african hist

The Great Zimbabwe and politics

"The Great Zimbabwe" civilization: 1000 - 1450 CE. On a high plateau, high reliance on cattle because of droughts (so cattle were a form of wealth and insurance) River to coast joined to the rest of the world (ocean), so this place controlled African trade to the rest of the world. There was gold and ivory in The Great Zimbabwe. Found cloth from India, ceramics from Persia, 1 million blocks. Solid dowers, hilltop complexes, enclosures. Just rocks, no mortar! Crazy! Walls 10m high, chevron pattern Cecil Rhodes, namesake for Rhodesia: white settlement. He was amazed at this site. 1871, first European to see it was Karl Mach. thought it was the biblical land of Ophir... thought it was built by Phoenicians, Arabs, Egyptians.. Couldn't be sourced locally. (Hamitic thesis?) White settlers in Rhodesia kept this myth up. The gold in the area was a "big mystery" Archaeologists who said it was indigenous were vilified by Rhodesian settlers, so schoolbooks censored it, to portray that it was not indigenous. 1975: white settlers fighting for their power during the civil war, put the Great Zimbabwe on their bank pound! To show, "foreigners civilized this land". 1980, after independence the country was named Zimbabwe after the archaeological site! Reclaimed their indigenous history and power.

syncretism

"Traditional" beliefs in Africa are diverse. Often the creator god, other deities, often ancestors, and animal spirits. And rites of passage, etc. (burial, marriage). These can't really be separated from beliefs. Blending of Islam and local culture makes Islam in Africa uniquely African. Is there a "black" Islam? Not pure? What does it mean to be pure? Watch Masons of Djenne movie. Shows that Islam is socially reproduced in a distinctly African way. Key reading: Ibn Battuta! (that was the one right?)

Truth and Reconciliation Commission

(part of negotiations?) Process not of JUSTICE, but of reconciliation. Because these two become mutually exclusive. If you acknowledge your crimes, you have judges determine whetehr you've accounted for all your crimes. And they decide whetehr you should go to prison or not. Only a few exceptional cases end up going to prison. And only cases from 1948 (wrong date?) onwards. Not structural inequalities of south africa that began with colonialism. Only with apartheid. Addresses crimes by agents of the state. Prosecuting authority decides it shouldn't actually prosecute people who hadnt been totally honest Supposed to be reparations for families of activists who were murdered but rarely happens and payments are very little. But there is an accounting = outpouring of information. (but like not outside the borders of south africa). Head of TRC was bishop tutu but today lots of bitterness about TRC process. Maybe seen as a good model internationally but not within south africa. A full accounting isnt the same as justice. And reparations were very small.

French Community

1956, France proposes new relationship. "French Community". Vague. Extra-national body (not a nation state), a constellation of states under french direction. (context: algeria, vietnam from last wk. stress). Referendum mounted in each of these french colonies: do you wanna be a part of this community? (french military, control over development policy, etc.) or do you want out, complete independence? SO understudied. But almost everyone voted to be part of the french community!!!!!! 96%, 98%, 99%, 94%... Mali 76% ... BUT Guinea 96% for complete independence. Who was voting? Millions of people voting in places that HAS NOT BEEN SUGGESTED THAT IT WAS RIGGED. But what were the circumstances? ...... The fact that guinea went in the exact opposite direction suggests maybe it wasn't rigged? ...... but CRAZY to have 96%!!!!! 98!! 99!!!! Looks like it was universal adult suffrage based on populaiton sizes and number of voters? THESE ARE NOT PLACES THAT HAD INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENTS LIKE OTHER COUNTRIES. To show what would happen if you voted for complete independence in french west/equitorial africa: Made an example of guinea Removed all french personel and infrastructure overnight. So the state became an empty shell. (referenda were staggered. So possible for other people to see what happened in guinea.) Ivory Coast Initially advocated for continued tie with france But this fell apart in late 1950s, in hammering out of what french community would mean. Because (1) leaders of former colonies realized that their _______ wouldn't be great, and (2) france couldn't imagine itself as just an equal member in a larger community. Didn't even wanna be first among equals. (wanted more). SO NO MORE FRENCH COMMUNITY. and 1960 YEAR OF AFRICAN INDEPENDENCE. Cuz many did. Including 13 formerly french territories. Cuz they were given ultimatum. (2 yrs after initial referrendum). Realized they werent gonna get anything in a french community. By this time neighbouring british colonies were gaining independence And 1960 wasn't an actual vote. Was just (we only have oral histories to rely on now...) Keys: Leopold Sedar Senghor (Senegal). and Felix Houphout-Boigny of Ivory Coast.

Anglo-Ashanti War and Battle of Omdurman (Sudan)

During colonial conquest. Anglo-ashanti war, 1873-4 was before the Berlin Conference Several wars over the century.. This was most devastating. British had finally penetrated the interior. Devastation of Kumasi. Germans colonized mainland Tanzania (Tanganyika) 1890s. Hehe rebellion under Mkwara 1898: Battle of Omdurman (Sudan). Lord Kitchener led battle of vengeance against the Sudanese. British and Egypt (less people, more firepower. 47 killed) vs. Sudanese (40,000 Sudanese, 10,000 killed!)

Hendrik Verwoerd

Hendrik Verwoerd, south african premier. Called the architect of apartheid. Was assasinated by a mentally disturbed page. He explains a policy here of "separate development". Words that we've heard before, in separate context.... He says: "policy of good neighbourliness'". Acknowledge the differences between people. Must respect other cultures. Their culture cant accept the forces of modernism. Theyre primitive, have to tutor them into the modern world. Don't wanna destroy their native culture. WE FREQUENTLY HEAR THIS LANGUAGE TODAY. He speaks very differently when he's speaking to non-afrikaaners (here) versus afrikaaners.

Kingdom of the Kongo

letter (Afonso to King of Portugal). = with the advent of slave trade, Christianity influences. BUT power dynamics. he wasn't in control. said slave trade= young noblemen being captured and sold. and European goods= Afonso was losing authority over vassal states.

Bilad al Sudan

means Land of Blacks. As an indication to the skin colour of the inhabitants living in the region. The term is said to be used by Arab travelers, geographers and historians who first wrote the history of the region. includes kingdoms of Mali, Songhai, Old Ghana Kindgom. and their Muslim influence can be seen. also how their histories were often recorded by Arabs? Ibn Battuta! "Ibn Battuta in Black Africa"

Bible Translation

1. Translation of the Bible into local languages Gave ethnic conscious awakening! Defined ethnic boundaries by defining language boundaries 2. Associated with the bible = "modernizing" associations Dress civilized, monogamous relationships, nuclear family... "uplift". And uplift for a new category of people called "Africans". pan-Africanist ideas. Settlement. Afro-American and Afro-caribbean = big pan-Africanist ideas. 3. Christianity, like islam, was a language of expressing meaning, relating to people, etc. it's a continua fight over what christianity means. And embedded in its social historical context. Ie. in Kenya, Gikuyu language = Mgai is a malign force, not the Christian God. our idea doesn't exist in their language. And their beliefs were fluid, not a fixed religion. And "ugi" was political. Young men vs. elders.

transatlantic slave trade

12.5 million people. Regions that were most affected = west central africa (Angola). Most important single slaving port was today's capital of Angola. Other large areas: Bight of Biafra (SE of Nigeria and Cameroon), and Bight of Benin (SW of Nigeria). Also Senegambia, Sierra Leone, Windward coast, Gold Coast. Rainfall and population densities affected. Sahara desert increases in the south so more pop Nigeria today largest country today. 16th and 17th century: median based in angola 17th to 18th century: further north 19th century, shifts south again (Angola?) cuz of attempts to suppress the trade, which were concentrated on the north not the south. 20 largest ports: 10.3 million people! From all 192: 12.5 million SO very concentrated. Ships didn't just come and pick up random slaves, they went to ports. The tastes of african consumers (goods exchanged for slaves) varied enormously. Had to target an area for which goods you would bring in exchange for slaves. Luanda (a major port) was almost a quarter of all slaves leaving sub saharan africa! 2 million. Benguela is just south (3rd most slaves from here). And top 5 is still over half of the traffic! = extreme concentration. Very few ports of embarkation in the indian ocean. Just ie. mozambique, etc. partly because of difficulty of sailing around cape of good hope, distance, etc.

