Abnormal psych test 1

Atypical Response: The Statistical (Infrequency) Model:

This Model defines abnormality as behavior or traits that deviate significantly from the statistical norm. Anything that falls outside the typical range is considered abnormal.

Distress or Impairment in Functioning:

This criterion suggests that psychological disorders are characterized by significant distress to the individual or impairment in their ability to function effectively in daily life.

Nature (Biological) and Nurture (Environmental):

"Nature" refers to the influence of biological factors, including genetics and brain chemistry, on the development of mental disorders. "Nurture" refers to the impact of environmental factors, such as upbringing, life experiences, and social context. The timing of their interaction is critical, as genetic vulnerabilities may or may not be expressed depending on the environmental context and developmental stage.

The Biological Tradition Hippocrates

(460-377 B.C.) made significant contributions to the biological tradition's understanding of mental disorders: Explanation: believed that mental disorders were caused by imbalances in the four bodily humors—blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. He thought that an excess or deficiency of these humors could lead to various mental and physical ailments.

Integrative therapy

A therapeutic approach that combines multiple therapeutic theories and techniques to tailor treatment to the individual's unique needs and circumstances.

Humanistic therapy

A therapeutic approach that emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, and client-centered therapy, promoting self-discovery and self-fulfillment.

Behavioral therapy

A therapeutic approach that focuses on observable behaviors and uses techniques like conditioning, reinforcement, and exposure therapy to modify behavior and alleviate symptoms.

The Biological Tradition Hippocrates Four Humors:

Blood: Associated with a sanguine temperament. Phlegm: Associated with a phlegmatic temperament. Black Bile: Associated with a melancholic temperament. Yellow Bile: Associated with a choleric temperament.

Diathesis-Stress Model:

Definition: posits that individuals have a predisposition or vulnerability (diathesis) to a mental disorder, and the disorder emerges when this vulnerability interacts with significant stressors. Example: A person with a genetic predisposition (diathesis) for depression may develop the disorder when faced with a major life stressor, such as a traumatic event.

Equifinality (Multiple Pathways):

Definition: refers to the concept that various pathways or combinations of factors can lead to the same mental health outcome or disorder. It recognizes that different individuals may arrive at the same outcome through diverse routes. Example: Two people with anxiety disorders may have developed their conditions through different life experiences, genetic factors, or coping mechanisms.

Reciprocal Causality:

Definition: suggests that the relationship between factors is bidirectional, meaning that not only can one factor influence another, but the second factor can also influence the first. It emphasizes the dynamic nature of causal relationships. Example: Low self-esteem can lead to social withdrawal, but social withdrawal can also further decrease self-esteem.

Behavioral Influence on Genetics:

Description: Behavior can influence genetics through various mechanisms, including gene-environment interactions and the reciprocal gene-environment model. These models suggest that an individual's genetic vulnerabilities can shape their behavior and environment, and in turn, behavior and experiences can affect gene expression. Examples: Individuals with genetic predispositions to certain personality traits may seek out specific environments that align with those traits. For instance, a genetically predisposed impulsive person may engage in risky behaviors that further influence their genetic expression.

Social & Cultural Influence:

Description: consider the impact of one's social environment, including family, peer relationships, cultural background, and societal norms, on mental health and behavior. Example: Cultural stigma surrounding mental health issues preventing individuals from seeking help.

Major Influences in Multidimensional Models: Biological Influence:

Description: encompass factors related to an individual's physical health, genetics, and neurobiology. These factors can contribute to an individual's mental health and susceptibility to mental disorders. Example: Genetic predisposition to schizophrenia due to a family history of the disorder.

Emotional Influence:

Description: involve an individual's emotional experiences, regulation, and expression. Emotional factors play a crucial role in mental health and can affect one's susceptibility to mood disorders. Example: Chronic stress leading to persistent feelings of sadness and hopelessness in depression.

