Adolescent Psych Test 3

High School Dropouts

-(2015) only 7% of young Americans had not obtained a high school diploma by age 24 -Ethnic difference - latinos have the highest dropout rate (12%) but rate has declined by more than 50% since 2000 -Males are more likely than females to dropout Proportion of young people who fail to complete high school has steadily decline -What leads to dropout? -History of school difficulties (low grades, behavior problems, low scores on achievement & intelligence tests) -Dislike school -Sometimes aggressive, active, sensation-seeking personalities Learning disabilities -Parents -Dropped out themselves -Poverty - poor quality schools, life stresses, parental support not available -Single-parent families -Substance use, psychological problems -Unemployment or low paying jobs -Interventions? -Alternative schools: caring, involved staff, counselors, social workers AND start early (middle school)

Externalizing Problems: Substance Use

-Alcohol use among 15 year olds, weekly use -American adolescents relatively low -Driving while intoxicated is more common for American adolescents because the laws are more lenient and less likely to be enforced than in European countries -European countries are higher (younger legal drinking age and different view of alcohol, more accepted socially) -Cigarette smoking among 15 year olds, at least once a week -American adolescents are relatively low -European adolescents high -Marijuana use among 15 year olds, past 30 days -American adolescents are relatively high

International Comparisons

-(2016) 8th grade tests of reading, math, science (graph in book) -Developed countries perform best -The countries to perform below the international average are mostly developing countries in Africa, Latin America, and Asia -Key influence on academic performance: the country's level of economic development -Unequal educational opportunities between developed and developing countries -If you happen to be born in a developing country, you are likely to get an education through primary school but unlikely to have the resources to finish secondary school, and your chances of attending college are small (especially for girls) -If you happen to be born in a developed country, it is extremely likely that you will finish secondary school, and it is quite likely that you will have the opportunity to attend college if you wish (especially if you are a girl) -For the majority of the world's adolescents and emerging adults, their educational fate was already largely determined at birth, simply on the basis of where they were born

Major Depressive Disorder

-**Depressed mood -**Reduced interest or pleasure in activities -Significant increase or decrease in appetite or weight -Insomnia or oversleeping -Psychomotor agitation or retardation -Low energy or fatigue -Feelings of worthlessness or inappropriate guilt -Problems thinking or concentrating -Recurring thoughts of death or suicide -5 or more of these symptoms must be present during a 2-week period and must represent a change from previous functioning

Changes in Schooling for Adolescents: Secondary School in America

-19th century: for the wealthy, especially males; broad liberal arts -1920: framework for American high school as we know it today was established (comprehensive high school) -Rather than being restricted to the liberal arts, education in comprehensive high school includes classes in general education, college prep, and vocational training -Mid-20th century: expanding school population curriculum expands to include family life, arts, music, P.E. -Proportion of the population continuing through secondary school continuing to rise through the late 20th century, and in the early 21st century nearly all adolescents attend

Problems & Resilience

-21% marijuana use -Frequent use of other substances is rare among American adolescents -Ex: amphetamines, inhalants, hallucinogens, cocaine, ecstasy -3% or less reported use in the past month -Rates of most types of substance use (in past month) declined from 1975 to 2015 -Large scale public health campaigns against teenage substance use -Substance use rates higher among emerging adults -Unstructured socializing: young people spending time together with no specific event as the center of their activity -Riding around in the car for fun, going to parties, shopping, going out w friends -Highest in the late teens and early 20s -High rates of this correlates to high rates of alcohol and marijuana use

Characteristics of College Students in U.S.

-70% of recent high school graduates enter college -Females more likely to enter college -Ethnic groups -81% of Asian American enter college following high school (most likely ethnic group) -67% of Whites -66% of Latinos -56% of Black -It takes average 5-6 years to obtain a "4-year" degree -Nearly HALF of students who enroll at 4-year colleges drop out before getting a degree -Gender differences: -Females more likely to major in education, psychology -Males & females about equal in biological sciences, business, pre med, & pre law -Males more likely to major in computer science & engineering

Rates of Media Use

-88% of adolescents have digital device in USA (13-17 years old) -Adolescents send 30 texts per day -Over 70% of adolescents have TV in bedroom (11-18 years old) -USA adolescents use media approx. 8 hours per day -Emerging adults watch TV less than adolescents or older adults do but they text and use social media more

Controversial Media: Cigarettes

-90% smokers start by age 18 -Tobacco companies claim that their advertising is intended only to persuade adult smokers to switch brands, but critics believe cigarette advertising is targeted towards adolescents to get them to start smoking -Believe they try to persuade adolescents to smoke so that they will become addicted to nicotine before they are mature enough to realize fully the potential risks of smoking -Brand loyalty is very strong -Advertising IS influential -There are cigarette advertisements everywhere -Overall, declined in recent years -Now targeting developing countries where youth smoking is increasing as wealth increases

Preventing Substance Use

-A variety of drug use prevention programs have been used in schools -Method? - target self-esteem, or peer pressure, or increase knowledge of health dangers -The most effective programs start young and continue on a yearly basis through high school -More successful programs have focused on -Family functioning -Parental monitoring -Protective factor

Secondary education around the world

-Adolescents attending secondary school: -Developing countries: virtually all -Developing countries: about 60% (this is an increase) -Emerging adults attending college/university(tertiary school): -Developed countries: about 70% -Developing countries: about 25% (has everything to do with wealth/income level)

Extremes of Achievement

-Adolescents with Disabilities -Learning Disability (Specific Learning Disorder) -Not the result of physical disabilities, intellectual disabilities (MR), emotional disorders, or environmental disadvantage -Intelligence is normal/IQ is average, but the output in a specific subject area is really low for some reason (IQ test) -With impairment in: reading, written expression, or math -Boys about twice as likely -African American & Latinos more likely -High risk for dropping out -Interventions should be introduced as soon as children enter school