Askiya Mohammed (Songhai Empire)

15th century. Takes place of Mali Empire Askiya Muhammed was a "purifier of the faith". (That dynamic happened over and over throughout history). (what had happened to the mali empire? Too much syncretism????) He defeated a "non-pious" rival. 1473, takes over. 1st recorded instance in this region of someone demanding the government to be Islamic with jihad. (impact of Islam in Bilad Al Sudan!)

Jenne-Jeno

1970s. Archaeologists discovered pottery shards, = continuous occupation for 1600 years! 400 BCE-1200 CE. and higher density of occupation. BUT no pyramids, forts, palace. SO no obvious hierarchy! But it was a city and a civilization. WITHOUT much diversification or hierarchy. Doesn't follow our ideas of what is meant to be a civilization. Relate to neoevolutionism

1980s South Africa

1980s, many things come together. SA becomes more at the forefront of international paraiah status. Boycotts of south african businesses worldwide. Reagan in USA wanted to support south africa as bulwark against communism but he was undermined by congress (controlled by democrats) so had sanctions instead. South africa banned from international sports competitions College campuses: the issue of the decade. Within south africa: Townships (urban south africa) were aflame? Young people tried to render the regime absent from these places. Try to make places ungovernable, create ongoing crisis for the state. Often extreme violence. If you were perceived as being an informer for the regime, you were tortured and killed. Informal governing bodies in townships (called "civics") usually run by civics. People who werent ANC members officially thought of themselves as affiliated with the ANC. "triumph of the ANC" isnt what actually happened. that's just what the ANC wanted. They took credit for uprising students in Soweto, etc. but it's not like people were unhappy that the ANC did this. Nelson Mandela in prison this whole time. Now, he's made the symbol of resistance by the ANC. Creative forms of protest cuz NO ONE HAD GUNS. Not allowed to gather in political protest. Cant speak out (or else labelled as communist). Regime had both legal means to jail people AND death squads etc. to murder people who were against the state. FUNERALS could be staged as non-political. So a funeral for a comrade = coffin painted colours of the ANC, and thousands of people are marching in this funeral!!! Regime tries to reform itself in the 80s by setting up different legislative bodies for each racial groups. (coloured and mixed, indians had their own, bantu people didn't have one.) effort to make homelands (reserves we learned about earlier, rural slums) independent countries. 13% of the country! So regime trying to cut them off. No one regocnized the homelands except south africa and taiwan. Some maps said they were "disputed territories". United Democratic Front: eventually made illegal but not at first. Was affiliated with the ANC in spirit and secret meetings. Led by anglican bishop. Won the nobel prize in 1984. Boycotts on themselves didn't work. The economic effects of boycotts were very little. But had a psychological effect, especially sports. Younger generation wanted to be global citizens. Violence was relatively contained so people in white south africa didn't see the violence directly. The ANC's military force was laughable (just like industrial sabotage), so apartheid was "winning" it seems like. Late 1980s, regime's military efforts in Namibia collapse. Because surrounded by cuban troops in southern angola. (globalism).

Christian missionary activity

19th century. Partly from New Awakening. Much of it Protestant. Many abolitionists coming as missionaries to Africa. Many of the early missionaries were people of African descent interested in spiritual uplift. Many African American, especially in South Africa. Ie. think of Equiano. And Samuel Ajayi Crawther. Later more Europeans Young men would come to missions (not welcome in home communities. Ie. ex-slaves, or opportunists for education. Helped whites translate the bible locally.) Was missionary activity a foundation for direct colonial rule?

Great Pyramids

2600 BCE. pharaoh burial. The Ka could enter the statue of the pharaoh, transforming him into the god Osiris. Limestone, also granit. Between 4-40,000 people built it, slaves or an honour to work here? Had health clinics, bakeries, etc. near the site. Labour diversification required. Defining trait of civilization. Urbanity - high density and high labour diversifications. Association: were they African? Is this in Africa? (Ya, of course!) Ideology of buildings in Africa: associated with the Hamitic Thesis! Societies of South Africa were more flexible. Settled agricultural versus hunter gatherers. Can choose whatever tools made sense at that time. (tradeoffs and trajectories). Settled agriculture = s much more dependent on climate.

Southern Gyre

27 records of steam ships, but mostly were sailing ships. So their voyages were determined by gyres (winds). (portuguese had anticipated gyres in atlantic). Explains why west africa and area just north of congo river was main area for picking up slaves. Then pick up same gyre to caribbean and north america. = triangular trade. BUT in fact, historiography hasn't paid attention to other gyre: southern gyre: massive slave trade to brazil. Nothing triangular here. Brazil and angola got so many slaves. Just there and back traffic. From salvador or rio de janeiro, counterclockwise. Southern trade accounted for almost half of the traffic in the slave trade!

End of Apartheid

A certain wing of the ruling regime says they don't want to go on this way. (similar to colonial regimes in the 1950s. "we might be able to get out better with continuing economic relationship with an independent african country than if we just try to maintian a hold on a colony). Had a referendum for whites for pursuing negiations with the ANC. Referendum said yes let's negotiate. 1990, mandela had been out of prison. So negotiations begin Mandela wants all of ANC on board. Regime sees ANC as people they can work with. Starts off informal, where they all have BBQs and get together. If you grew up in rural south africa, no matter what you complexion or expereinces, you understand the other group well. Important for white south africans to know that they have "reasonable" black people to work with. Who don't have marxist backing anymore. SO THEY MAKE A NEGOTIATED SETTLEMENT. The ANC did not win. Nor did the regime. FW Declerk was final apartheid era president. Photo: declerk w mandela holding hands. Early 90s As negotiations have begun, whole new form of violence emerges in south africa! Extremist whites (LOTS of them) don't want black majority rule. Conservative Zulu nationalists don't wanna be dominated by ANC. Thousands of people die in violence in Zulu natal, etc. the regime arms the zulu nationalists! Trying to sow chaos so it looks better in election. Crazy that elections themselves happened without violence. ANC got 60% of vote ish. Mandela becomes first president post-apartheid. Parts of the negotiations: Whites get to keep their land. Will be process of land distribution but with compensation and not compulsory to sell land. Get to keep your stuff. ANC wants liberal democratic south african state. ANC of 1994 isnt the ANC of 1985. So debates here were the sticking point, New flag Former horrible dormitories etc. are now some of the most desirable houses for Hundreds of thousands of houses have since been built by the government. Small. And they've also given electricity, etc. around. Today: SUCH HIGH gaps in wealth. (but this happens everywhere).

Merrie Africa

A critique of a certain way of thinking about Africa as being untroubled, uncomplicated. A rural peaceable ideal before the advent of Euro colonialism and the trans atlantic slave trade. (the contrary argument is to understand the complexities of african lives and histories. Not to say trans atlantic slave trade wasn't bad). Acknowledging deep african past history! Acknowledge the humanity of african peoples. Scholarship didn't do that til the last 50 yrs.

British Abolition 1807

Abolition of the slave trade North Atlantic, it was half of commerce Abolitionist fervor in Britain ie. Wilberforce, Equianoh. Christian conscience rooted in a new wave of Christina spiritual activity (New Awakening) in Britain and North America Other reasons: Economic reasons. Slave trade no longer profitable. (overproduction of sugar, higher prices demanded by Africans for captives, and Britain at the beginnings of the industrial revolution. Cheaper to leave humans where they are, make them mine or do agriculture locally, THEN take raw materials. BUT then... "legitimate commerce" instead of slavery.

Africa and Identity (slavery)

African = community, kin groups. Vs americas = economic. But WHO is eligible for enslavement? Key qn in any society w slavery. The last 5 centuries, has to do w skin colour (insider outsider argument). Map: language map of nigeria. Clear that this is not homogenous. Why africans enslaved other africans It was a TRADE. Early on, RAIDS....but this didn't pay well. They didn't KNOW they were african. The concept of africa didn't exist except to outsiders. This map hints to great multicultural range of the continent. When a slave changed to being owned by an african to a european, both parties saw that sold person as an outsider. = question of identity. ie. in Antera diary (part of database that we learned in class), traders were Ekbe, slaves were Ebo. Since early 16th century, where slave trade was present (many parts of W. Coats f Africa0< it enhanced inequalities wherever it happened and amplified violence (guns circulating, need to protect yourself from raiders - arms race). And coerced labour and capture increased slavery within Africa. More wars = more captives.)

