisioned the development of a free black state which would substitute the trading of slaves with the exchange of the goods and wealth that Africa held. Thus, his motive for emigration was solely based on hopes of developing a economically prospering free black state in Africa, that would challenge the European schemes, rather than being based off the idea of an inherently connected destiny shared by all black as Delaney suggested.] Significance: Another pioneer of Pan-Africanism...

Harlem

Definition: City in New York. UNIA was headquartered here. Here, they would also organize a number of parades. Kwame Nkrumah also resided in Harlem Significance: ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Concessions

Definition: Colonial political economy that granted land to private companies in exchange for a portion of profit. Significance: This colonial political economy was exhibited in Belgian Congo with the rubber industry and set the stage for one of the most atrocious phenomena to occur in Africa under colonialism.

Peasant Production

Definition: Colony's peasantry are made to labor for Europeans in order to pay for their taxes. These systems were typically centered about a monoculture - specializing the agricultural industries of a colony about a single crop - that would make these colonies dependent upon their colonizing power even after gaining independence.

Scramble for Africa

Definition: Commercially-driven pursuit of African lands. Primarily for the purpose of acquiring raw materials and other resources, but also as a measure to gain power and prestige, and expand their empires in the spirit of imperialism. Significance: This was the origin for the colonial period in Africa that would have long lasting damaging effects till today. This European invasion would also serve to exploit Africa for its worth and give little back such that by the end of the period, Africa would be left underdeveloped, at times even to the point of continued dependence on Europe for some nations' sustenance.

Martin Delaney

Definition: Considered one of the fathers of black nationalism and Pan-Africanism. Born free in West Virginia, educated in Pittsburgh, and would become one of the first three black people to attend Harvard University. One of the first African-Americans to encourage emigration as a means to escape oppression in the Americas. Presented the notion of "reflex influence" which conveyed that the fates of black communities in the Americas and the fate of those in Africa were intertwined. [Discussion: Martin Delaney was a prominent African-American figure in the 1800's. Born free in West Virginia, and educated in Pittsburg, he would become one of the first 3 black students to be admitted into Harvard University, and also come to be appointed as co-editor for the North Star by Frederick Douglass. In 1850, the Fugitive Slave Act is passed, which authorized that escaped slaves be returned to their masters, but also gave way for free blacks to be captured into slavery. Seeing how the narrow access to liberty which black people had was once again threatened, Delaney began advocating the movement back to Africa, where to a degree, the freedom of blacks could be granted entirely. He posed the idea of "reflex influence", which conveyed that the fate of the black communities abroad and the fate of those in Africa were intertwined] Significance: One of the pioneers of Pan-Africanism which served to re-establish a connection between Africa and its diaspora.

Freedom Charter

Definition: Declaration of principles issued by ANC in 1956; called for nonracial social democracy and announced black intent to obtain freedom Significance: This was arguably the first official measure of resistance taken in South Africa against the apartheid regime.

Raw Materials

Definition: Demand for raw materials increased to accommodate the Industrial Revolution. European powers would look to Africa to obtain these resources to support their new commercial ventures. Significance: The search for raw materials would incite the policies of imperialism and colonialism

Colonial Political Economies

Definition: Different economical systems under colonial rule in Africa. Include: 1.) Settler - Citizens of colonial power are sent to inhabit land in the colonial. 2.) Concessions - Colony is shared with private companies. 3.) Peasant Production - Colony's peasantry are made to labor for Europeans. 4.) Migrant Labor - Inhabitants of colony are sent elsewhere to work

Double Consciousness

Definition: Double consciousness is a term coined by W.E.B Dubois to convey the internal conflict of the minority in oppressive societies that results from the tendency to recognize themselves based upon their society's perception of them. It also relates to the struggle of black people to possess a multi-faceted identity, that of being American, yet also African. [Discussion: Sociologist and activist, W.E.B Dubois, conceived the notion of "double consciousness" to convey the tendency of black people to recognize themselves based upon the world's, or more applicably, racist white America's perception of them. The term also related to black people's struggles as they tried to mediate the two poles of their identity, as they attempted to not be too African and draw from the European's advancements and plethora of knowledge, yet also to keep a hold onto their African heritage, which is a defining symbol and carries the message of the African-American experience.] Significance: ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Neocolonialism

Definition: Economic dependency of a weaker country on a more powerful one, despite the legal independence of the weaker. Significance: A notion to describe the injurious legacy of colonialism..

Emperor Menelik II

Definition: Emperor of Ethiopia (r. 1889-1911). Renowned for repelling Italian invasion of Ethiopia at the Battle of Adwa. Prepared for the battle by enlarging his army and obtaining weaponry that would thwart that of the Italian force.

Haile Selassie

Definition: Emperor of Ethiopia, also known as Ras Tafari Makonnen. Garvey prophesizes that a king will come out of Africa and Selassie's coronation would consequently deem him a messiah for the Rastafari movement in Jamaica, taking after his name.

Essay 1: Rodney's theory. How Pan-Africanism can be used to reverse underdevelopment.

Pan-Africanism sought to uplift the black race by connecting the communities of blacks in the diaspora and blacks in Africa, through a mutually beneficial exchange of knowledge and advancement from the diaspora to Africa and natural resources from Africa to the diaspora. Europe's exploitation of Africa left the colonies underdeveloped because the resources were being used to grow their economies, yet little to no development was given back to the countries. With Pan-Africanism, Africa can help to build a prosperous economy, however, such will be used to feed back into Africa's advancement, seeing as the objective of the movement was to unify Afro-descendants with Africans.

Frantz Fanon

Psychiatrist, philosopher, and revolutionary. Greatest legacy being the Wretched of the Earth, including that in which he describes decolonization as a violent phenomenon.