Adolescent exam 3
development of cognitive autonomy
3 important developmental trends -beliefs about moral, political, and religious issues become more abstract -beliefs become increasingly rooted in general principles -beliefs become founded in adolescent's own values
Personality
an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting *look at 5 factor model in notes Personality becomes increasingly stable over the course of adolescence
sex differences in self-esteem
boys generally have higher self-esteem -especially in early adolescence -sex differences become smaller over course of adolescence why the sex difference in self-esteem? -likely linked to the high concern girls have about physical attractiveness -ethnic differences sex differences are more pronounced among White and Hispanic teens and less so among Black teens -ethnic differences in self-esteem black adolescent SE > white SE > Hispanic, Asian, or Native American SE theories on black adolescent self-esteem generally have support and positive feedback from adults in their community strong sense of ethnic identity enhances overall self-esteem
parenting style
-Authoritative parents: fosters independence, responsibility, and self-esteem -Authoritarian parents: interferes with healthy adolescent individuation -Permissive parenting: lack of guidance often leads adolescents to seek support and advice from peers can be problematic since peers are also young and relatively inexperienced
3 types of autonomy
-Emotional autonomy= establishment of more adultlike and less childish close relationships with family members and peers -Behavioral autonomy= development of independent decision-making abilities -Cognitive autonomy= development of an independent set of values, opinions, and beliefs
The immigrant paradox
-Foreign-born ethnic minority adolescents report high levels of stress And express more positive feelings about mainstream US ideals than counterparts who have been in US longer -Immigrant paradox: on many measures of psychological functioning and mental health, adolescents who immigrated more recently to the US score higher on than adolescents from the same ethnic group whose family has lived in US for several generations Also perform better in school and are less prone toward delinquent behavior or various problems than adolescents from the same ethnic group with U.S. born parents
Identity and gender terminology
-Gender identity= sense of oneself as male, female, or transgender -Transgender= mismatch between gender identity and sex designated at birth -Sexual orientation= whether one is sexually attracted to individuals of the same sex, other sex, or both Females sexual orientation may be more fluid -Gender role behavior= extent to which an individual behaves in traditionally "masculine" or "feminine" ways
Erikson focused on 3 different problems
-Identity diffusion= the incoherent, disjointed, incomplete sense of self characteristic of not having resolved the crisis of identity -Identity foreclosure= premature establishment of a sense of identity, before sufficient role experimentation has occurred -Negative identity= selection of an identity that is obviously undesirable in the eyes of significant others and the broader community
Autonomy as an adolescent issue
-Puberty from evolutionary perspective, independence-seeking is a natural consequence of biological maturation -Cognitive changes independent thinking and decisions, more sophisticated reasoning, more nuanced understanding of other perspectives cognitive changes lay logical foundation for changes in thinking about social, moral, and ethical problems -Social roles adolescents move into positions that demand increasing degrees of responsibility and self-reliance employment, driver's license, voting
Identity as an adolescent issue
-Puberty= morphological changes Social reaction to these changes -Cognitive changes= expanding understanding of self and ability to think about hypothetical and future events Possible selves= various alternative identities one may adopt Future orientation= ability and tendency to consider the long-term consequences of one's decisions Adolescents with stronger future orientation report better mental health and less problem behavior than more short-sighted peers -Social roles Force questions about future self
3 approaches to identity during adolescence
-Self-concept= traits and attributes individuals see in themselves -Self-esteem= how positively or negatively individuals feel about themselves -Sense of identity= who one is, where one has come from, where one is going
3 aspects of self image
-Self-image stability= the extent to which individuals' relative ranking within a group on a particular trait stays more or less the same over time -Self consciousness= degree to which individual is preoccupied with self image -Self-esteem= how positively or negatively adolescent feels about self
Detachment vs individuation
-detachment= in psychoanalytic theory, process of severing emotional attachment to parents argue puberty causes disruption in family system research supports idea of transformation of family relationships rather than breaking or severing -individuation= progressive sharpening of an individual sense of being an autonomous and independent person Part of continuous process relinquishing childish dependency on parents entails accepting responsibility for choices and actions
Juvenile justice system