Pre-WWII African nationalism / panafricanism

African nationalism: a core african identity. Versus european identity. Panafricanism: sentiment that all people of african descent have shared past and shared destiny. African nationalism and panafricanism go hand in hand. Who cultivated these ideas: largely men educated in missions, european style educations. Most/many had no direct contact with europeans. But people who went to mission schools/ euro schools / colonial staff / professional training / themselves were maybe missionaries DID become people who were most in body of european notions of civilization. African nationalism was born. People who in their own communities were disrided as being TOO EUROPEAN. But they believed they had essential qualities that made them africans. Including african diaspora. These peoples experienced DIRECT racism cuz they were so close to colonial officials. Second class standard. Africanist sentiments not widely shared. And idea of independence was even less widely shared! (many african nationalists didn't seek formal independence) (also only 3 African nations recognized in League of Nations...)

WWII turning point

Africans' experience: pressed into labour to make up for shortages in ie. britain; conscripted into armies forcibly; experienced (most catastrophically in india out of colonies) food rationing. Hunger and starvation in parts of africa to make sure europeans got fed. ; (when france fell to nazis, west africa fell under control of Viche France. Puppet regime of nazis. Equatorial africa had different route: governor of Chad Felix Eboue. West indian descent. He declared for free france. Equatorial africa became essentially the rump free french state! Capital at brazaville in french congo. French africans made up half of free french army at some point. 1944, in recognition of role of africans in free french effort, dugale was forced to make concessions. Came into effect right after the war Abolition of indigenat. (the system of law that essentially said anyone who wasn't assimilated (vast majority of population) was whatever french colonial officials dictated). Forced labour abolished (corvey labour. Sp?) legal until 1946! 1941, atlantic charter. (roosevelt and churchill made clear what the allies are fighting for). One thing was restoration of sovereing rights of countries. But churchill said it didn't apply to Africa. Galvanized african naitonal sentiments anew, ESPECIALLY among war veterans! (africans returning home from service who had sacrified themselves for the allies and wanted benefits of having served). And illusion of european supremacy had been shatterd for african veterans.

Soweto Uprising 1982

After decade of seeming quiet, things change Leaders of political parties are in prison but political parties arent the only people involved in resistance to apartheid Gov decided to enforce rule: bantu instruction (2nd or 3rd tier education, anyways) would have to incorporate afrikaans. That's how you make a class of people who can best esrve you. That closes off all kinds of opportunities. English had been learend then. Students about to take tests in english now told they would have to take them in afrikaans. June 16, 1976: a bunch of students gather in front of class in Soweto. Townships outside Johannesburg. Protest! Shots fired. Iconic image: 13 yr old boy being carried after shot. Hector Peterson(the boy) thoguht of as being first to be killed on that day. Start of uprisings. People who have no connection to the ANC/politics are killed. People who had been in reading groups about black consciousness but not like ANC members.hundreds of people killed. Thousands fled south africa and then joined armed wing (MK) of ANC outside of africa in exile!

algerian war (for independence??)

Algeria (war vs civilian populations). Algeria still dealing with legacy of mass torture. France starting to acknowledge it. Wars where people commit atrocities on both sides. Ie. algerian war, heavily the french who tortured. FLN still tortured too. And after independence, mass murder of algerians who had collaborated with french.

George Washington Williams

An AfroAmerican journalist. He saw what was happening, writes an open letter for American and European newspapers to Leopold II. The letter starts of saying how the white officers aren't paid well. Not until point 10 does he mention that the government is engaged in the slave trade. (largest forced slavery in the world!!!!! He buried his lead.) Nothing happened as a result of his letter. Also nothing happens when African American missionaries report the abuses.

Apartheid

Apartheid = seen as just a more radical form of legal and economic segregation that already existed in ANY settler colony in Africa. South africa essentially independent country, 1910. union of south africa. (from 4 colonies). 1 decade after boer war. Union of south africa based on reconciliation of interests to ensure whites would remain dominant in economy. Principle moment: 3 yrs after making of south africa. "The Land Act of 1913". Officially made it illegal Divided up south africa, only 7% of landmass of south africa for black population. Later increased to 13%. A lot of land was not fertile land...... land that was given to blacks (usually owned communally) = worst land in the country. Usually. White politics driven by class. Poor descendents of dutch flocking to cities (farm based economies destroyed in boer war). Did not want competition with cheaper black labour! Proximity was important. Poor whites living like blacks... impossible for whites to tolerate. Afrikaaner nationalism based on idea of socialism for white people. (insurance, employment, education, healthcare, etc.) to rise above station of blacks and set ceiling for blacks. What began as an afrikaaner party eventually became a party for all whites. Not just afrikaaners. So BY LAW all gov jobs, middleman, overseer jobs. Anglo businesses didn't always like this cuz not efficient for labour. But there was a democracy, and afrikaaner nationalism was dominant

The Rwandan Genocide

April 1994. Lasted 100 days. Beginning April. 800,000 people dead in a country that had 8 million. 1/10th of population. People involved: Tutsi and Hutu. Most of 800,000 people killed were Tutsi, minority population. 85% of all Tutsis in Rwanda were murdered in 100 days. Many people who were self-identified as Hutus who were also killed because they were sympathizers. Not radical enough. Seen as an ethnic war.... But categories of people are historically constructed. And what they meant by Hutu and Tutsis changed over time. This isnt just mindless. Comes out of a very specific political context. Can be considered a civil war within larger regional political dynamics. Similar to elsewhere on the continent

Jihad

Askiya Muhammed - first person in West Africa who demanded the government to be Islamic with jihad. "Efforts, struggling, striving". Not technically a holy war In history, interpreted as jihad of spirit or jihad of sword. Main form of conquest in Africa was taxation as rulers could not tax Muslims so they conquered other areas? influence of islam in bilad al sudan

African World War

BUT in many senses, this is only the beginning of one of the worst 20th and 21st century tragedies. The African "World War", aka The Second Congo. Officially lasted til 2003. but today, still lots of violencei n the DRC. 1/4 of country of Rwanda migrated (2 million) to DRC. So leaders of Tsutsi genocide are leaders of the colony refugee camps. New Rwandan leaders (Tutsi) don't wanna have people just acros the border who had just genocided against them. 1996, Rwandan army invades DRC with the help of the Ugandans. DRC is a shell of a state at this time. Rwandans don't want Mobutu in Kinshasa to support Hutus. So Rwandans support rebels who are based on Eastern Zaire. Rwandan army along with rebels starts rolling across entire enormous country and facing almost no resistance because Mobutu didn't have many friends anymore willing to defend Zaire (he looted his country for years.) so rebels make it all the way over to here. Mobutus gone, goes to france, dies of cancer. Rebel leader becomes president. Rebel then realizes he has a bunch of Hutus in his country so he changes sides and starts supporting them! Becomes fully regionalized war over RESOURCES. Zaire becomes DRC again, full of precious resources. (esp materials for cellphones, becoming popular now). Zimbabweans get involved for mining concessions, uganda is involved (client state is Rwanda, want resources). "they" being military leaders, (think about Mugabe as one of the worlds richest men). Hundreds of thousands of people killed directly. Similar to Congo Free State. Millions of people die because of all of the disruption in their lives. Fleeing so cant grow crops, immune system crashes, disease and exposure. Between 3-5 MILLION PEOPLE. Cold war intervention to post-cold war ignoring Africa.

Hamitic Thesis

Body of thought: everything of note in Africa came from a non-Indigenous source. (=lighter skinned people in the North.) Richard Burton Speck: pasteuralism came from the North. Tech came from the North and South. Ham was a biblical figure. Sees civilization as: centralized authority able to organize society into a certain way, with a hierarchy. Thinking influenced Hutu Power? thinking influenced view of Great Zimbabwe, Great Pyramids.

Samuel Ajayi Crawther

Captured as a child, post abolition, freed on a ship by British and ended up at Freetown ,Sierra Leone. Educated at Christian mission schools. Returned to Nigeria to proselytize, became the first African bishop.