Environmental Influence:

Description: involve the physical environment in which an individual lives, including living conditions, access to healthcare, exposure to toxins, and other environmental stressors. Example: Poor living conditions and lack of access to healthcare in impoverished areas contributing to mental health disparities.

Cross Fostering Studies of Development:

Description: involve transferring offspring from their biological parents to the care of other parents (usually in animals like rats or monkeys) shortly after birth. This allows researchers to examine the influence of early caregiving and environment on development. Importance in Studying Epigenetics: are important in epigenetic research because they help disentangle the contributions of genetic inheritance from environmental factors in shaping an individual's development. They provide insights into how early experiences can affect gene expression and behavior.

Lifespan Consideration:

Description: involves examining how factors influencing mental health vary across different stages of an individual's life. It recognizes that developmental stages, from childhood to old age, play a role in understanding the causes and course of mental disorders.

Integrative Systems Approach:

Description: is a contemporary perspective that recognizes the complexity of mental health and mental disorders. It emphasizes the interplay of multiple factors across biological, psychological, and social domains, considering how these factors interact and influence one another.

Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis:

Description: is a critical neuroendocrine system involved in the body's stress response. It includes the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal cortex. This axis regulates the release of stress-related hormones, including cortisol.

Developmental Psychopathology:

Description: is a field that focuses on the study of mental disorders within a developmental framework. It emphasizes the importance of understanding how psychopathology evolves over an individual's lifespan.

Paradigm Approach (Old):

Description: often considered outdated, refers to a single-dimensional view of psychopathology. It assumes that there is one dominant perspective (e.g., psychoanalytic, behavioral) that can explain the causes and treatment of mental disorders.

One-Dimensional Model

Description: often referred to as reductionist models, attempt to explain complex phenomena, such as mental health or mental disorders, by focusing on a single, isolated cause or factor. These models suggest that a particular influence is the primary or sole determinant of the outcome. Example: might attribute all cases of depression to a single biological factor, such as a specific neurotransmitter imbalance, overlooking the potential contributions of psychological, social, or environmental factors.

Diathesis-Stress Model:

Description: posits that individuals have a predisposition (diathesis) to a mental disorder, and the disorder develops when this vulnerability interacts with significant stressors. Examples: Specific types of diatheses may include genetic vulnerabilities, family history of mental disorders, or personality traits. Specific types of stressors may include traumatic life events, chronic stress, or major life changes.

Multidimensional Model:

Description: recognize that complex phenomena like mental health and mental disorders result from the interaction of multiple influences across various domains. These models consider a range of factors and acknowledge that no single factor can adequately explain the complexity of the outcome. Example: the model of depression would take into account biological factors (e.g., genetics, neurotransmitters), psychological factors (e.g., cognitive patterns, personality traits), social factors (e.g., social support, life stressors), and cultural factors (e.g., cultural attitudes towards mental health).

Multiple, Interactive Influences:

Description: refer to the idea that mental health and mental disorders are typically not caused by a single factor but result from a complex interplay of various influences. These influences interact with one another, making it challenging to pinpoint a single cause for a mental health condition. Example: For instance, a person's experience of anxiety may result from a combination of genetic predisposition, past traumatic experiences, and ongoing life stressors. These factors can interact and exacerbate each other's effects on mental health.

Developmental Influence:

Description: take into account an individual's stage of development (e.g., childhood, adolescence, adulthood, elderly) and how developmental milestones and challenges can influence mental health. Example: The impact of childhood trauma on the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adulthood.

Moral Therapy:

Description: was a humane approach to treating mental illness that emerged in the late 18th century. It emphasized treating individuals with mental disorders with respect, kindness, and moral guidance rather than harsh treatments. It became popular in the early 19th century.

Behavioral Influence:

Description:focus on observable actions and behaviors. These factors consider how an individual's behaviors and responses may contribute to their mental health or the development of mental disorders. Example: Maladaptive coping behaviors, such as substance abuse, contributing to anxiety or depression.