Adolescent Work in the 20th Century (Timeline)

-Age of Adolescence (1890-1920) -Laws restricting the times and places they could work and requiring school (SLOW changes) -Even as recently as 1925 the majority of American adolescents left school by age 15 to become full-time workers -Most families viewed the labor of their adolescents as an important contributor to the family income, and only relatively affluent families could afford the luxury of keeping their adolescents in school past their early teens -Beginning in the 1930s -Trend toward staying in school (and not working at all) began to grow -1940: 70% of 14- to 17-year-olds in school; most of other 30% full time employment -1950-1990s -Following World War II -Combining school with part-time job because of the economy -Numerous jobs in retail trade & service for relatively low wages -1990s -Over 80% of high school seniors worked part-time -Part-time employment during high school had changed from the rare exception to the typical experience -2000s -U.S. has the highest rate of adolescent employment (compared to all other developed countries) -In japan, adolescent employment is almost non existent -Still about 80%

Academic Achievement in High School: Individual Differences

-Although Americans value education and would like to see their adolescents perform well, for most Americans it is more important that their adolescents have time for fun in addition to schoolwork and also have time for a variety of non academic interests so that they can be "well-rounded" -In contrast to Asian and European secondary schools, most American secondary schools allow time for physical education, art, and music, although less time now than in past decades -Ethnic differences: Academic performance -Asian American adolescents -White adolescents -African American & Latino adolescents -Social class -Parental expectations -Asian American parents & adolescents tend to believe that academic success is due mainly to EFFORT (other groups - ability) -Friends' attitudes toward education / Friends' influence -Perception of prejudice & discrimination -Value of education -Perceptions of the consequences of NOT succeeding academically -Adolescents are much more aware of discrimination than children are -"I can do well in school but I still won't get a good job because of discrimination, so is it really worth working so hard?" -Asian American adolescents think that you HAVE to succeed academically, while other ethnic groups think it is important to succeed academically but not as vital

Volunteer Work & Community Service

-Americans more than twice as likely than other developed countries -Influences? -Lots of benefits -More competence, high education goals and performance -If parents do it - you are more likely to do it -Gain life satisfaction More involved / concerned in politics and social issues -More likely to become involved in political activities and volunteer organizations as adults -Military service -Motivated by patriotism, receiving money, education support, and job training -More likely to come from low SES families -Obvious threats to life

Treatment

-Anorexia has highest mortality rate of any mental illness -Hospital based program -Family therapy is sometimes more effective than individual treatment -CBT Focuses on changing beliefs that the person is "too fat" -Very hard to treat - often deny problem and resist help -Better to start prevention at an early age

Treatments for Depression

-Antidepressant medications -Increased suicidal thinking/behavior -Suicidal thoughts / increased risk of suicide tends to occur most when they start to get slightly better -Cognitive-behavior Therapy (CBT) -Recognize & change the cognitive habits that are promoting depression Irrational thinking, distortions of reality -Depression is characterized by negative attributions: my situation is permanent and uncontrollable -Change behaviors (ex: exercise, social interactions, self-talk) -More long-term benefits, less likely to relapse compared to drugs only -The therapist will actively challenge the negative attributions, role-play -Most effective when done together

Uses and Gratification Approach

-Approach to understanding media that emphasizes that people differ in numerous ways that lead them to make different choices about which media to consume and that even people consuming the same media product will respond to it in a variety of ways depending on their individual characteristics -What uses/purposes motivate young people to...watch shows, movies, magazine, song, etc. -What gratifications/satisfactions do you receive -2 key ideas -People are different -Not all are going to chose the same media -Ex: Not all adolescents like violent TV shows; this approach assumes that adolescents who do not, prior to any effect that violent shows may have -People consuming the same media product respond in a variety of ways depending on their individual characteristics -Ex: some adolescent girls may respond to other girls' facebook photos by feeling more insecure about the way they look, whereas other girls may be relatively unaffected

Eating Disorders

-Become more common in adolescence -Cultural idea: female bodies have to be slim PLUS Puberty: female bodies become less slim, more rounded EQUALS Adolescent girls more likely to be dissatisfied with their bodies and try to change -Girls worry more than boys about getting fat, and some go to extremes in controlling their food intake -Extreme weight loss behaviors (fasting, crash diets) are related to their mothers' own extreme weight loss behavior -Influenced by the people around them (family, friends) -Kids think their parents are perfect -About 90% of eating disorders occur among females

Adolescent Work Before 1900

-Before industrialization: -Farming, care of domestic animals, preparing food, running the household -Industrialization (18th & 19th centuries): -Many adolescents working in factories; some in coal mines, food processing plants -Low pay, long hours -Dangerous and unhealthy conditions (higher risk of injury, illness) -Similar to what adolescents in developing countries are experiencing now

Work, Leisure, & School

-Beyond 10 hours a week the more adolescents work: -The lower their grades -The less time spent on homework -The more they cut class -The more they cheat on schoolwork -The less committed and engaged they are to school -The lower their educational aspirations -A study showed some students saying they take easier classes because of their jobs and also that they were frequently too tired from their jobs to do their homework -Abundant leisure also interferes with school/homework -Unstructured socializing negatively related to academic performance -But organized activities may have positive effects -Adolescents who participate in organized activities (such as sports and music) have better academic performance and are less likely to drop out of school -Asian Americans -Less time working, less time on socializing, more non-school time on academics (ex: homework/studying) → highest levels of academic achievement of any ethnic group

Bulimia

-Binging and purging -No weight criteria -Eating disorders more prevalent among White American girls -Eating disordered symptoms are more prevalent than clinical disorders (purging, diet products, laxatives, fasting)