-juvenile offending= an externalizing problem that includes delinquency and criminal behavior -delinquency= juvenile offending that is processed within the juvenile justice system -Age crime curve= onset of serious delinquency begins between ages 13-16, peaks during late high school, and declines in young adulthood
2 types of offenders
-life-course persistent offenders= individuals who begin demonstrating antisocial or aggressive behavior during childhood and continue their antisocial behavior throughout adolescence and into adulthood -adolescent-limited offenders= antisocial adolescents whose delinquent or violent behavior begins and ends during adolescence
Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning
-preconventional moral reasoning 1st level of moral reasoning Typical of children thinking based on external and physical events moral reasoning based on rewards and punishments -conventional moral reasoning 2nd level of moral reasoning emerges in late childhood and early adolescence most people function at this level moral reasoning based on social rules and conventions focus on how behavior will be judged by others -post-conventional moral reasoning rules and conventions of society are seen as relative and subjective rather than absolute involves questioning of social conventions when more important principles like fairness and justice should take precedence relatively rare at any life stage
categories of mental health problems during adolescence
-substance abuse= maladaptive use of legal or illegal drugs -externalizing problems= disturbance is manifested outward -internalizing problems= disturbance is manifested inward -comorbid= meeting diagnostic criteria for more than 1 disorder at same time
Gender dysphoria
= DSM-5 diagnosis to describe condition in which a person has marked incongruence between the expressed or experienced gender and the biological sex at birth = individuals who have a gender identity or gender expression that is not fully aligned with their sex assigned at birth (transgender non conforming)
Ethnic identity
= aspect of individuals' sense of identity concerning ancestry or racial group membership Development of ethnic identity is strongly influenced by context Ethnic identity development in the US Generally weakest in white youth White adolescents less likely than black, Latino, or Asian adolescents to explore their ethnic identity or feel strong commitment to it Development of ethnic identity is a less prominent issue for white adolescents in the US than for those from other ethnic groups
Gender policing
= children begin to avoid peers who violate gender-typical patterns of behavior
Self-consciousness
= how much an adolescent worries about their self-image
Gender intensification hypothesis
= idea that pressures to behave in sex-appropriate ways intensify during adolescence However individual beliefs about gender roles become more flexible as individuals move through adolescence Yet social pressures may drive teenagers toward more gender-stereotypic behavior The environment has a much stronger effect on gender role behavior than biology
Social learning theory
= people naturally learn through observation (direct instruction, modeling, imitation)
Psychosocial moratorium
= period during which individuals are free from excessive obligations and responsibilities and can therefore experiment with different roles and personalities Necessary due to complications of identity development in modern society Important prelude to establishing a coherent sense of identity some consider it a luxury of the affluent Loss of psychosocial moratorium means lost potential
Ethnic socialization
= process through which individuals develop an understanding of their ethnic or racial background, also referred to as racial socialization Generally focuses on 3 themes -Understanding and valuing one's culture -Dealing with racism -Succeeding in mainstream society Strong ethnic identity is beneficial Higher self-esteem and self-efficacy Better mental health
de-idealization
= removing parents from their pedestals -first aspect of emotional autonomy to develop -seeing one's parents as individuals may not develop until young adulthood
Self-image stability
=degree to which individual self-image changes daily self-image fluctuations most likely between the ages of 12 and 14 fluctuations during early adolescence probably due to several factors: egocentrism may make young adolescents painfully aware of others' reactions to their behavior eventually learn it is not always possible to tell what people are thinking based on what they say or how they act adolescents are especially interested in their peers' opinions of them
antisocial personality disorder (ASPD)
ASPD is an adult disorder Diagnostic criteria must be at least 18 to be diagnosed *diagnosis requires evidence of CD before age 15 pervasive and long-standing pattern of disregard for the rights of others (at least 3): repeated law breaking deceitfulness, lying Impulsivity irritability and aggressiveness reckless disregard for own safety and that of others irresponsibility as seen in unreliable employment or financial history lack of remorse
Implicit and explicit early gender socialization
Bedroom decorations, gender typical toys, chores Explicit teaching: gender essentialist statements ("boys play football" vs "those boys are playing football") Implicit teaching: types of conversations (ex: comments about appearance/feelings, explanations etc.)