Effects on Mental/Emotional Problems

Dysregulation of the HPA axis can contribute to mental health issues such as depression and anxiety. Elevated cortisol levels associated with chronic stress may affect mood and cognitive function.

Early Asylum Care and Evolution:

Early Care: often had poor conditions and used harsh treatments like restraints and isolation. Evolution: Moral therapy led to improvements in asylum care, emphasizing humane treatment and occupational therapy. However, overcrowding became an issue in the late 19th century.

Effects on Gene Expression

Environmental factors can affect the expression of genes, both for the individual experiencing them and potentially for their descendants. This means that experiences such as stress or exposure to specific nutrients can impact which genes are turned on or off.

The Supernatural Tradition: Witches and Possession:

Explanation: During the witch hunts in Europe and America, individuals, particularly women, were accused of witchcraft and possession. Symptoms of possession included erratic behavior, hallucinations, and seizures. Treatment: Accused witches were subjected to trials, often ending in execution, to rid them of the alleged evil forces.

The Supernatural Tradition: Lunacy and the Moon:

Explanation: The term "lunacy" is derived from the Latin word "luna," meaning moon. Ancient beliefs linked changes in the moon's phases to mental disturbances. The theory, known as lunar lunacy, suggested that the moon's influence triggered abnormal behavior. Originator: The theory of lunar lunacy has ancient origins and was not attributed to a specific individual.

The Supernatural Tradition: Spirit Possession:

Explanation: is a belief that mental disorders and abnormal behavior are caused by the influence of malevolent or supernatural spirits. People exhibiting unusual behaviors were often thought to be possessed by these spirits. Treatment: Treatments often involved rituals, exorcisms, or religious interventions aimed at expelling the possessing spirits.

The Supernatural Tradition: Mass Hysteria and Contagion Effects:

Explanation: refers to situations where a group of people collectively experiences symptoms of mental distress or abnormal behavior. This can spread rapidly within a group, leading to a contagion effect. Examples: The Salem witch trials in 1692, where a group of young girls exhibited symptoms of possession and accused others of witchcraft, leading to mass hysteria and trials.

The Supernatural Tradition: Emotion Contagion:

Explanation: refers to the phenomenon where one person's emotions and emotional expressions influence and "infect" the emotions of others within a social context. Likely Biology: Emotion contagion likely involves mirror neurons in the brain, which allow individuals to mimic and resonate with the emotional expressions of others. It is a normal social and psychological process.

The Supernatural Tradition: Trephining/Trephination:

Explanation: this is a historical practice where a hole is drilled or scraped into the skull, often to release perceived evil spirits or treat various mental and physical ailments. Treatment: was used as a treatment for mental disorders and abnormal behavior, though it was a dangerous procedure with significant risks.

Philippe Pinel

Famous For: a French physician, is famous for advocating for humane and compassionate treatment of individuals with mental illness. He played a key role in implementing moral therapy in asylums.

Dorothea Dix:

Famous For: was an American activist known for her advocacy on behalf of individuals with mental illness. She worked to improve the conditions in asylums and played a pivotal role in the reform of mental health care in the United States.

Psychodynamic theory

Focus: An extension of psychoanalysis, it delves into unconscious processes and early life experiences to gain insight into current emotional and behavioral patterns.

Psychoanalysis Theory

Focus: Emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and the use of talk therapy to explore and resolve underlying conflicts and unconscious dynamics.

Neurotransmitters

Function: are chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons. They play a crucial role in brain circuitry and mental health.

Genetic Contributions to Psychopathology: GxE: Genes

Genes are segments of DNA that code for specific proteins or traits. They produce proteins that influence various aspects of an individual's biology and functioning.

Polygenic Nature:

Genetic risk factors for most mental disorders are typically polygenic, meaning they involve the interaction of multiple genes rather than being attributed to a single gene. These genetic influences are complex and involve various genetic variations across different loci.