College Experiences

-College grads: higher earnings, occupational status, and career attainment over the long run compared to those who do not attend -Intellectual benefits (verbal and quantitative skills, oral and written communication skills, critical thinking) -Many non academic benefits, personal growth -Become less dogmatic, less authoritarian, less ethnocentric in political and social views -Less likely to divorce -Lower rates of substance abuse and mental health problems

Anorexia nervosa

-Compulsion to restrict food and lose weight, coupled with certainty about being fat despite being 15% or more underweight -The only one with a weight criteria -Amenorrhea: stop getting period - not enough body fat to be fertile -Cognitive distortion of body image -Extreme body ideal and body dissatisfaction Intense fear or gaining weight -Basing self-worth on how I look

Theories of Media Influence-Cultivation

-Cultivation theory -Watching TV gradually shapes/cultivates worldview to eventually resemble the worldview depicted on TV -Example: adolescents in India see American girl sneaking out -Mean World Syndrome: more TV you watch the more you see the world as bad and dangerous -Television often depicts crime and violence on dramas and news shows which leads viewers to cultivate a view of the world as mean, violent, and dangerous -Passive: environment shapes you

Internalizing Problems (distressed turned inward): Depression

-Depressed mood -Enduring period of sadness -Higher rates among adolescents, compared to children & adults -Usually caused by common adolescent experiences (with friends, family, school, etc.) -May or may not turn into clinical depression

Secondary Education in Developing Countries

-Developing countries North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, India, China, Latin America -Sub-saharan africa has the lowest rates of secondary school enrollment of any world region -Reasons for low rates include poverty and civil war Common themes -Often difficult to obtain and relatively few adolescents stay in school until graduation -Girls less likely to attend secondary school (& less likely to work outside of the home) -Rising enrollment rates for both genders -Many schools poorly funded and overcrowded -The wealthy can go to high quality private schools

Education in Emerging Adulthood: College & University

-Dramatic increases in college enrollment -Worldwide shift from manufacturing to a "knowledge economy" based on information and technology

Risky Automobile Driving: Prevention

-Driver Education -Does not seem to have an effect on crash involvement -Students don't have interest in learning, they just want to drive -Makes them more confident → optimistic bias -Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) Obtain driving privileges gradually, contingent on a safe driving record -Restrictions: driving with a parent, driving curfews, not driving with teenager passengers -More effective than the standard driver's ed course -Driving curfews is one of the most effective restrictions, reduces young people's crash involvement

Engagement and Achievement in High School: Beyond the Classroom

-Engagement: the quality of being psychologically committed to learning -Being alert, attentive, trying to truly learn the material -A favorable school climate enhances students' engagement, which results in higher levels of achievement -A remarkably high proportion of adolescents are disengaged during their time in school -Why? -Possibly school climate (what's happening in the classroom) -But the bigger problems seem to be: -Family environments -Peer relations -Work & leisure patterns -Cultural beliefs

5 Uses of Media by Adolescents

-Entertainment -Identity Formation -Look to people in the media and take on their values -More common for adolescents -Can find ideal selves, feared selves -Gender role identity -Adolescents take ideals of what it means to be a man or a woman partly from the media -Sexual scripts, romantic scripts -How to approach a potential romantic partner for the first time, how to resolve problems in a relationship, and even how to kiss -May be inspired by their media heroes to try musical performance or sports -High Sensation -Sensation seeking: a personality characteristic defined by the extent to which a person enjoys novelty and intensity of sensation -Sensation seeking is related to higher media consumption in adolescence, especially TV, music, and election games -Adolescents' emotional arousal when listening to music tends to be high, at least partly because of the high sensory and emotional intensity of music -Coping -Relieve stress and negative emotions -Adolescents often listen to music in the privacy of their bedrooms while pondering the themes of the songs in relation to their own lives, as part of the process of emotional self-regulation -Youth Culture Identification -Media consumption can give adolescents a sense of being connected to a youth culture or subculture that is united by certain youth-specific values and interests -No matter where adolescents move within the U.S. they will find peers in their new area who have watched the same TV programs and movies and listened to the same music

The Developmental Psychopathology Approach

-Establish links between early precursors (warning signs) of problems and outcomes -Medical model: make the diagnosis and how do we reduce symptoms -Developmental Psychopathology Approach: looks at the causes/roots of the problem How did you get here/to this problem -Benefits: you can jump in and intervene before it gets really bad if you know what the early signs are, don't have to wait until it gets really bad -Risk factors (increase your risk of developing a disorder) and protective factors (shield you and make you less likely to develop a disorder) Biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors interact -Avenues for both prevention and treatment -Example protective factors: social competencies, commitment to learning, positive values, parenting (warmth, discipline, expectations, involvement), positive attachment, social support, constructive use of time

American vs. European School System

-European system - earlier decision making about career directions -Consequence is that adolescents must decide at a relatively early age what direction to pursue for their education and occupation (age 15 or 16), which is likely to have a huge impact on the rest of their lives -American system - greater flexibility, but everyone is in same school/classes with widely divergent educational and occupational interests and abilities -Have many more options after graduating: enter work full-time, pursue training at a vocational school, attend a two-year college, enroll in a four-year college, or pursue some combination of work and school

Globalization & Adolescent Work in Traditional Cultures

-Expanding trade between countries and increasingly large-scale agriculture & manufacturing -The transition from pre industrial economy to the global economy -Adolescents gain status and respect within the family by being able to bring money into the family -Poor families in developing countries often depend on adolescents' contributions to the family income for basic necessities like food and clothing -Adolescents (10-15 years old) doing industrial work in terrible conditions for miserable pay because the transition from a pre industrial economy to the global economy is proving to be problematic in many places -Cheap labor -Over 200 million children and adolescents are employed worldwide (95% are in developing countries) -Agricultural work is most common, often work alongside parents but for only ⅓ of the pay -Factories, workshops -Adolescent prostitution is a pervasive and growing problem -Debt bondage: arrangement in which a person who is in debt pledges his labor or the labor of his children as payment -Common in India