E. D. Morel and Red Rubber

Clerk in Belgium He noticed that the value of goods coming in was 5x more than the value of goods leaving, so he suspected that ivory and rubber hadnt been collected well, suspecting slavery/ He'd been part of the anti-slavery network in Britain... and so publicized his findings. E.D. Morel, the clerk who suspected slavery in the Congo, called the rubber coming in "Red Rubber" when he publicized his findings The first international human rights campaign! Because the British government then took it up, because Belgium was their imperial rival (a fellow colonizer as an unfit colonizer, "unlike themselves".) Eventually the international pressure became too much. 1908, Leopold pressured to give the Congo to the Belgian state (instead of his private company). So it becomes the Belgian Congo. Aftermath: the Belgians undertook an assessment post-WWI (or was it WWII?) of Congo before and after Leopold. Estimated that the population of Central Africa was half of what it had been 20 years befrore. From 1880-1940, 10 million people (died? Were left?). Because of terror regime, people fleeing villages, dont grow crops. Immune systems plummet, stop having kids. SO low population due to murder + negative growth rate and exposure, starvation

Mobutu

Congo/Kinshasa/Zaire/DRC Joseph-Desire Mobutu: chief of staff of army under Lumumba. Engineered the overthrow of Lumumba (he visited moscow so america and belgium helped assassinate him.) Few years later, he decides, enough democracy. Renamed "Mobutu Sese Seko". (with approval of the West. During cold war, they see him as a bulwark vs soviet influence in Africa. Even thoguh he thought of himself as a socialist! He was a great politician..... He saw that both sides needed him.) 30+ yr dictatorship of "Zaire". Got 27 billion dollars in loans from World Bank for development projects (much was pocketed by himself and his circle). Key: You cant separate the idea of development from COLD WAR POLITICS. His funders knew where this money was going.... And he had a house and yacht in riviera in southern france lol. Performance of power: he created a cultural drama!!!!! He dresses diferently when in power. Ie, leopard skin hat. He fabricated a style as a "traditional leader" in africa. An abacost (traditional suit! "down with the suit" cuz a suit was westernized). HE INVENTED THE OUTFIT. (Mao inspired). Africa is mostly not jungle but the congo is!!! He styled himself as the center of panafricanist sentiment. Even though he was being "paid" by america! Ruling by "kleptocracy". Staged biggest boxing match in the world (Muhammad Ali, Don King). People were tortured under the stands of his stadium. Franco Luambo (singer who was paid to sing about mobutu's praises). "authenticite". Be a true african. And show mobutu as the true african leader. Created a class of wealthy individuals (corrupt) called the "Big Vegetables).

Oral Tradition

Definition: Local populations produce (Not individuals). Intended to convey something about the group: values, political ideas, etc. Eras BEFORE the time of the person who related it. (different than oral histories). Ie. Sundiata epic tale; praise songs; king lists (genealogies); court performer; griots (West African storytellers, could be a wise man, advisor, etc.) Messages are intentionally imbedded in oral tradition. What does oral tradition tell us about the past? (opposing views) Nothing. It's a myth. It's 100% about the present of the griot. It gets told a different way every time. It embodies the "invention of tradition". Or as a means of getting involved in present day politics. Can look at silences, and use other sources, too. Don't just use oral tradition (just like any time of source). "Thick description" means to get as much info/sources as you can. First generation of 'historians of Africa' (1950s) were originally based on oral traditions work. King lists can go back 150 years max, BUT a lot of oral traditions were transcribed in the past (ie. 500 years ago by missionaries) which create a new type of work. HISTORIOGRAPHICAL DEBATE. (read luo article again).

Menelik II of Ethiopia

During colonial conquest Showed that nothing about colonization was inevitable. Ethiopia did not fall. BUT because this was the only country that didn't fall, it shows the overwhelming points favouring colonization. Many different forms over the centuries (changing borders) mid 19th century, one feudal lord made vassals of the others. One of the first emperors of the later empire was Menelik. On the throne in 1876 when Italians invaded. Took mountainous territory. When they got hungry, Menelik destroyed their attacking force: THe Battle of Adwa, 1896. (got guns from Britain and France). Therefore ethiopia was not colonized (until 5 years under Mussolini in the 1930s). Liberia was the other colony that was never "colonized:

marketing board system (old)

Entire infrastructure based on shipping crops out. And shipping OUT resources. (roads, railways, etc. didn't connect africa to each other. Just connected to port cities). So initially countries based on marketing board system (colonial era): one purchaser for all cash crops. Ie. cotton, cocoa. The government-chartered purchaser buys everything at a fixed price. (supposed to be a good guarantee. But was used to fund government initiatives or provide cheap food for people who lived in city and werent growing food, so governments had inceptives to keep prices low and keep difference between what they paid to peasants and what they got for it from the international government. This difference supports development projects (industry locally developed.) = Import substitution model. Need to develop infrastructure to achieve import substitution. Everyone seemed to like this. Communist or capitalist. Saw soviet union and china as examples, they made rural pops support urban pops as they industrialized. (even though it cost lives). = periods of industrialization! During colonial era, not allowed to go to cities. So independence = lifted movement controls. So now lots of people in cities who arent employed. (fleeing bad rural situations, and prospect of city jobs).

Indirect Rule

French "association". British indirect rule pioneered by British East Africa Company by Frederick Lugard. \ "Puppet masters" - leaving traditional structures in place. Principle" "change within tradition" Rulers that were left in place. Advangageous of rule Europeans. Eg came to the help of the British during the revolt in Northern Nigeria. Controlled markets More complicated were British colonies that did not have a clean state. Had to go village to village! Co conquer, had to INVENT rules and tradition (often did not have a clear hierarchy) There was resistance in every region These massive ecc_____ just ____ an Africans and no resistance (MISCONCEPTION) The chief could be seen as A tool of colonial conduct Already on who had some kind of legitimacy This meant that chiefs could press for advantags. (Europeans had to be careful about who they followed). Held a great deal of power because they were backed by Europeans. Something not seen as people who sought his poeple's best interests...

Association

French form of indirect rule.... part of this was the Indigenat. diff laws for french vs locals. These laws were designed to be enforced by a system of administrative "cercles": appointed indigenous authorities, religious courts, and native police carrying out the orders of often distant French administrators.

gold coast vs. britain

Gold coast: mass demonstrations against british rule. War veterans (shot and killed at demonstration for backpay by colonial soldiers) . This put a lie to the decolonization is nonviolent myth. But violence was part of process in ways that may be hard to see. No guerilla army like Mau Mau. But you kind of did... because things that happened in Kenya and in Algeria had a great infleunce on how european powers thought about colonies elsewhere in africa. And shaped their actions. Ghanian independence 1957. MLK gave speech remarking on Nkrumah's independence with nonviolence. (technically true, no war. But did have that war in kenya and algeria).

Bantu Migrations

Help us to understand how different methodologies are used to study deep African past. And how the past is understood through the present. View 30 years ago: Originally nigerian, movement swept across Africa. Movement of PEOPLE (conquest). Done quickly and relatively recently. Emphasis changed: To movement of IDEAS. Over 10,000 years. Now called "Bantu Expansion". 19th century with European explorations, people recognized similarities from Niger-Congo group all the way to South Africa. (like similarity among Romance Languages of Europe!) Bantu is a subgroup of the Niger-Congo group. Also, there are "language islands" of Khoisan area, Tanzania. (definitely not Bantu). Linguists describe languages via a route they all see as common, "Ntu" means man, "Bantu" means people. 1500 languages in Niger-Congo group... 500 considered Bantu. This language dispersion was thought to be a movement of people, one group DOMINATING another after coming in. bantu OVERCOMING Khoisan clocks, because Khoisan lived in hunter-gatherers, in areas harder to get a living. Original theory was that the Bantu conquered.

Tutsi massacres (Rwanda, Burundi)

Hutus (rising nationalism), Hutu Pride = notion that tutsis are strangers from vague place of the north (ADOPTION OF THE HAMITIC THESIS TYPE THINKING), time to get rid of them... First president in 1962 is Hutu! = massacres of Tutsi. They flee into exile. To Uganda, DRC, Burundi. Most to Uganda. They are called inyenzi meaning cockroach. Tutsis attack the new regime from Uganda. They fail. Sets off series of counter-Tutsi pogroms in the 1960s. But still Tutsis in Rwanda. In Burundi after independence, the Tutsi minority take over. So killing of hundreds of thousands of Hutu (IN BURUNDI, many of whom flee to Rwanda! In Rwanda in 70s and 80s, great fear of returning Tutsis. (menace right on borders. And Rwanda so geographically small. 120 miles, 200k. Size of lower mainland of BC. Sense of menace never goes away. Late 1980s, economic crisis!!!!! (KEY POINT). Massive drop in price of coffee (main cash crop of Rwanda). In 5 years, GDP of Rwanda drops 40%!!!!!! = incredible sense of fear.