Differential pressures to conform
During adolescence, boys increasingly avoid displaying stereotypically feminine traits, but comparable pressure on girls to avoid stereotypically masculine traits is much milder. As a consequence, boys show a drop in emotional expressiveness, but girls do not show a similar decline in instrumentality
Early sexual activity
Early sex= intercourse before age 15 early sexual activity is associated with general attitudinal and behavioral profile including permissive attitudes toward sex minor delinquency low levels of religious involvement experimentation with drugs and alcohol lower interest in academic achievement stronger orientation toward independence research found that fitting the profile in 7th grade predictive of 25x higher chance of having sex within next 2 yrs Other research found on-time sexual activity (sex during high school) associated with positive youth development
family instability associated with dating
Especially among adolescent boys more likely to date more likely to have multiple romantic partners
early serious romantic relationships associated with negative outcomes
Especially among girls tend to be less mature, less imaginative, less achievement oriented, less happy with self, less likely to do well in school more depressed, more likely to engage in disordered eating, more likely involved in risky behavior and substance use directionality is unknown link may be related to pressure to engage in sexual activity
Research shows adolescents less susceptible to peer pressure
Girls Black adolescents
Differentiation of self-concept
In comparison to children, adolescents are -More capable of considering abstract concepts -More able to process large amounts of information -More likely to use complex, abstract, psychological self-characterizations Self-concept becomes increasingly differentiated -Link traits and attributes to specific situations -Take into account perspective of who is doing the describing
Organizing and integration of the self-concept
Initial stress about inconsistencies But adolescents with clearer and more complex self concept less likely to become depressed and anxious -Ability to distinguish from ~Actual self= who one really is ~Ideal self= who one would like to be ~Feared self= who one most dreads becoming Delinquent youth less likely have balanced view than non-delinquent youth -False self behavior= behavior that intentionally presents a false impression to others Adolescents become able to distinguish between their authentic and inauthentic selves Dislike false-self behavior but also believe it is sometimes acceptable Adolescents differ in the degrees of and reasons for presenting false fronts False-self behavior is linked to increased depression and hopelessness
Discrimination and development
Negative psychological effects of discrimination include conduct problems, depression, poor sleep, lower achievement Source of discrimination matters Negative psychological effects of discrimination include conduct problems, depression, poor sleep, lower achievement Source of discrimination matters why are discrimination and mental health linked Possibility #1: loss of control → depression Possibility #2: one pathway linking perceived discrimination to antisocial behavior is through the impact of discrimination on depression and alienation, which leads adolescents to affiliate with antisocial peers
Do kids with high self-esteem do better in school?
Not exactly academic success leads to improvements in how adolescents feel about themselves, but the reverse is not true high self-esteem enhances adolescents' wellbeing low self-esteem may lead to psychological, emotional, and behavioral problems, but the relationship is complicated consequences of low self-esteem low self-esteem often discourages adolescents from seeking out social support from others, which can lead to feelings of loneliness
The adolescent identity crisis
Not until adolescence does one have the mental or emotional capacity to achieve a balanced and coherent sense of identity Developing an identity is a social and mental process Adolescent identity results from mutual recognition between the young person and society The more alternatives available, the more difficult to establish sense of identity
predictors and consequences of adolescent substance abuse
Predictors lower psychological adjustment in childhood problems at school psychological distress engage in risky activities Unprotected sex, deviant behavoir Consequences physical health problems Unemployment lasting substance abuse problems
sexuality as an adolescent issue
Puberty Increased sex drive Possibility of pregnancy Cognitive changes introspection and reflection about sexual behavior chief task of adolescence is to figure out how to incorporate sex appropriately into intimate relationships Social roles sex can be motivated by love, romance, and status seeking
psychopathology as an adolescent issue
Puberty hormonal fluctuations morphological changes Cognitive changes increased capacity for introspection, reflection, abstraction Social context shift from elementary school to middle and high school social landscape • changing nature of relationships and changing expectations underlying vulnerabilities can be accentuated during periods of major transition (diathesis-stress model)
Multidimensional model of ethnic identity= perspective on ethnic identity that emphasizes 3 different phenomena
Racial centrality= how important race is in defining individual identity Private regard= how individuals feel about being a member of their race Public regard= how individuals think others feel about their race -Impact of having race as a central part of one's identity is complicated Makes adolescents more sensitive to discrimination May make them more able to cope with it