Family Environments & School

-Expectations -If parents have high expectations, adolescents tend to live up to those expectations and vice versa -Parent involvement in adolescent's education -Assisting with course selection, attending school programs, and keeping track of their adolescents' performance -Relates to adolescent's engagement & academic achievement -Authoritative parenting (high demandingness, high responsiveness) -Highest level of engagement in school & school success Adolescents more persistent, responsible -Neglectful parenting - worst outcomes -Parents tend to be less involved in education as child gets older -Can also have intelligent genotypes passed down

Family Social Class

-Family SES ↑ Adolescents' grades & achievement test scores ↑ Highest level of education ultimately attained ↑ -BEFORE entering school, middle-class children score higher than lower-class children on tests of basic academic skills; and the gap continues to widen as they age -Behind before they even start school -Social class represents other family characteristics that relate to achievement -IQ; nutrition & health care; major stresses and day-to-day stresses -Middle-class parents more likely to be authoritative & actively involved in adolescent's education

Preventing Crime & Delinquency

-Few delinquency prevention programs have been very successful -Why they don't work: -Forced to participate -Bring delinquent adolescents together & increase delinquent behavior (peer contagion) -Programs typically take place in adolescence when problem behaviors are already well established (too late) -Money tends to go to where the problems are most obvious and serious - current offenders rather than possible future offender -The problems of children frequently originate at least partly in the family, and in Western societies, especially the U.S., the state has limited authority to intervene in family life until a clear and serious problem is established -One successful approach: -The Multisystemic Approach -Intervening in multiple different areas of the child's life The home, the school & the neighborhood -The goal is to direct the energy of delinquents into more socially constructive directions -Parent training -Job training & vocational counseling -Development of neighborhood institutions -What are kids doing when school lets out and parents are still at work -Much more likely to engage in delinquency if there are no afterschool programs / supervision -Protective factor

Western media and physical appearance, body weight

-Fiji study: before and after introduction of TV -Girls indicated their explicit imitation of the perceived positive attributes of television characters -Negative effects: girls became preoccupied with their weight and body shape and their was a disturbing increase in purging behavior to control weight -Inuit eskimos of canadian arctic and intro of TV -Started playing sports and boys became intensely competitive in the games they played, no longer shy about trying hard to win and talking loudly about their superior talent when they did win -Also couples started displaying affection for one another in public and acknowledging that they were even in relationships -Local media is coexisting with USA media in most places

Depression

-Gender differences - greater risk for females -Little evidence that biological differences can explain it -Female gender role? -Gender intensification during adolescence; body image concerns -Girls' responses to pubertal changes -Girls' body shame may predict depressed mood -Girls report more stress from conflicts with friends and peers -Rumination - stuck thinking on the bad / negative -Girls more likely to ruminate / amplify depressed feelings -Boys more likely to distract themselves when faced with the beginning of a depressed mood -Gender differences in responses to stress & conflict -Males direct distress outward - externalizing -Females direct distress inward - internalizing -Even when exposed to the same amount of stress, girls more likely to become depressed

Resilience

-Good outcomes in spite of serious threats to adaptation & development -Protective factors (shield) overcome risk factors -High intelligence -One caring adult -A healthy school environment -Religious beliefs and practices -Realistic goal setting, resilient coping with stress and adversity -Self-control; feelings of control; emotion & behavioral regulation -Emerging adulthood is a key period for the expression of resilience -You probably haven't made a lot of major life commitments yet; free -A period when there is an unusually high scope for making decisions that could turn life in a new and better direction -You can leave a negative family environment by leaving home

Controversial Media: Music

-Hip hop -Controversial themes: sexual exploitation of women, violence, racism -Sexuality as a man's successful assertion of power over a woman, women are deserving of this -"Hoes" and "Bitches" -Stereotypes: black men are violent, women hating, sex obsessed -Violence: depict scenes of drive-by shootings, gang violence, and violent confrontations with the police -This is actually the world that many of the rappers live in -Most popular music among adolescents who have high rates of risk behavior (correlation) -From the uses and gratifications perspective, it may be expected that some adolescents - especially Black adolescents - use hip-hop as an expression of their frustration and rage in the face of the difficult conditions in which they live -Positive messages too

Peers, Friends, & School

-In high school, friends' influence can be greater than parents' influence in: -How consistently adolescents attend class -How much time they spend on homework -How hard they try in school -Grades they achieve -Friends' influence may be positive; support and encouragement for doing well in school -By middle school, many adolescents are concerned with hiding a high-achievement orientation from their peers -Having friends who belittle/bad mouth school tends to be related to lower school success -"Big fish in a little pond effect" -Adolescents in schools where their peers have lower average levels of school achievement tend to have better academic self-concepts and higher expectations for academic attainment than adolescents surrounded by high-achieving classmates

Media Practice Model

-Media Practice Model -Identity → motivation -Selection → attention -Each adolescent's identity motivates the selection of media products -Interaction → evaluation/judgement -Paying attention to certain media products leads to interaction with those products, meaning that the products are evaluated and interpreted -Application → apply/resistance -Then adolescents engage in application of the media content they have chosen -They may incorporate this content into their identities - for example, girls who respond to thin models by seeking to be thin themselves -Or they may resist the content - for example, girls who respond to thin models by rejecting them as a false ideal