Federation

Idea: Become a single entity. Single federation of west african states, separate federation of equatorial africa. Issue: boigny doesn't wanna share ie. ivory coast resources with the rest of west africa. 2 yr experiment: senegal and mali are one country. Doesn't last. SO each declare their complete independence from france in 1960. don't even wanna maintain a symbolic tie to france. Sentiments changed very quickly over 2 yrs. related to panafricanism. Nkrumah wanted this right?? federations.

Settler Colonialism

Ie SA Most parts of Africa were considered undesirable for living.. Ecept SA, mediterranean coast, highlands of Rhodesia. Crop cultivation for Europeans, dispossession of peoples. White people favoured legally and economically by local rulers (eg in Kenya, the Kukuyu coudl not legally gow coffee or tea, the most profitable crops! They could only be labourers.)

cash crop economy

In 1800, vvast majority of peopel were subsistnence farmers. (with maybe a little surplus) After, start growing for cash (cash crops). (palm oil, tobacco etc.) (not used by poeple who are growing them.) Connections: For a cash crop economy you need People to buy what you are selling Currency Transportation systems (boats, trains, animals) Europeans had to convert people to cash crop economies People's labour was exploited. (easier to leave slavery IN PLACE). How do you make people work for you when they don't need money? Introduce taxes Hut taxes (people started building bigger houses) Switch to poll tax Built as cheap labour and tax revenues of that same place. Europe didnt "give" anything. Types of food grown has to do with taxation. Ie in Kenya, Kukuyu displaced off their highlands and men were forced to work on plantations Most of West Africa -- European methods did not work for the tropical environment, so land WASN'T taken. Forms of coerced labour existence in every European colony! Brought back in "emergency war situations" (french in WII) Many people benefited from the ______ The success of the cocoa production in Ghana funded railroad production. Small-scale African farming was far more productive than state-run institutions.. (but they calculated the risks/concerns).

Mau Mau

In kenya: (settler colony): Mau Mau or The Land and People's Party. Earlier remember, kukuyu of highlands had been displaced for white settlement. And settlers capitalized on best cash crops by law. By late 1940s, WWII veterans arming themselves to retake lands. (called Mau Mau by british "secret society of irrational hatred"). They killed fellow kenyans who were seen as not naitonalist. And many cleavages of British responded with system of concentration camps for people who spoke kukuyu langauge! Hundreds of (thousands?) people forced into camps/controlled villages. Castration, death, hanging. British had this in secret files until recent years!!!) State of emergency in kenya. Collective punishment for over a decade!!!!

Oral History

Individual not communal concerns Normally about a past that someone experienced themselves First attempt to work through oral histories not oral traditions = feminist historians wanting to do "life histories" of women. Or group interviews. (conversation goes where it will, and you get to see the debate of what actually happened). Criticisms: Subjective. Too much about interviewers' priorities. Romanticism about interviewee as being "an authentic voice". Interviewers too friendly with interviewee. Strengths: Subjective. Performance of self. Gestures, all that happens because it's communication not one way... and ask someone the same thing twice, get to different answers, which shows us the actual struggle of history writing. We see how memory works. And the interviewee has a role in the history being made. And you get to engage with people while you write their history!

Mansa Musa (Mali Empire)

Islam within TRADE. 14th century leader. Had so much money that at a pilgrimage to Mecca, he created inflation! During his time, Timbuktu was a key place of scholarship. (impact of Islam in Bilad al Sudan!)

La Sape

Its economy was in tatters in the 1970s, esp 1980s. Cuz of misrule. But also.... This is such a common story. Economy didn't have possibility of competing in a world where the prices where international market pays for african commodities isnt gonna be able to develop. Style movement was born. "society of ambiance makers and elegant people". All men? Wearing suits, flamboyant colours, etc. In recent years the movement has been WWII vets coming home started this? Brought french styles back to the congo. These are expensive suits. Ie. gucci, versace. But living in a one room house w 8 kids...... WHY? This is political. I can act out despite my socioeconomic state. Against "authenticite"? This is western, maybe. But IM DOING IT BETTER. ALSO Solange's music video for panafricanism using sapeurs.

Oral Man

Large role in Africanist history ie. deep African past Or recent African past but written by colonial administrators. "Oral Man" seen as a primitive condition. Pre-literate. Irrational and abstract. (BUT even written sources have their basis in orality so this is a dumb argument. And oral traditions have been thought of as "texts" of a different nature.)

Force Publique

Leopold II exploited the ivory in the Congo Free State.go to villages, tell them you need a quota of tusks. If you dont have them, we burn your village, take people hostage, chop off your hands.. Belgian representatives were the "force publique". Army police force. 19,000 men, recruited from former slaves, with white officers Often recruits had been hostages as kids, or signed up for 7 years Late 1890s, bicycle craze, cars early 20th century. = needed rubber, tires. The Congo had a large supply of wild rubber vines, so the transportation revolution fueled the Force Publique's power? Exploitation? The force publique were permitted to terrorize. Using ie. chicotte (an animal hide whip). If you met the quota, you got a metal disk around your neck. Cutting hands as a punishment to not waste amo

Leopold II

Main player within the theme of: DESTRUCTION OF THE PEOPLES OF CENTRAL AFRICA DUE TO REGIME OF FORCED LABOUR FROM 1880S "ENDING" IN 1908 Major player in the scramble for Africa. Belgium didnt have a colonial policy, but King Leopold as an individual did. Other European powers didn't take Central Africa because it was unknown, harder to get to. But Leopold's strategy was to take it. He promised he'd make it a free trade zone for any European commerce and any missionaries. (vs. other Europeans wanted total control of their colonies), He was profit-seeking. Not "enlightenment". He knew what he was doing. ?

Legitimate Commerce and new slavery

Major raw material needed from Africa: PALM OIL. used to lubricate new factory machinery. "Legitimate commerce" : commerce not of people, just of payment for your work. But this was sticky because abolition high slavery locally in Africa All the local states/ interests who weren't engaged in the slave trade any more were now producing goods to sell to Europe and more profitable to have slaves Exploitation on many levels also....... "new" slavery: Until 1961, had forced labour in Portuguese colonies. Justified by being 'one's moral duty' to work. Abolished in 1961.

swahili

Means "coast" Outsiders often saw it as Arabic. Indepedent sultanates, and had arab traders along the coast. BUT it wasnt Arab. had Bantu language and rulers spoke some Arabic. The coast was predominantly Muslim in the late 1st Millennium CE, before Northern Europe was all Christian. so.... how africa is seen? (not hamitic thesis though right?). SYNCRETISM. ie. ZANZIBAR, center of Swahili culture.

decolonization

Mid 50s, europeans attempted to engineer decolonization to their own advantage. To preserve economic relationships if not political ones. Would be CHEAPER this way. But our business interests could maintain market access, cheap labour European powers began to (as they gave limited self rule to places) invest power in the hands of traditional elites who'd been in power under colonial systems. Ie. in Northern Nigeria former sukoto caliphate. In gold coast, brits had tried to leverage tribal people in asante region vs. nkrumah. Nkrumah became beacon as 1st leader of black african country. Beacon of pan africanism, who financially and ideologically supported independence movements.