Risky sexual activity
Risky sex= unprotected sex, sex with multiple partners, etc. risky sex associated with the same sorts of psychological and behavioral factors correlated with other forms of risk-taking Predictors include Impulsivity Poor self-regulation
Demographic breakdown of drug use
Sex sex differences have dissipated over time no difference in rates of alcohol, marijuana, vaping, and smoking cigarettes Race and ethnicity white, latinx, native american youth alcohol use > black and asian youth alcohol use Culture alcohol and tobacco use comparable between US and European adolescents but US youth 2x more likely to use marijuana
The great sex recession- kate julian (2018) Reasons
Sex for 1 Hookup culture and helicopter parents The tinder mirage (inhibit romance due to too much choice and social anxiety) Bad sex (lack of practice and too much porn develops unrealistic expectations) Inhibition (evidene for young people being more timid with being naked even not in sexual context- like spas)
Phases of romance
Stage 1: establishing, improving, or maintaining peer group status Stage 2: adolescents slowly move toward more meaningful dyadic relationships Stage 3: adolescents giving thought to the long-term survival and growth of their romantic attachments
4 stages of positive sexual development
Stage 1: accepting one's changing body Stage 2: accepting one's feelings of sexual arousal Stage 3: accepting that sexual activity is voluntary for oneself and one's partner Stage 4: practicing safe sex (if one is sexually active)
Sexual activity in adolescence
Stages of sexual activity autoerotic behavior: sexual behavior that is experienced alone by age 16: 80% have engaged in some type of noncoital sexual activity with another person by age 18: between 60-80% have had sex by age 20: almost all have had sex
Paradox of US adult attitudes towards teenage sex
Teenage sex dominates popular TV yet 80% of US adults say teenage sex is always or almost always adolescent sexuality research has traditionally been shaped by negative cultural attitudes problematic aspects of adolescent sexuality have been given disproportionate research attention precocious sex, promiscuous sex, unsafe sex however there is increasing recognition that sexuality is a normative and healthy part of adolescent development
Social context of identity development
The process of identity development is a cycle of making commitments, exploring them in depth, reconsidering them, and revising them
GnRHa treatment
Treatment may be performed prior to age of majority with parental consent and without 12 months of living in affirmed gender role Many complexities and debates arise in practice Role of puberty in gender identity consolidation Cognitive development with hormone treatment Fertility considerations with treatment
adolescents more susceptible to peer pressure
Youth from single parent household youth with less supportive or more controlling parents
Susceptibility to influence
adolescents more likely conform to peers: Short term Day to day Social matters adolescents more likely influenced by parents Education Religion Ethics conformity to peers is greater during 1st half of adolescence
developmental trajectories of substance use and abuse
adolescents who have not used gateway drugs by their 20s are unlikely to ever use them or any other drugs adolescents most at risk for later substance abuse include substance use begins early substance use escalates rapidly history of solitary use
Attachment theory
attachment: strong affectional bond between infant and caregiver Secure Insecure
timing of sexual initiation: ethnicity
average age US 1st sexual intercourse is 17 yrs substantial ethnic differences esp. among boys % who have had sex by age 13 12% black boys 7% hispanic boys 4% white boys less variation across ethnicities for girls average reported age of 1st intercourse is higher across ethnic groups, higher rates of sexual activity among economically disadvantaged youth seasonal peaks in timing of 1st intercourse June December some teens report involuntary early sexual experiences 10% females 3% males
Development of behavioral autonomy
behavioral autonomy involves the capacity to take initiative without relying or depending on parents or family for guidance cognitive growth underlies the ability to act independently Adolescents more likely than children to weigh opinions and advice of others consider risks and benefits of actions contemplate long-term consequences of actions Self-regulation= self-generated thoughts, feelings, and actions that are planned and adapted to the attainment of personal goals declines in how much decisions are influenced by immediate rewards
civic engagement and volunteerism
civic engagement: individual involvement in political and community affairs volunteerism: service learning Predictors include school requirements parental involvement religious involvement Effects of volunteering include short-term gains in social responsibility increasing importance of helping others increased commitment to tolerance, equity, diversity *required volunteering does not seem to have negative effects
callous-unemotional traits
cluster of traits that include a lack of empathy and indifference toward the feelings of others
Research findings
dentity generally not set before age 18 Identity status changes are less systematic than previously believed Identity achievement, like foreclosure, may be temporary Some adolescents and young adults are perpetually confused about who they are some will constantly explore and experiment Factors associated with changing from one identity status to another are not well understood
externalizing problems