Occupational Choice

-In industrialized economies, there's a huge range of possible occupations -Preindustrial, most adolescents worked alongside their parents (farming, fishing, hunting) -The Development of Occupational Goals (Donald Super, 1992) 1. Crystallization (14-18) How do my talents match up with what I'd like to do Begin to move beyond fantasizing and start to consider how their talents and interests match up with the occupational possibilities available to them 2. Specification (18-21) You become more focused on your decision and begin the education/training for that field For example, a young person who decided during crystallization to seek an occupation that involves working with children may now decide whether that means being a child psychologist, a teacher, daycare worker, or a pediatrician 3. Implementation (21-24) Finishing the education/training and maybe entering the job For example, you may have been educated to be a teacher but find out after graduation that there are more teachers than available jobs, so that you end up working in a social service agency or business 4. Stabilization (23-25) Establishing yourself and your career The initial period of getting their feet wet in a job comes to an end, and they become more stable and experienced in their work 5. Consolidation (35 and up) Moving up, gaining experience, expertise -Not everyone follows this perfectly linear path -Most of today's emerging adults will change career directions at least once -Women & increasingly men have to balance work and family goals -Most women in Western societies lead a dual-career life (in-home and out-of-home occupations) -Today in Western cultures, women have the main responsibility for child care

Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

-Inattention, hyperactivity, impulsiveness -Restlessness, distractibility -Functional impairment in more than one context -These symptoms are impairing your day-to-day functioning -The symptoms are messing up your daily life (as a student, employment, spouse, friend) -Boys over twice as likely to be diagnosed -Usually diagnosed in childhood, but the majority of children with ADHD still have the disorder in adolescence -Causes -At least partly inherited, but not completely sure of cause -Nearly 50% of children and adolescents with ADHD also have a sibling or parent with the disorder -Environmental factors - prenatal period through childhood -Combination of medication and behavioral therapy is most effective -Operant conditioning techniques, parent training, classroom interventions -Stresses and strains with parents, peers

Risky Automobile Driving: Why does this happen?

-Inexperience -The way young people drive & the kinds of risks they take -More likely: speeding, follow too closely, violate traffic rules, take more risks in lane changing & passing, allow too little time to merge (especially males) -More likely to drive under the influence of alcohol -Less likely to wear seatbelts -Parental involvement & monitoring of adolescents' driving behavior -Friends' influence promotes risky driving -A sensation-seeking personality type -The optimistic bias

2 Types of Problems

-Internalizing Problems: -"Distress turned inward" -Primarily affect a person's internal world -Depression, anxiety, eating disorders, distress -Individual suffers themself but may not influence other people -Overcontrolled -Externalizing Problems: -"Distress turned outward" -Problems that affect a person's external world -Behavior problems, delinquency, substance use, risky driving, unsafe sex -Can have constant influence on other people around this person -More common among males -Usually viewed as problems by adults (whereas depression may be overlooked) -Often motivated by the desire for excitement and intense experiences -Undercontrolled

Cultural Focus: Japanese High Schools & Colleges

-Japan is at or near the top in international comparisons of academic achievement -More school days a year -America: about 180 -Japan: about 240 -Focus on role learning and memorization -Cultural beliefs - all children are capable of learning -Most people in Asian countries believe that success or failure in school depends on effort -As opposed to people in American countries that believe it depends on innate ability ("don't worry, math isn't your thing") -National system of entrance exams to high school and college-intense pressure -"Cram schools" after school or private tutoring

Gender-jobs

-Jobs held mainly by women - service sector: teacher, nurse, secretary, child-care worker -Jobs held mainly by men - engineer, chemist, surgeon, computer software designer -More gender equality today -Tend to differ in pay and status -Young women may anticipate the challenge of balancing work & family - some jobs are highly demanding and time consuming -It's extremely rare for young men to take time away from the workplace to raise young children -Technologies may allow for more work to be done at home or in flexible shifts -Gender socialization: children learn from a young age that some jobs are appropriate for either males or females

Externalized Problems: Risky Automobile Driving

-Leading cause of death among adolescents & emerging adults: automobile accidents -Young people aged 16-24 have the highest rates of auto accidents, injuries, and fatalities of any age group -In other Western countries, a higher minimum driving age (usually 18) and less access to automobiles have made rates of accidents and fatalities among young people substantially lower than in the U.S.

Media & Globalization

-Lots of USA TV shown everywhere -Social and economic change has been extremely rapid in the past 50 years -Look outside family for info -Western media and gender relations/roles -Very different than other places: marry for low, women working and unashamed of sex, outward display of affection, passion -For both adolescent boys and girls in Morocco their exposure to television, music, and movies is changing the way they think about gender relations and gender roles because they are ones from all over the world/different cultures -Romance and passion are central to male-female relationships (as opposed to arranged marriages), young women are usually portrayed not in traditional roles but in professional occupations and as being in control of their lives and unashamed of their sexuality -Young people are using this new information to construct a conception of gender roles quite different from the traditional conceptions in their culture → influence toward globalization and broad socialization of the West

Causes of Depression

-Major Depressive Disorder -Diathesis-stress model of mental disorders: -Begin with a diathesis (pre existing vulnerability); often a genetic basis -Expression of that vulnerability requires a stress (environmental condition) -Twin & adoption studies provide evidence of genetic influences -Common Stresses -Family: emotional unavailability of parents, high family conflict, economic difficulties, parental divorce -Peers: less contact with friends; more experiences of rejection -Cumulative effect of multiple stressors

Eating disorders - cultural roots

-More common in cultures that emphasize thinness -More common in middle to upper SES -Typically occur in females in their teens & early 20s Girls influenced by magazines & other media -Individual factors - a general susceptibility to internalizing disorders -Females who have an eating disorder are also more likely than other females to have other internalizing disorders like depression and anxiety