Bantu Expansion

Miriam Makeba. song. Song: Xhosa (Bantu language) vs. Khoisan bushman Counter-argument to conquest theory. The clicks and the story in both languages = historical argument. That they learned herding techniques from them. South Africa: white settlers came in the 17th century. 20th century, several million settlers lived there. Apartheid SA had guiding principles: no one was living there when whites came. No Zulu or Xhosa. They thought that people had only gotten there very recently. BUT it happened over several millennia. 3-4km per decade. And it happened BEFORE the diffusion of iron, not after, therefore they were not better at conquering people because they had iron. Maybe people picked up herding techniques that helped them expand Generational change (settled agriculture = produces a denser population) Maybe with farming, malaria followed. How do we know the speed of this, social organization, that they ate, etc. Archaeology, but also LANGUAGE. Ie. iron shows up in many ways (different words) in Bantu, so it wasn't in the original language. But the pottery word is similar in the languages, so original people probably had pottery. Key: THEY MIGRATED SLOWLY they didn't conquer.

economic modernization (new)

Modernization: universal idea. Means everything has a technical answer. "technicrats" rule. Unpolitical. Theres an exact formula for success: cheap crop production to support urban populations, making of industry to process products out of domestic primary materials. But still variations. Today we'll look at 2 possibilities Things that marked all modernization projects: Privileges big prestige projects. (building a dam, ie. in Ghana. Great for politicians). And encouraged by ie. the World Bank. megadams give you electricity... and powers IRRIGATION. Top-down approach. Planners. Every african state working with club of experts that circulates around newly independent countries. Politically, many states adopting single party structures under guise of unity. Often slides into military rule. 2 possibilities of modernization: MOBUTU vs. JULIUS NYEYERE. pursuing modernization because: Droughts! Oil Shock 1973. oil embargo. Spiking of oil prices. Not good for anyone except oil producers (Nigeria). Depression in all prices for commodities around the globe. (and many african countries were based on export of raw commodities! Ie. zambia, 90% of economy based on copper exports!!! Zambia at one point was considered a middle income country cuz of copper strength, then never recovered after this.)

Keys to Colonial Conquest

Mot places in Africa only had direct European rule for 80 years! Tanzania, 40 years! Because the conquest may have taken decades. But utterly changed the trajectories of these places and orientations of African economies. (ie. focused on exports. And flights today in Africa lack internal flights. All international.) Colonialism = expansive term. Not a single phenomenon. Variety in power relationships. Continuity with the past despite "new" colonialism.. Ie. Kingdom of Kongo, Gold Coast.. Had European relations already and Mediterranean

Resistance to Apartheid

Non-violent movement: African National Congress (ANC.) mandela was a member. Had existed since 1912. (soon after union of south africa was formed). Freedom charter (1955) issued a bunch of demands for a free and fair society. Was issued by various groups, including ANC, in 1955. authors were arrested for treason. Including mandela. then: Sharpville 1960. and POLITICAL MOBILIZATION IN 1960s! ANC went underground when they realized peaceful resistance wouldn't work. During this period, the police state expanded. Political participation was banned, parties made illegal under legislation that outlawed communism initially (used to silence anyone who opposed apartheid). Internationally south africa became a pariah nation. Nelson Mandela speech from the dock. 1964. (dock is terminology for the person on trial). Split between ANC and PAC... ANC under mandela, he's saying he wants erasure of racialism. Not domination of blacks over whites. South african communist party was ally of ANC. Pan african congress doesn't want white allies. Mandela became national resistance symbol from Robben Island. At the same time, armed resistance to white minority rule happened in all settler colonies that hadnt already decolonized. Basically all south africa's neighbours. Angola, mozambique, rhodesia, namibia ("SW africa").

Northern Triangular Trade

Northern triangular trade was dominated by british in 18th century, southern by portuguese. Except they were portuguese living in brazil, not portugal. Slaves mostly to brazil. Or to caribbean. North america only 3-4% of captives. Flow of slaves ALSO across sahara and into Indian ocean! This map is only since 1420. If map was of entire modern era, the flow of captives out of africa into indian ocean would probably match the numbers that were going across the atlantic. WHY so many slaves leaving africa at this time? Slavery is not something that is very recent. Probably since agri revolution.

Neoevolutionismn

Not that this idea of civilization is RIGHT, but a critique of Social Darwinism. Critique of archaeology as searching out places of civilization, with a clear idea of what was "advanced" (and assumed higher technology was not African origins.)

Sundiata

Old Ghana Kingdom in decline, and in the 13th century rise of the Mali Empire. (because trade routes moved East. Sundiata made the Mali Empire. Mali Empire: along middle Niger river. (his epic that we read in class, too!) performance: griots.

Leopold Sedar Senghol

One of foremost poets in french language Nationalist leader Thought future of french west africa was in french community More radical leaders around the continent thought he was a toadie of colonialism. He was cast as typical brainwashed african who thought he was a european His arguments: (historians rereading him now) Our entire economy is based on france. What happens if france is no longer responsible for us? Better to be on inside with equal or subordiante role than outside. Used to be seen as under colonial rule. Now seen as foresight.

Afrocentrism

Opposing Hamitic thesis. Claims an African root for civilization. Like the Hamitic thesis, sees civilization as centralized authority able to organize society in a certain way, with a hierarchy. Ie. pyramids.

Seydou Keita

Photographer Seydou Keita (one of the best 20th century photographers), prosperous fat man and baby, powerful, familial (shows relationship), powerful looking happy man. Other Seydou Keita photos. 1958. Look at power dynamic in photo. Ie. Mali photo 1958. Differences between her images and others: circumstances of the photo being taken. Are they degrading or consensual formal photos? Power dynamics are key. People as abstractions ('the Africans') or people as individuals. People without or with pasts.

Rwandan Patriotic Front

Political unease because you have elections scheduled for the first time in a long time. And existing Rwandan elites have a lot to lose in these new elections. (like any power regime in Africa at the time). Need to compete in multi-party elections. So in 1990, appearance of a Tutsi-based army in southern Uganda, supported by Uganda. RPF = Rwandan Patriotic Front. Projects itself as being multi-ethnic group seeking to unseat corrupt regime. But its major leaders are Tutsi. In Rwanda, now a movement in response to this sense of menace: "Hutu Power". Ideology of pure Hutuness. Rwanda for Hutus. More extremist formulation of ideas that have been around for decades. One promoter of Hutu Power publishes the "hutu ten commandments". Cant marry tutsis. No more mercy on tutsis. Lots of people killed in ethnic violence in early 90s. Regular massacres of Tutsis. Theres an organization of Hutu militias (interahamwe) "those who stand together". Government is partnered with elements of news media, radio. Mobilization against threat of Tutsi invasion. And among Tutsis who were still living in Rwanda. RPF, in response to massacres of Tutsis, invades Rwanda!!!!

April 1994

President of Rwanda (Hutu) seeks power-sharing deal with RPF. Knew hw couldn't win against RPF with his army. Peace deal. That makes him a COLLABORATOR among hutu power extremists. So april 1994, a plane w president of Rwanda on it is shot down. (still don't know who shot it down). (perhaps a false flag operation.) Shooting down of president's plane unleashes wave of violence against Tutsis by militias. Both planned AND not planned. Planned: militias ready to go. Organized. Be told what to do by people on the radio. Ready. Unplanned: people taking violencei nto their own hands. SO PERSONAL. Most of the killing done by machete. First hand. Sought shelter in churches, schools, but they couldn't help Were already UN troops on the ground! (to keep the peace during elections which never happened). 2,000 of them . Romeo Delaire (canadian who led UN force) wanted to beef up force in response to coming violence but instead his forces were cut. No dispute today that this would have stopped the violence. UN didn't wanna call it a genocide cuz then UN would be obligated to intervene. No one wanted a repeat of Somalia. When US troops under UN were captured and bodies tragged around streets of mogadishu. Generalized pullout of entire foreign precence. Bloodlet ended after 100 days cuz RPF swept in quickly. 2 million Hutus fled, with help of the French, into the DRC. (then still called Zair). That's where the story ends in public memory.

Julius Nyeyere

President of tanzania. (tanganika + zanzibar merged.) Trying to carve a new path for african economies. He spoke about a "specific type of african socialism". Didn't wanna import marxist formula. But african societies were communal to be gin with (not working class, bourgeouisie etc.) but he said the natural state of tanzanians was communal! Didn't have poor starving people. Che called this "ujamaa". (familyhood). Economy based on idea of family. Principles: self-reliance (not gonna import new machinery. We're gonna farm cuz we know how to farm, didn't wanna have foreign investment either.). (reactivation of blatant social activist values). Rhetoric: He made a leaderhsip code to make sure politicians werent paid too mcuh and didn't have perks. Committed gov to social equality. He favoured equity over growth. "natural democracy" in african socialism (consensus building). Villagization scheme. Think about urbanization...... he was anti-urban. Saw cities as a problem. Lost your africaness sense in cities, didn't have jobs, etc. So began nationwide scheme of FORCED VILLAGIZATION. So could not come together communally to make enough crops for export!!!!!! Forcing people to live where they don't want to live. Scattered. At first, encouraging people to live in communal villages. By 1970s, army started forcing people. Health and education increased in rural areas, life expectancy incerased from 40 to 52. Able to better serve people when they live in larger concentrations though? ....... He wanted greater densification of the countryside so he could better serve villages? Widely considered a disaster. (people know whee to farm. The state does not). AND plummetting of prices paid for exports.