Genotype vs. Phenotype

Genotype refers to an individual's genetic makeup, while phenotype refers to the observable characteristics or traits expressed based on the genotype.

Components and Neurochemicals:

Hypothalamus: Produces corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). Pituitary Gland: Releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). Adrenal Cortex: Secretes cortisol in response to ACTH stimulation.

In 1905, the cause of general paresis (syphilis) was discovered. What was it and Why was this important in the development of biological theories of mental disorders?

In 1905, the discovery of the cause of general paresis (also known as general paresis of the insane or GPI) played a crucial role in the development of biological theories of mental disorders. General paresis is a neuropsychiatric disorder characterized by progressive symptoms such as cognitive decline, mood disturbances, and motor deficits. The cause of general paresis was found to be the bacterium Treponema pallidum, which is responsible for syphilis. Linked Biological Agents to Mental Disorders: Prior to this discovery, mental disorders were often attributed to non-biological causes. Identifying a bacterium as the cause of mental symptoms emphasized the role of biology in mental health. Shifted Understanding: The discovery challenged supernatural and moral explanations for mental disorders, leading to a shift toward biological explanations. Influenced Research and Treatment: It encouraged research into the biological basis of mental disorders and led to the development of biological treatments, such as psychotropic medications.

Mental Disorders and Disability (Dr. Insel's TED Talk):

In Dr. Insel's TED Talk, he discusses how mental disorders contribute significantly to disability worldwide. He emphasizes that mental health issues have a profound impact on individuals' lives, often causing more disability than physical illnesses. He underscores the need for early intervention and improved mental health care to reduce this burden of disability.

Licensed Drug and Alcohol Counselors (L.A.D.C.):

L.A.D.C.s specialize in treating substance abuse and addiction, offering counseling and support. To become a Licensed Drug and Alcohol Counselor (L.A.D.C.), individuals typically need to complete specific education and training in addiction counseling. The specific requirements can vary by state, but they often include the following steps: Completion of a bachelor's degree in counseling, psychology, social work, or a related field. Completion of a certain number of hours of specialized training in substance abuse counseling. Supervised clinical experience working with individuals with substance use disorders. Passing a state licensure or certification exam.

Licensed Clinical Social Workers (M.S.W./L.C.S.W.):

L.C.S.W.s offer therapy and social work services, specializing in addressing social and environmental factors impacting mental health. They have master's degrees in social work (M.S.W.).

Licensed Marriage and Family Therapists (L.M.F.T.):

L.M.F.T.s specialize in working with couples and families to address relationship and family dynamics. They also hold master's degrees in marriage and family therapy.

Licensed Professional Counselors (L.P.C.)

LPCs provide counseling and psychotherapy, focusing on emotional and mental health issues. They hold master's degrees in counseling or related fields.

EXAMPLES OF Emotional Dysfunction:

Major depressive disorder features persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest.

Dizygotic vs. Monozygotic Twins:

Monozygotic twins share 100% of their genetic material, while dizygotic twins share, on average, 50% of their genetic material.

Physician Assistants (P.A.):

PAs can work in psychiatric settings under the supervision of psychiatrists, assisting in assessments and treatment. They have completed physician assistant programs.

EXAMPLES OF Behavioral Dysfunction:

Panic disorder includes recurrent panic attacks and avoidance of situations associated with panic.

Franz Gall (1758-1828) What is phrenology and how did Gall use it to explain personality?

Phrenology was a pseudoscience developed by Franz Gall that claimed that different mental faculties and personality traits were associated with specific regions or bumps on the surface of the skull. According to phrenology, by feeling the skull's contours, one could assess an individual's character and mental abilities. Explanation of Personality: used phrenology to explain personality by proposing that the brain was divided into distinct organs, each responsible for a specific trait or faculty. For example, he claimed that a well-developed frontal lobe corresponded to intelligence, while a prominent occipital lobe indicated a talent for mathematics. By examining the skull's shape and feeling for bumps, Gall believed one could assess a person's strengths and weaknesses.

