Aging Ch. 6

Implicit memory is also referred to as

procedural memory

Remembering that you have a dentist appointment next Friday at noon requires ____________.

prospective memory

Remembering to call your friend on her birthday requires you to use

prospective memory.

36. When a friend asks you to tell them everything about your weekend, this is an example of what type of memory task?

recall

Overall, older adults do less well than younger adults on __________, but on __________ this difference between the age groups is reduced.

recall tests; recognition tests

Answering short-answer or essay questions on your final exam requires the use of

recall.

Semantic memory can be described as involving which type of ability?

recalling the definition of a word or a historical fact

An example of an internal memory strategy is

rehearsal

Which of the following beliefs about memory is not characteristic of older adults?

I know a great deal about how memory works.

Research suggests that all of the following external memory cues are most effective except those that

require a pen or pencil.

What variable affects whether age differences will be obtained on divided attention tasks?

task complexity

Occasionally, people temporarily experience a complete loss of memory and are disoriented in time, a condition known as ________________.

temporary global amnesia (TGA)

__________________, which often accompanies long-term alcoholism, involves major loss of recent memory and sometimes a total inability to form new memories.

Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome

______________ is the active processes and structures involved in holding information in mind and simultaneously using that information to solve a problem or make a decision.

Working memory

Remembering where you were when 9/11 occurred is an example of

a flashbulb memory

In a large cross-sectional study of source memory, adults between the ages of 21 and 80 years of age showed

a linear decrease over time.

Which of the following is an external memory aid?

a shopping list

Neuroscience research clearly demonstrates that ___________ has a wide range of effects on the brain, including increased neural plasticity, and can be an intervention alternative for diseases such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's.

exercise

Memory aids that rely on environmental resources, such as notebooks or calendars, are known as

external aids

Benjamin (2010) proposed that older adults have a(n) ________ that causes problems in source memory and the inability to exclude irrelevant information.

global deficit

Improvements in your memory as the result of being previously exposed to the information without actively trying to remember it is known as

implicit memory.

The two groups of drugs that work to enhance memory, cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine, work through

neurotransmitters.

Which best describes normative age-related changes in semantic memory?

It increases from 35-55 years of age, levels off, and then declines after age 65.

Researchers have generally concluded that most of the reason memory performance declines with age has to do with _____________ problems.

Memory Processes

The amount of information that can be processed at any given time is called the

attentional capacity.

Which of the following places minimal demands on attentional capacity and gets information into the system largely without us being aware of it?

automatic processing

Most of the tasks involving deliberate memory, such as learning words on a list, require ______________.

effortful processing

58. Remembering something that did not really occur is known as

false memory

A computer analogy is used to explain

information processing approach

The awareness of what we are doing with our memory right now is known as

memory monitoring.

Attentional control is linked to the speed of processing in the

parieto-frontal lobes.

Answering a multiple choice question on an exam like this one is an example of

recognition memory.

Most of us cannot accurately draw either side of common coins we see everyday, such as pennies. This is most likely because

we have failed to pay attention to the details of the coin.

Identify and provide an example of an external memory aid.

External memory aids rely on environmental resources. These are things such as notebooks, diaries, calendars, computers, and smartphones. These support memory in everyday situations, such as taking notes on a computer while listening to a lecture. In general, external and explicit interventions, such as smartphones, are the most frequently used. This may be because they are easy to use, widely available, and work well with adults affected by a variety of mental and physical disorders. Many apps on smartphones relieve memory burden (maps, calendars). These explicit and external interventions have potential value for improving older adults' cognitive performance in real-world settings.

Describe false memories. Why might older adults be more susceptible to false memories?

False memories are based on items or events that did not occur. Sometimes we are told stories by friends and relatives that we could not possibly have experienced. Yet, if we hear these stories enough, we may come to believe they are part of our past and incorporate them into our autobiographical memories. People can falsely recall memories and feel confident about them. Older adults tend to be more susceptible to this than younger adults. One explanation is that older adults have more difficulty correctly identifying information as false because they have trouble linking content information to its context. Also, older adults have more trouble separating misleading context from context that is relevant. This may help explain why older adults are more susceptible to misleading information in general.

Which of the following is not an assumption of the information-processing approach?

Information is handled in the system in an untransformed manner.

Identify and provide an example of an internal memory aid.