Controversial Media: Electronic Games & Aggressiveness

-Most American adolescents have played electronic games - some harmless entertainment; many of the most popular ones are violent -Active role-playing -Do they cause aggression? -Mixed results in lab studies -Who will actually choose to play violent games?? -Reporting experiencing fantasies of power and fame, competitions, explore exciting new situations, stress release -Individuals already at risk for violent behavior are most likely to be affected by (and attracted to) the violent games -More likely to influence attitudes, empathy -Desensitization to violence -Overall there is a wide range of individual differences in responses, with young people who are already at risk for violent behavior being most likely to be affected by the games, as well as most likely to be attracted to them -Cathartic effect: effect sometimes attributed to media experiences, in which media experience has the effect of relieving unpleasant emotions -Some boys say they use electronic games to work through feelings of anger or stress

Controversial Media: Television & Movies & Sex

-Most TV shows watched by American adolescents contain sexual content -Recreational orientation toward sex -Strong gender stereotypes -Movies that portray sexual aggression as pleasurable for the victim increase the acceptance of the use of coercion in sexual relations

Adolescent Work Today

-Most common first jobs -Girls - babysitting / Boys - yard work -More or less informal - a girl may babysit for one family one week and another family another week -Unlikely to interfere with the rest of an adolescent's life -For older adolescents, the work is different and time commitment is usually greater -Restaurant work and retail sales most common -On average: employed high school sophomores work 15 hours/week and seniors 20 hours/week -Work usually repetitive, monotonous; not connected to school -Typically not close to an adult role model -Not likely to prepare them for the work they will do as adults

Women earn

-One third of dentistry degrees go to women today (1% in 1970) -Half of M.D. degrees go to women today (8% 1970) -Half of law degrees go to women today (5% 1970) -Nearly half of MBA degrees go to women today (4% 1970) -Across field women earn 60% of postgraduate degrees today

2 Kinds of Delinquency

-Over ¾ of adolescents commit at least one criminal act some time before the age of 20 (but a lot of it is minor) -2 distinct types of delinquency -Life-course persistent delinquents Have engaged in delinquency their whole life -Neuropsychological deficits lead to difficult temperament in infancy, likely ADHD & learning disabilities in childhood -Grow up in high-risk environment -Continue to have difficulties such as mental problems, substance use, and criminal behavior into emerging adulthood -Adolescence-limited delinquency -Adolescents who only committed crime during adolescence -Risk behavior mostly diminishes by age 26

Media & Adolescent Socialization

-Parents' influence on socialization is receding while the role of the media in socialization grows -Important identity-related aspects of socialization: developing values & beliefs, learning gender roles, occupational preparation -Broad socialization, freedom of speech - diverse media offerings, uncensored -Media is market-driven - goal is to make money, not to promote successful socialization (like other socializing agents) -Adolescents have greater control over this socialization -Parents try to impose restrictions on the music, television shows, movies, and electronic games their adolescents consume, but these restrictions are unlikely to be successful if an adolescent is determined to avoid them -Media may function as a super peer - providing information (ex: about sexuality, subjects adolescents don't want to talk to their parents about) -Some media content and uses are rebellious to parents/society but not all

Influence on Occupational Goals

-Personality Characteristics -People seek occupations that are consistent with their interests and talents -There is probably not just one personality type that is well suited to a particular job -But Holland's theory describes 6 personality categories to consider when matching a person with a prospective occupation (there can be overlap): -Realistic Involve physical activity and practical application of knowledge Farming, truck driving, construction -Investigative Preference for thinking problems through rather than applying knowledge, low on social skills Scholarly fields such as math and science -Social High in verbal skills and social skills, working with people Teaching, social work, counseling -Conventional Involve clear responsibilities but little leadership Bank teller or secretary -Enterprising Verbal abilities, social skills, leadership skills Sales, politics, management, running a business -Artistic Introspective, imaginative, sensitive, unconventional Artistic occupations like painting or writing fiction

American system

-Positive: Easy to change paths -Negative: The specific educational path leading to a particular career is often not clear -Low in transparency and high in permeability -Even in emerging adulthood, most Americans only have a limited understanding of how to obtain the education or training that will lead to the job they want, but it is easy to enter college and easy to switch paths once they get there -Transparency: how clearly the path is marked through the educational system leading to the labor market -Permeability: how easy it is to change directions within the educational system

Adolescent Work in Traditional Cultures

-Preparing for adult roles -Hunting, fishing, & gathering cultures -Hunting, fishing - men / gathering - women -Research has shown they contribute an equal amount -These cultures are rapidly changing in response to globalization -Example: among the nomadic Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert in southwest Africa, an adolescent boy is not considered a man - and it not allowed to marry - until he has successfully killed his first antelope -Farming & care of domestic animals -Care of animals - children and adolescents -Farming - fathers and sons -In all developing countries, the proportion of people in farming is declining - industrialization, advanced technology and equipment -Childcare & housework -Mainly women and girls -Being early, around age 6 or 7 -Pre-industrial cultures - housework, meal preparation is heavily labor intensive

Substance Use & Abuse

-Purposes of substance use: -Experimental -Social -Nearly all substance use among young people takes place as part of a group activity -Medicinal (self-medicating) -More frequent than experimental and social -Addictive -Most frequent -Experience withdrawal symptoms when they stop -Young people who engage in experimental or social substance use are healthier psychologically than those who are frequent users -Frequent users also more likely to have problems in school, at home, with peers, and more likely to engage in delinquent behaviors -All substance use in adolescence and emerging adulthood is considered "problem behavior" because adults generally it as a problem if young people engage in it -But there are clearly different ways in which adolescents use substances (experimental vs. addictive)