Dating

Radiocarbon dating (ie. ashes from massive amount of wood burned for iron) Stratigraphy and association (layers of occupation.. Which objects are associated with other objects from the same time? Strata= geologists. Object =archaeologist). Associating (ie. pottery) Chemical dating Help us understand the spread of IDEAS and people. "Neolithic / iron age / stone age people" are terms of convenience. Associate entire peoples with random materials we've found. Ignores politics, social lives, spiritual lives, etc.

Direct Rule

Replacing out any indigenous people in administration and replace them with Whites French in West Africa ______ of assimilation )official policy): to fit with the French egalitarianism. Became culturally French. (vague concept). Minimum requirement for asimilation (reading and writing) only available to a small percentage of pop! 192, only 100 africans were able to get full citizenship Extremely arbitrary citizenship tests! Portuguese changed rules all the time. Image of schools and hispotals only came later in colonization. So not educating poeple to become citizens at this time. In mixed partnerships, some would be claimed most often. (??) Category of people (in French case, Evolue) ho are labled, gov have also created a category who arent. Indigenous poeples: legally, no law protects them. Thus can be compelled to do forced labour. These things match much more to the idea of colonialism: eg. the fact that French allowed citizenship and Brits did not does not matter much because in practice, very few could actually be naturalized. Notion of Africans as children that needed to be learned. (19th and 20th century). French discovered that civilizing Africans would actually be costly, so switched gears. By WWI, started following principles of "association".

Tutsi n Hutu divisions (origins)

Share the same language and religion, don't live separately. Tutsis in precolonial era were aristocracy. Had cattle. Peasants who didn't have cattle but grew crops were called Hutu. (So it's more an economic category than ethnic?) Area first colonized by Germans but germans lost it in WWI. Became a mandate territory of the Belgians. Belgians had indirect rule (chiefs) x xcz Indirect rule: civilization comes from somewhere (early 20th century ideology) from big places in the north from white people, dispersed in the south. (the Hamitic Thesis). Germans identified an aristocratic RACE of people, determined that both rwanda and burundi were made up of a group of people who were destined to rule because they were racially superior (the aristocratic cattle owners) (darker, shorter stature, "racially inferior" hutu). Had been a fluid ethnicity at this point. Could move between hutu and tutsi. Through marriage, moving up in economic, etc. But BELGIANS did a census post WWII, dividing territory (ruled rwanda and burundi as one colony), had to carry a card saying whether you're tutsi or hutu! And they favour tutsis in schooling and jobs etc. National resentment based on tutsi privilege. Not even just belgian stuff. Hutus had forced labour, tutsis were not. \ Tutsis have a lot to lose at independence. They are a small minority, but have the positions of power. Ready to take on even more power when Belgians depart. Don't stand to win in a majority rule situation.

Sharpville

Sharpeville, 1960: (similar things happening throughout settler colonial africa). Demonstrators demonstrated by pan african congress. (research what happened, I missed some). This is when south africa gets on global map as a problem. People who were peacefully resisting were shot in the back as they fled. End of peaceful resistance. ANC etc. forced underground, and had to make armed resistance branches. Gained support from the soviet union. So apartheid people cast this as capitalism vs communism, not black vs white. Idea of nelson mandela as a man of peace was from another time. At this time, he was leader of armed wing of ANC. Became a guerilla movement for liberation.

Shosholoza Song

Shosholoza song: reference to labour migration in south africa. Migrants from zimbabwe (southern rhodesia) going to mines around johannesberg. A work song. Is sung in work settings in south africa During protests against ie. the government In Invictus. So in sport. Sung when nelson mandela died. Song of resistance? ... idk but defs nationalistic (both zimbabwe n south africa say it. So flexible community..). Assertion of saying im african? Creates a sense of community? 1995 world cup, it stood in for a lot of things. Wasn't just black south africans singing it. And as a work song: compare to Paiva, a mozambique protest song Resistance against plantation owner named Paiva. Original wasn't in english or portuguese. Probs owner couldn't understand what they were saying. Not a protest cuz owner cant understand but song of suffering. Solidarity in suffering? Similar to Shosholoza.. Like muttering under your breath... so the oppressor sees that you're unhappy, but so you cant be punished. OR..... Or work songs are to make it go easier? Release steam to LUBRICATE the work machine? All themes of independence movement can be summed up in discussion of these songs What is resistance? Who resisted?

Slavery in Islamic North Africa

Slavery much more a part of texture of daily life. Non-muslim war captives Several thousand africans from below the sahara. Ibn Battuta recounts (return trip to mali) 600 female slaves in his caravan Servants in the houses of the wealthy. (concubines, craftspeople, soldiers) But as in europe it wasn't central to the economy. If you were to outlaw slavery in north africa 1000 or 500 yrs ago, wouldn't be economically ruinous. It was a luxury good for the rich No strong association at the time between race and slavery Also slaves could rise to highest positions in official bureaucracies Key: Ibn Battuta reading!

Physical legacy of apartheid

Sophiatown. Was cultural capital of south africa. Music, . Like harlem. Mixing pot of artists. Was in an area that apartheid wanted to make white. Cuz it was close to Johannesburg. ENTIRE NEIGHBOURHOOD WAS LEVELLED. Not because it was african (epopel of all races lived here), but because they were MIXED RACES HERE. People of all races. Most dangerous for apartheid ideology. So had to destroy this first. Triumph (renamed) became the new white housing area where sophiatown had been. Need urban planners, architects...... Lots of people who were evicted still need housing cuz theyre still needed as labourers!!!! SOWETO. South western townships. Largely male Dormitory communities. No public space. Giant streetlights. So it was hardest to shoot. Further away from cities. Isolate you away. Soweto was many townships. (was this just one example of the dormitories?) SO INEFFICIENT TO DESTROY EXISTING HOUSING AND BUILD FAR AWAY HOUSING JUST TO KEEP A RACIAL GROUP AWAY.

trade routes and islam

Trade routes preceded Islam By 8th century CE there was trade across the Sahara. Picks up significantly in 5th century CE because of the domestication of the camel! (Trade in salt for gold). Gold as currency enables trade. But cant be used as currency in West Africa because there was so much gold there, so West Africans used cowrie shells from the Indian Ocean as currency. Salt needed in West Africa, too. Also ivory, slaves, animal skins, cowries. Berbers (traders) brought Islam to areas in West Africa where gold was produced in the 11th century CE. In the Ghana Kingdom, Islam gains a foothold. (with shared practices, can form groups of trust in commercial areas). Leadership around West Africa converted (some through force but most probably through diplomacy), populations resisted. SO the Royalty ended up being Muslim. Existing cultural practices didn't change. It was a language of literacy and science etc. Didnt spread until 18th century to rural areas in West Africa

Berlin Conference, 1884-5

Under Bismarck, European nations came together. "Sets off a Scramble for Africa". (but in reality, this process was already underway. The conference was an attempt to REGULATE it.) Out of this: whatever you claim on a map, had to have "effective occupation" there. (boots, admin). SO higher military activity. Before, just had trade influences in places. All of Africa, not just sub-saharan? .... But north Africa was already accounted for (ie. Algeria already under French, Egypt? Already under British).

Africa and slavery

WHY africa? Christendom vs Islam in north. Both used slaves extensively. But they got their slaves from places other than Africa. (usually from each other through raids and wars.) that situation didn't endure. They fought themselves to a standstill. So supply of slaves diminished. From late middle ages onward, increasing number of africans entering slave systems of both christendom and islam. Even before europeans entered the oceans. That explains the flow that increased to mid east/mediterranean areas. Right until 20th century.