disruptive, hostile, aggressive behaviors that violate social norms and rules and harm others
harry sullivan's theory of interpersonal development
emphasized social aspects of growth development can best be understood through relationships with others charted stages of interpersonal needs psychosocial development is cumulative a solid foundation of security in past relationships aids in successful interpersonal transitions *see slides
Developmental trajectories= the pathways that individuals follow over the course of development
equifinality= different starting points can lead to same outcome multifinality= single event can result in many different outcomes
rejection sensitivity
heightened vulnerability to being rejected by others high rejection sensitivity and emotional insecurity linked to depression and anxiety which may lead to further increases in rejection sensitivity
internal working model
implicit model of interpersonal relationships that one employs throughout life internal working model believed to be shaped by early attachment experiences
Adolescent brain X social context
increased reactivity to social context (medial PFC) + increased reactivity to emotional stimuli and rewards (amygdala and ventral striatum) = increased importance of and sensitivity to peers
Autonomy and independence
independence= individuals' capacity to behave on their own autonomy= not just acting independently, but also feeling independent and thinking for oneself behavioral, emotional, and cognitive components There is a steady developmental progression toward adolescent autonomy autonomy is a psychosocial concern that surfaces and resurfaces throughout life-course
erik eriksons stages of development
look at notes
Teen pregnancy
more than 600,000 US adolescents between 15 and 19 become pregnant US has highest teen pregnancy rate among all industrialized countries about 90% are unintended but teen pregnancy rate is dramatically lower than in the 1990s drop is due mainly to increased and improved contraceptive use also because fewer teens are sexually active today
social media x identity development
online identity exploration aligns closely with real world self-objectification= seeing oneself as an object largely defined by physical attractiveness 35% of US 13- 15 yr olds worry about being tagged in unattractive photos social comparison and body image dissatisfaction study4 found social comparison with peers on social media significantly associated with adolescent body image dissatisfaction and drive to be thin (or muscular) study5 of 6th - 11th graders found increased body image concerns and internalizing symptoms among adolescents who reported frequent use of highly visual social media (HVSM)
Parenting style and communication
parent-adolescent communication about sex is more effective in deterring risky sexual activity than sexual activity in general strong and consistent links between effective parenting and safer sexual behavior have been found across ethnic groups authoritative parenting associated with adolescents less likely to become sexually active at an early age early sexual activity much more likely under certain conditions include Increased parent-adolescent conflict very low parental monitoring (when parents have little knowledge of teen whereabouts)
oppositional defiant disorder (ODD)
pattern of negativistic, hostile and defiant behavior toward authority ODD is a childhood disorder diagnostic criteria ( >/= 4 symptoms for >/=6 months; onset prior to age 8) often loses temper often argues with adults often actively defies or refuses to comply with adults requests or rules often deliberately annoys people often blames others for own mistakes or misbehavior often touchy or easily annoyed by others often angry or resentful often spiteful or vindictive
conduct disorder (CD)
repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which the basic rights of others or major age appropriate societal norms and rules are violated diagnostic criteria (>/= 3 symptoms in past 12 months and >/= 1 symptom in past 6 months) include aggression to people and animals destruction of property deceitfulness or theft serious violation of rules
contemporary perspectives on adolescent romantic relationships
researchers today use several theories to explain adolescent romance from sullivan: intimacy in friendships transitions into intimacy in romantic relationships from attachment: individual differences in romantic relationship quality is built on prior relationship quality from ecological perspectives: romantic relationships must be viewed within larger social context
the sexually active adolescent: contextual factors (social norms)
social factors more important influence on sexual intercourse for girls than boys among girls with high androgen levels, those who have more sexually permissive attitudes and whose friends are more sexually active are more likely to engage in sexual intercourse
Changes in self-esteem
studies of age differences in self-esteem hide differences among people of same age critics also question study of self-esteem in a general sense because individual may have varied self-esteem levels in different areas components of self-esteem -even within broad domains of self-esteem, adolescents often have differentiated views of themselves -some components contribute more to global self-esteem than others Attractiveness more than anything else -adolescents are often unaware of what contributes most to their self-esteem
Same sex attraction
young adolescents often engage in sex play with those of the same sex, fantasize about the same sex, or question the nature of their feelings for same-sex peers no consistent predictors link sexual experimentation in adolescence with later orientation identification