Unemployment

-Referring to someone who is actively looking - not in school, not working, and who are looking for a job -Young adult - highest unemployment rate (up to 25) -High risk of depression, especially those who lack parental support -Over HALF of HS dropout (18-21) are unemployed -Require at least minimal level info skills (math, comp etc) -Recommendations - improve quality of education and school to work programs -The economy has become more strongly focused on information and technology rather than manufacturing, the number of jobs available to unskilled workers has diminished sharply

Sources of Externalizing Problems

-Remember that adolescents are active participants in their socialization & about their environments -Individual characteristics, socialization influences, or risk behaviors -Socialization Sources: -Family structure -Family process -Parenting styles -Friends' influence -School -Neighborhood -Media -Legal system Cultural beliefs -Boys will be boys -Individual Factors -Gender -Females tend to have higher rates of internalizing problems -Males tend to have higher rates of externalizing problems -Ethnicity -Rates of most types of externalizing behaviors are lower among ethnic minorities -Aggressiveness -High sensation seeking -Cognitive deficits -Low IQ, learning disabilities → dropping out of school → delinquency -Low impulse control -Optimistic bias -Feeling invincible -Poor school achievement is a predictor of delinquency -The first risk factors for delinquency begin in infancy - an infant temperament that is aggressive and difficult -Some parents respond with harsh, inconsistent, or permissive parenting -Or give up -Befriend other aggressive, rejected kids

what works? characteristics of effective schools/school climate

-School Climate: quality of student-teacher interactions, what sort of expectations and standards they have for students, and what kinds of methods are used in the classroom -Teachers: -Supportive and involved with -students; warm -Apply firm discipline when necessary -Clear communication -High expectations for students' conduct and academic performance -Similar to parenting in that both require a combination of warmth, clear communication, high standards for behavior, and a moderate level of control (demandingness and responsiveness) -Students: -Higher attendance -Higher achievement test scores -Lower rates of behavior problems -Lower rates of depression -Enhances engagement -(NOT due to differences in IQ or SES)

Cultural Beliefs & School

-School methods & attitudes of parents/peers/adolescents are rooted in cultural beliefs about what is valuable and important -EX: Asian cultures have a long tradition of valuing education - the focus on education often comes first, other aspects of life have a much lower priority -Americans value education but also want adoorelescents to be "well-rounded"

Substance Use

-Substance use rates typically rise through high school -% of American high school seniors - use in the past month (have you used ____ in the past month?) -35% alcohol -21% binge drinking -11% cigarette use -alcohol and marijuana use

Suicide

-The 3rd most common cause of death among young people ages 15-19 in the U.S. -Suicide attempts often take place as the symptoms of depression appear to be subsiding / resolving -Ethnic differences in suicide rates in U.S. -Native Americans -Whites -Blacks & Latinos -Females more likely to attempt suicide, but males more likely to actually kill themselves Males more likely to use more lethal means -Availability of guns -Risk factors -Family disruption: a family life that is chaotic, disorganized, high in conflict, & low in warmth; little emotional nurturance -Genetic vulnerability to depression & other mental illness -Substance abuse problems (self-medication?) -Family life may make them less able to deal with life stressors (ex: rejection, failure, break-ups) -Usually a response to a series of difficulties (months, years) and have failed when trying to address their problems -CBT combined with antidepressants -Typically a treatment for an adolescent

a brief history of secondary schools

-The Age of Adolescence (1890-1920) - state laws requiring school attendance through the early teens -Mandatory secondary school education is relatively recent -A similar trend in other Western countries -Developing countries - adolescents' labor is usually needed by their families; often don't attend school -If economy is not industrialized, school-based knowledge may be of limited use -As economic development continues, the number of adolescents receiving education will continue to rise

From School & Part-Time Work to a "Real Job"

-The Transition from School to Work - "The Forgotten Half" -Over 30% of adolescents begin full time work after high school -Loss of manufacturing jobs (good pay for unskilled workers) -Based on the most promising new jobs available to high school graduates today, what skills are necessary?...The New Basic Skills: -Reading at a 9th grade level or higher -Doing math at a 9th grade level or higher -Solving semi structured problems -Communicating effectively orally & in writing -Using a computer for word processing & other tasks -Collaborating in diverse groups -Close to half of all 17 year olds cannot read or do math at the level needed to succeed at the new jobs

The Case in Favor of Adolescent Work

-The effects of work on adolescent development are complex and work does offer certain benefits to many adolescents -Working at a job that involves learning new skills is positively related to psychological well-being and self-esteem -They gain a sense of responsibility, improve their ability to manage money, develop better social skills, and learn to manage their time better -Good relationships with the adults they meet in the workplace can be a protective factor for adolescents from difficult and stressful family situations

Apprenticeships in Western Europe

-The focus on work preparation programs in Western Europe is on apprenticeships -An adolescent novice works with a master who is an expert in a profession -In Germany more than 60% of all 16 - 18 year olds are apprentices -Not just trades or skilled labor but professional and managerial positions too -Typically enter at age 16; lasts 2-3 years -Continued part-time school (school curriculum closely connected to the apprenticeship training) -Training that takes place in the workplace, under real working conditions -European system - career decisions have to be made by the mid-teens -Negative: Not easy to change directions -Positive: The pathway leading to a career is clearly laid out -High in transparency and low in permeability -Adolescents know which education and training path leads to which job, but once they chose a path - as they are required to do at the age of just 14 or 15 - the system makes it difficult for them to change their minds

Controversial Media: Television & Aggressiveness

-The overwhelming majority of violent crimes all over the world are committed by young males aged 15-25 -Violent television and adolescents' violent behaviors are correlated -Aggressive adolescents prefer aggressive TV programs -Longitudinal studies have provided some evidence that violent television CAUSES aggression in children -TV inspires a lot of imitative behavior in children -Adolescents can reflect on what they are watching and decide whether to model the behavior or not -But it may be a causal factor for adolescents already at risk for violence -Stronger evidence - TV violence influences adolescents' attitudes toward violence -More accepting of violent behavior; less empathetic toward victims of violence

Substance Use by Age

-The peak of substance use comes in emerging adulthood (peak in early 20s, decline in late 20s) -Rates especially high among emerging adults who are college students -Deviant behaviors may be explained on the basis of propensity (motivation) and opportunity -A lot of time spent in unstructured socializing -Unstructured socializing: young people spending time together with no specific event as the center of their activity -Riding around in the car for fun, going to parties, shopping, going out w friends -Highest in the late teens and early 20s -High rates of this correlates to high rates of alco

School to Work Programs in the U.S.