Psychiatrists (M.D./D.O.)

Psychiatrists are medical doctors who can diagnose and treat mental disorders, often prescribing medication. They have completed medical school (M.D. or D.O.) and psychiatric residency training.

Studying Psychopathology with the Scientific Method

Psychopathology, the study of mental disorders, is approached using the scientific method. Researchers observe and analyze various aspects of mental health and illness to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gather empirical evidence to better understand the causes, mechanisms, and treatment of mental disorders.

Patterns Leading to Conclusions

Researchers compare the rates of disorder occurrence between monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins. Higher concordance rates (greater similarity in disorder occurrence) in monozygotic twins compared to dizygotic twins suggest a genetic influence. Adoption studies examine whether adopted individuals share mental health traits with their biological relatives or adoptive families to further understand genetic contributions.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS):

Responsibility regulates involuntary bodily functions, including heart rate, respiration, and digestion. It is relevant for physical sensations associated with emotions and stress responses. Example: The sympathetic branch of the ANS activates the "fight or flight" response, leading to increased heart rate and sweating during moments of stress or fear.

Neurotransmitters

Role are chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons. Imbalances in neurotransmitter levels are implicated in various mental disorders. Example: Low levels of dopamine are associated with symptoms of schizophrenia.

Hormones

Role: are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands. Hormonal imbalances can affect mood, behavior, and mental health. Example: Elevated cortisol levels, a stress hormone, are linked to anxiety and mood disorders.

Brain Circuitry:

Role: involves the complex networks of neurons and brain regions responsible for various functions, including emotions, cognition, and behavior. Dysregulation or dysfunction in specific brain circuits can contribute to mental disorders. Example: Overactivity in the amygdala, a brain region involved in processing emotions, may be associated with anxiety disorders.

Brain Structures:

Role: refer to specific regions of the brain that have distinct functions. Dysfunction or abnormalities in certain brain structures can contribute to mental disorders. Example: The hippocampus, involved in memory and emotion regulation, may be smaller in individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Biological Factors in the Etiology of Mental Disorders: Genetics

Role: refers to an individual's genetic makeup, including their DNA and genes inherited from parents. Genetic factors play a significant role in the etiology of mental disorders. These factors can predispose individuals to certain disorders, but their expression is often influenced by environmental factors. Interaction with Environment: Gene-environment interactions occur when genetic vulnerabilities interact with environmental factors to increase the risk of a mental disorder. For example, a genetic predisposition for anxiety may lead to the development of the disorder when combined with a history of traumatic experiences.

Biochemicals (Affecting Brain Circuitry):

Role: such as neurotransmitters and hormones, can influence brain circuitry and function. Imbalances in these chemicals can contribute to mental disorders. Example: Reduced serotonin levels in the brain are associated with depression, impacting mood regulation and emotional processing

School Psychologists (M.Ed. or M.A. or Ph.D.):

School psychologists work in educational settings, assessing and supporting students' emotional and academic needs.School psychologists typically need to complete the following educational steps: Completion of a bachelor's degree in psychology, education, or a related field. Enrollment in a graduate program in school psychology, which can lead to a Master of Education (M.Ed.), Master of Arts (M.A.), Educational Specialist (Ed.S.), or Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degree. The specific degree may vary based on the individual's career goals and the requirements of their state. Completion of coursework and supervised practicum experiences focused on assessment, counseling, and support for students' emotional and academic needs. Obtaining state licensure or certification as a school psychologist, which often involves passing a licensure or certification exam.