Underdevelopment Theory vs other

Walter Rodney. "underdevelopment theory". Africa was underdeveloped relative to europe because of the slave trade Argued that slavery in africa pre-trans atlantic slave trade was rare. And forms of slavery that we witness after happened precisely because of the distortions caused by the trans atlantic slave trade. Shipping of 10 million over 350 yrs over oceans causes what would have been a more developed present. (sacrificed by chipping off all productive labour). And forms of slavery that we see happened because of all the violence that was unleashed by the trans atlantic slave trade. Slavery was rare. 2. Other view: That slavery was quite common. Because land was abundant but labour was scarce. So the ability to control labour was fundamental of wealth. As opposed to currency "wealth in people". (owning OR being able to influence someone to make sure they'll work in your behalf). Don't just pay for labour on an as-needed basis (if you don't have currency) but on barter. And to barter, you have to deal with bigger goods. Ie. I'll give you 10 cows for the use of a person. Barter tends to involve large one time trades. Consequence of this theory: slave trade was unambiguously bad. But a number of african states voluntarily participated in it because it was a natural extension of the way african societies worked. It was an amplification of forms of slavery that were widespread throughout africa already. Key: AFRICA IS A BIG PLACE. It's huge. So much diversity. So lots of different histories. Rodney focused his research on upper guinea coast. Thorton focused his research in angola (where 25% of people came from during trans atlantic slave trade).

Lumumba

during decolonization and independence movements. And the congo crisis! France had referendum in 1958, inspires people in Belgian Congo. Demonstrations, etc. no body of legislative anything in congo. No representative bodies of africans. Overnight, schedule elections, allow political parties... overnight, over 100 political parties formed! The extra-regional party wins ofc. Led by Lumumba. 35 yrs old. Date for independence rapidly set: June 30 1960. Lumumba (PM of congo) head of gov. King baldoin (belgian) President of congo. Head of state (might only have one or two cameras! .... Sppeaks to issues. How are things known? Rickety media operation... Concluding remarks In the end, Lumumba was highly suspect by the west. Within a week, there was a mutiny of soldiers vs belgian officers. Belgians flew in troops. Then katanga seeded from the congo (where copper is.) and we know americans and belgians engineered this! Lumumba fled to stanleyville, was captured and murdered in the presence of belgian officers. In 2002, belgium admitted its role. Lumumba sometimes called the martyr of neocolonialism. Threads of independence period here...

Scramble for Africa

frantic, improvised nature of colonial rule. Beginning of 19th century, only southern tip of Africa had been dominated by Europeans (with tiny exceptions, slave trading ports at the coast, sometimes just a fort.) By 20th century, almost entire continent under Europe. Part of a larger process in Americas, then Asia of European domination. Imperialism and colonialism. Imperialism/empire: the idea of expansion Vs. colonialism: the practice of making that happen 1. Missionary Activity: Not making much progress. >1% Christian by 1880. Missionary interests often highly influenced European home countries' decisions, as they wanted help from the government to end slavery. Had abolished slavery/trade in places where they had been in control but they had been in control of very little. Government response: "useful" to partner with missionary groups. 2. Great Exploration of Africa 3. Search for New Markets: post-Industrial revolution, Europe was looking for new markets. In India, the British had destroyed local textile industry to stop competition and solt British-made textiles back to India. The HOPE was it would be the same in Africa. 4. Land Grabbing: Competition among governments for geostrategic positioning. Ie. Stanley sent by newspaper to find Livingstone. Then sent by Belgian king ot make deals with local chiefdoms. = rational and irrational motives. (rational = profit seeking, irrational = grabbing land just in case there's money to be made there. Preemptive. So other countries would't grab. Major player: Leopold II. and Berlin Conference 1884-5.

The Second Colonization of Africa and decolonization context

post-war era. Europe destroyed. France, britain, netherlands, belgium... needa be rebuilt. France, belgium and britain see africa and labour available as means of reinvigorating europeaan economy. = begins "THE SECOND COLONIZATION OF AFRICA". Totally different phase. Now, europeans acknowledged that these were places on the road to decolonization. But said it would take decades or centuries. Major investments and infreastructure in africa to better produce raw materials for europe. AND investments in education and in health. (primary edu = in last 10 yrs of colonial rule.) With new push for industrialization in africa to produce goods for metropole, also great deal of urbanization. Workers in factories now and in cities (had been towns before). Workers making new demands! Pressing for higher wages. Why should I be paid less than european workers in europe? And rural cooperatives who had experience of selling goods/crops dirt cheap to colonial marketing boards to support war effort. These rural cooperatives became insurgent forms of organization where people would grow crops on their own and seek to sell crops around on marketing boards. (often failing, but the forms of organization that happened in these attempts were pivotal. To ie. what would become development of political parties). Had allowed limited political representation except in separate colonies (kenya and rhodesia. South africa was already independent country). And this is during COLD WAR! Must consider this context. So european power marginalized by USA and USSR. American interests: against colonialism officially since 1776! Not in game of protecting european colonial rule in africa. But just want to help nato allies who they've given arms to. In some ways seek to protect european intersts in africa. But their fundamental concern is that the USSR (doesn't?) win ideological battle in Africa. If America is seen as supporting empires in Africa, that fits the picture of Soviet propaganda. Voices in american administration: kennedy vs eisenhower. But key: america excerting new pressure on european allies to decolonize. Americans want to make sure it doesn't lose africa to the soviets. France: Fighting war in vietnam; defeated in 1954. War in algeria (metropolitan france). War for algerian independence, NASTY, already underway. 1955, conference in Indonesia of all asian and some african (newly independent) countries. India, indonesia, yugoslavia... vaguely socialist orientation. But also NOT ALIGNED with superpowers. = new political force that is heard at united nations! Theyre pointing out hypocricy of maintaining africa under colonial rule 1956, france britain and israel attempt to take over suez canal. Which had been nationalized by egypt by Nasser. Were denied by americans. So end of french and british imperial actions.

Ibn Battuta in Black Africa

sojourn in West Africa between 1352 and 1354. Although only a small part of Rihla, it is 'the black African section of his travels [that] confirms his preeminence' because it represents the only firsthand account we have of either the East African city-states or the empire of Mali in the fourteenth century. "Even in this 60-page excerpt Ibn Battuta comes alive. He has eccentricities, prejudices, and conceits. But he is also a man of courage, curiosity, and conviction. It is because Ibn Battuta 'is somehow so real and like ourselves that soon we enter the more deeply into the narrative and see things through his eyes.' What we see is a fragment of African civilization before European intrusion. Even that glimpse helps dispel the myths of African backwardness and isolation. The brief description of the East African city states of Mogadishu, Mombasa and Kilwa is less interesting than the longer and more richly detailed account of Mali. But in both we see the wealth, orderliness, and stability of African political organization, and the sophistication, complexity and security of African trading networks. "The extent and familiarity of slavery in Africa and use of skin color as a dividing line between white and black populations both become apparent. We learn something of the richness of African cities and the dietary habits of their peoples. We find disapproving descriptions of the immodesty of the women of Mali who do not veil, have male friends and even go bare breasted in public. "Even more clearly we see the connections of African communities to the wider world of Islam. The goods available testify to the extent of trade with this world. As Ibn Battuta records the people he meets we get a vivid picture of the Islamic world as an international, cosmopolitan, and tolerant civilization. A manuscript written in Baghdad is in the library of the sultan of Mali. The brother of a man Ibn Battuta met in China offers him hospitality in Mali. Although the shaykh disapproves, Christians, schismatics and animists seem free to come and go and worship as they choose.

South Africa mining industry

the Union of Southern Africa had been several other countries that was now under British rule 1880s gold was discovered in the Round?? (when still Transvaal (Dutch speaking republic) How do you make poeple work at these mines? Take away their land Work for really cheap More Mozambiquans working, more from Malawi (few South Africans). In mining compounds, not ie. Johannesbourg. Didnt want poeple with __ who may pressure the workers. Make sure you don't have a revolt. Irtguese got a __out? Of all Mozanbiquians working in SA Wage labour not the same as forced labour Many poeple had multiple families in ______ and in their "homeland" Now young and acquiring wives caearn now = access to cash. (can compete with older men for authority). Created gender inequality as well. Authority and status undermined. Number of single women made it to __ as well. (sex work, ___). Considered crucial for mining industry.