-There is currently no big, national system in place to coordinate the requirements of the workplace with the educational efforts of schools -Some small-scale apprenticeship programs for high school students -Job-training programs for emerging adults -Job-corps - educational & occupational training -Currently serves 62,000 people ages 16-24 each year in 122 low-income areas all over the U.S. -Higher earnings, improved reading and math skills -Highly effective in improving the occupational prospects of non college emerging adults

Changes in college students in U.S.

-Tuition rates were over 4 times higher in 2007 than they were in 1982 (taking inflation into account) - public & private colleges -Retention (staying in college until you graduate) related to students' family SES -Lack of adequate financial support is a common reason for leaving college before obtaining a degree

Work in Emerging Adulthood

-Unlike adolescents, most emerging adults are looking for a job that will turn into a career - money plus personal fulfillment: identity-based work -What kind of person am I? What do I really want to do? What am I best at? -Probably more drifting/floundering than systematic exploration when looking for a career path -The average American holds 10 different jobs between the ages of 18 and 30 -Many emerging adults express a sense that they did not really choose their current job..."just fell into it" -For many emerging adults, working in emerging adulthood simply means finding a job, any job, that will pay the bills until something better comes along

Controversial Media: Social Media

-Used to keep in touch with friends and make new friends -Mostly - makes people more connected, help to get to know others -Also - frustration with friends (everyone ALWAYS on it)

Theories of Media Influence-Social Learning Theory (clown punching)

-Vicarious learning: people tend to imitate behaviors they see rewarded when performed by other -Bobo doll study -Children watched an adult kicking and punching a clownlike doll and later they imitated the adult's behavior -Influence simply by watching someone else's actions -Passive: environment shapes you -Watching sexual intercourse of television or relationship between television and aggression

Delinquency & Crime

-Violations of the law committed by juveniles = acts of delinquency -Most countries' legal systems define juveniles as younger than 18 years old -Adolescents & emerging adults: increased independence and increased orientation toward peers -The great majority of crimes are committed by young people - mostly males - between the ages of 12-25 (throughout the world) -Also more likely to be the victims of crimes -Crimes committed by young men in their early teens & early 20s usually take place in a group -Unstructured socializing -In their search for excitement and sensation-seeking adventure, young men in these peer groups may engage in activities that violate the law -The homicide rate in the U.S. is 7-25 times higher than other developed countries -Higher rates of poverty -Easy availability of firearms -Growing up in low SES family → greater likelihood of delinquency for adolescents of all ethnic backgrounds -African American & Latino adolescents: -More likely than White adolescents to be arrested -Homicide is the leading cause of death

Work and Psychological Functioning

-Working more than 10 hours/week -More reports of psychological symptoms (anxiety, depression) -Amount of sleep declines as work hours increase -Disrupts eating and exercise habits -Work and problem behavior -More likely to smoke, use alcohol and other drugs -Causal or correlational? -Correlational: adolescents who work more than 10 hours a week also have a tendency toward substance use, but this tendency was evident even before they began working long hours -Causal: increases in work hours precede increases in drug and alcohol use, suggesting that working long hours causes an increase in substance use -More money to spend on leisure, maybe substance use -Very little goes to their family's living expenses or saving for their future education

Immigrant Paradox

-the research finding that the more generations an immigrant family has been in the U.S., the worse the children do in school -Because the longer the family has been in the U.S., the more "Americanized" the adolescent is likely to become - the more likely the adolescent is to value part-time work and socializing with friends over striving for academic excellence

Secondary education developed countries

1. USA, Canada, Japan -comprehensive (all academic subjects) -greater flexibility, but everyone in same school/classes with widely diverfent educational and occupational interests and abilities 2. European countries -1. College preperatory (comprehensive) -2. Vocational school (practical job skills) -3. Professional School (more practical than just college prep) -earlier decision about making career decision -Some European countries also have apprenticeship systems

what works? characteristics of effective schools/school size

Does size matter? -Larger schools -Less attachment to teachers and to the school as a whole -Students tend to end up being observers instead of participants -More diverse range of classes Smaller schools -Less diversity in classes and extracurricular activities, but students are more likely to participate -More likely to be placed in positions of leadership & responsibility -Typically makes them feel more confident in their abilities and more needed and important -Ideal school size for adolescents: 500-1000 students -Class size -Variation within typical range (20-40 students) may not matter much -Small class better for students with academic difficulties -Reducing class size → greater cost to school (need more teachers)

Gender differences in high school

From primary school to high school, girls tend to get higher grades Girls are less likely to have learning disabilities, be held back a grade, dropout of high school Girls are more likely to attend college and to graduate Girls tend to enjoy the school environment more Positive experiences, favorable relationships with teachers Adolescent girls are more likely to feel supported by their parents academically (and in other areas) Especially strong among African American adolescents Gender differences in math and science orientation have nearly disappeared, used to favor males Female representation has grown in all traditionally male-dominated field in the past two decades