Cognitive and Cognitive Behavioral therapy

Therapeutic approaches that examine thought patterns, beliefs, and behaviors to identify and modify cognitive distortions, aiming to alleviate symptoms and promote healthier thinking and functioning

Psychiatric Nurses and Nurse Practitioners (R.N./A.P.R.N.):

These nurses specialize in mental health care, providing assessments, therapy, and medication management. Psychiatric nurse practitioners can prescribe medications. Registered nurses must complete a nursing program, which can be an associate's degree in nursing (ADN) or a bachelor's degree in nursing (BSN). After completing their education, they must pass the NCLEX-RN (National Council Licensure Examination for Registered Nurses) to become licensed as an R.N. To become an A.P.R.N., individuals typically need to earn a master's or doctoral degree in psychiatric-mental health nursing.

Clinical and Counseling Psychologists (Ph.D./Ed.D./Psy.D.):

These professionals provide psychological assessments, therapy, and counseling. They hold doctoral degrees in psychology, which may be a Ph.D., Ed.D., or Psy.D.

Not Culturally Expected (Cultural-Situational or Norm Violation Model):

This model defines abnormality based on cultural expectations and norms. Behaviors that violate or diverge from cultural norms are considered abnormal. It highlights the importance of considering cultural context in diagnosis.

The Biological Tradition Hippocrates

Treatment: advocated for restoring balance in the humors through treatments such as diet, exercise, and bloodletting. Categories: classified mental disorders into three categories: mania (associated with an excess of black bile), melancholia (associated with an excess of yellow bile), and phrenitis (related to inflammation of the brain). Contemporary Terms: While the humoral theory is no longer accepted in modern medicine, the terms "mania" and "melancholia" have historical significance and are predecessors to contemporary concepts in psychiatry and psychology. Hippocrates' theories laid the groundwork for the biological understanding of mental disorders, even though they have been largely replaced by modern scientific explanations.

Deinstitutionalization (1960s-70s): Impact on Moral Treatment:

aimed to shift care from large asylums to community-based care. While it had the goal of improving care, it sometimes led to a reduction in the availability of moral treatment approaches in institutional settings.

Twin Studies:

are used to investigate the role of genetics in vulnerability to mental disorders.

The DSM-5-TR Definition of Psychological Disorder

defines psychological disorders as patterns of thoughts, feelings, or behaviors that are associated with significant distress or impairment in functioning. These patterns must be considered abnormal within the individual's cultural context.

Biological Factors:

encompass the physical aspects of mental health. This includes genetics, which can predispose individuals to certain mental disorders, as well as brain chemistry, structure, and functioning. Biological factors may also involve hormonal imbalances that can affect mood and behavior.

Barlow's Definition:

epigenetics is "the study of factors other than inherited DNA sequence, such as new learning or stress, that alter the phenotypic expression of genes."

Adoption Studies:

explore whether individuals who share genes with their biological parents but not their adoptive parents are more likely to develop mental disorders if their biological parents had such disorders. These studies help disentangle genetic and environmental influences on mental health.

Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926): Contributions and Renaming Disorders:

introduced the concept of a "clinical approach" to psychiatry, emphasizing the importance of categorizing mental disorders based on observable symptoms and course of illness. He proposed a classification system that distinguished between different forms of mental illness, including:Dementia Praecox: he used this term to describe a group of disorders characterized by cognitive and emotional deterioration, which later became known as schizophrenia.Manic-Depressive Illness: he made distinctions between unipolar and bipolar affective disorders, laying the groundwork for our understanding of mood disorders. his work was essential because it moved away from vague and non-specific descriptions of mental illness and toward a more systematic and diagnostic approach. His classification system formed the basis for the later development of diagnostic criteria and the modern understanding of psychiatric disorders.

The Biopsychosocial Model:

is a holistic approach to understanding mental health and illness. It emphasizes that mental disorders are the result of the interaction between biological, psychological, and social factors. This model guides assessment, diagnosis, and treatment in mental health care, recognizing that a comprehensive understanding of an individual's mental health requires considering all three domains.

Biopsychosocial Perspective:

is a holistic view of mental health that considers biological, psychological, and social factors as interconnected determinants of mental health and mental disorders. It emphasizes the need to examine all these factors to understand and address mental health issues comprehensively.

Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926): Famous Writings and Importance:

is famous for his groundbreaking work in psychiatry and his contributions to the classification and understanding of mental disorders. His most influential work is the "Compendium der Psychiatrie" (Compendium of Psychiatry), published in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This work laid the foundation for modern psychiatric classification systems.

Concordance Rates:

measure the likelihood that both members of a twin pair will have the same disorder. Higher concordance rates in monozygotic twins suggest a stronger genetic contribution.

Psychotropic Medications:

medications began in the 1950s. Notable medications include Thorazine (chlorpromazine) in 1954 for antipsychotic treatment, Valium (diazepam) in 1963 as the first benzodiazepine, and tricyclic antidepressants like imipramine and iproniazid in the 1950s. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) like Prozac (fluoxetine) were approved in the 1980s for the treatment of depression and anxiety.

Biological Tradition

mental disorders are understood as having a biological basis. Early proponents like Hippocrates suggested that imbalances in bodily humors (blood, phlegm, black bile, yellow bile) could lead to mental disorders. Modern biological explanations focus on genetics, neurochemistry, and brain structure. Mental disorders are seen as resulting from factors such as genetic predisposition, chemical imbalances in the brain, or neurological abnormalities. Treatments often involve medications, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), and other medical interventions.

Psychological Tradition

mental disorders are understood as stemming from thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. Early psychologists like Sigmund Freud emphasized the role of unconscious conflicts and early childhood experiences in the development of mental disorders. Later psychological theories, such as cognitive-behavioral approaches, focus on cognitive distortions and learned behaviors. Treatment often involves psychotherapy, counseling, and behavior modification to address underlying psychological issues.

Supernatural Tradition:

mental disorders were seen as the result of spirit possession, curses, or malevolent forces. People believed that individuals displaying abnormal behaviors were under the influence of these supernatural entities. Treatments often involved rituals, exorcisms, or religious interventions to remove or appease the spirits or forces causing the disturbance.

EXAMPLES OF Cognitive Dysfunction:

ocd involves persistent, intrusive thoughts and repetitive behaviors like excessive handwashing.

Psychological Factors:

pertain to the individual's cognitive processes, emotional experiences, personality traits, and mental health history. These factors influence how a person perceives and responds to stressors and challenges. For example, negative thought patterns can contribute to the development of depression.

Multifactorial Causes:

refer to the idea that mental health and mental disorders result from the combined influence of multiple factors across different domains, rather than being attributed to a single cause.

Social Factors

refer to the influence of an individual's social environment on their mental health. This includes family dynamics, social support networks, cultural and societal norms, socioeconomic status, and life events. Social factors play a crucial role in shaping an individual's mental well-being and can contribute to the onset or exacerbation of mental disorders.

Gene-Environment Interaction (GxE):

refers to the interplay between an individual's genetic predisposition and environmental factors. It acknowledges that genetic vulnerabilities may or may not result in a mental disorder depending on the environmental context.

Epigenetics Influence of Environment and Timing:

refers to the study of how gene activity is influenced by environmental factors and the timing of these factors. Stress, diet, toxins, and other environmental influences can modify the expression of certain genes.

Electric Shock Therapy (ECT):

was first used in 1938 in Italy for the treatment of schizophrenia and severe depression. It involves passing an electrical current through the brain to induce controlled seizures. was used for conditions where other treatments were ineffective, and it remains a treatment option today, particularly for severe depression.

Insulin Shock Therapy:

was introduced in 1927 as a treatment for schizophrenia. It involved inducing hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) through insulin injections to calm psychotic patients. It is no longer used due to the availability of safer treatments.

Lobotomies and Psychosurgeries:

were introduced in the late 19th century and continued into the mid-20th century. These procedures involved surgical alterations to the brain, often with the goal of reducing severe psychiatric symptoms. They have largely been replaced by more targeted and less invasive treatments.