Internal aids are memory aids that rely on mental processes, such as imagery. Examples of internal memory aids are using rote rehearsal (repeating facts or information) and imagery (remembering the location of your car parked in a parking lot). Classic examples of formal internal strategies include the method of loci, mentally retracing, turning letters into numbers, and forming acronyms out of first letters of words (such as NASA). Most memory improvement courses train people to become proficient at one of these internal strategies.

What is autobiographical memory? What distinguishes events that are memorable from those that are not?

One of the main functions of memory is to give one a sense of identity. Autobiographical memory involves remembering information and events from our own lives. This type of memory is primarily episodic, although it can involve semantic memory as well. Autobiographical memories change over time for all adults. The number of autobiographical memories increases the fastest between the ages of 18 and 25. Details for autobiographical events change over time. While it would seem that highly traumatic or unexpected events would remain unchanged in memory, this is not always the case. When comparing people's accounts of flashbulb memories with objective accounts of events, people's memories are often wrong. The errors in autobiographical memory help explain why eyewitness testimony is often unreliable.

Describe normative age-related differences in working memory. What are the implications for daily functioning?

Working memory involves holding information in mind and simultaneously using that information, sometimes in conjunction with incoming information to solve a problem or make a decision. Working memory plays an active and critical role in encoding, storage, and retrieval. Compared with sensory memory, working memory has a relatively small capacity. Most research indicates a significant age-related decline in working memory. The loss of the ability to hold items in working memory may limit older adults' overall cognitive functioning.

A TOT (tip-of-the-tongue) experience is

a simple momentary retrieval failure for information that is otherwise accessible.

You are at a cocktail party when you see a friend from college, but you can't seem to recall her name. You know it begins with an S. This is an example of

a tip-of-the-tongue experience.

Neuroimaging studies indicate that age-related changes in speed of processing

are dependent upon what adults are being asked to do.

John has driven the same short route to work everyday for the last seven years. Today he arrived at work and realized he really didn't remember any of his drive. This is an example of

automatic processing.

Age differences on divided attention tasks

can be reduced by increasing older adults' practice with the tasks.

Trying to complete two tasks at one time requires which type of attention?

divided attention

When first learning to drive a manual transmission car, we are often aware of our processing and it seems to take all of our attention to coordinate our actions. This is an example of

effortful processing.

52. Making connections between new information and already known information is called

elaborative rehearsal

Autobiographical memory is primarily a form of

episodic memory

If 47yearold Matt can remember the poem he memorized in Mrs. Smith's 2nd grade class, Matt is using what type of memory for this task?

episodic memory

This type of memory stays fairly stable until 55-60 years of age and then shows a precipitous decline after age 65.

episodic memory

The process of prospective memory begins with the intention to remember something in the future and depends on monitoring

event and time cues.

Older adults are more susceptible to scams and con artists because they are more susceptible to

false memories.

Memory for implicit material reveals that, in general, age differences are

greater for explicit memory relative to implicit memory.

A brain autopsy following the suicide of former NFL player Dave Duerson revealed he suffered from chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) caused by repeated ___________.

head trauma

Older adults show __________ levels of brain activity in the parietal and frontal regions of the brain involved in the retrieval of information.

higher

Brushing your teeth is not something you tend to think consciously about. Remembering how to do it is an example of ____________ memory.

implicit

The ____________________ to cognition examines how people take in stimuli material from their environment and transform that information into memories.

information-processing approach

Research evidence indicates that the oldest adults have more irrelevant thoughts during processing tasks and have more trouble keeping these irrelevant thoughts out of mind. This is evidence of

inhibitory loss.

Mentally retracing your steps in all the places you've been in order to find your missing car keys is an example of a(n) ________________ strategy.

internal

Most memory improvement courses train people to become proficient at using

internal strategies

Older adults perform better on episodic memory tests when instructed to use

internal study strategies such as rehearsal.

Older adults have more difficulty correctly identifying information as false because they have trouble linking content information to

its context

The ability to remember extensive amounts of information from a few seconds to a few hours to decades is known as

long-term memory.

The memories of what you did last summer and the speech you gave last semester in your public speaking class are stored in

long-term memory.

Research on memories concerning personal health conducted by Coleman and colleagues, based on the Harvard Longitudinal Studies, showed that

memories improved between ages 40-50.

You have an hour break between classes, and you decide to go to the library and study. Your awareness of the time while studying is an example of

memory monitoring.

What feature of memory reflects an individual's confidence in being able to complete a task?

memory self-efficacy

You realize that you have an exam coming up for your biology course. Half of it is multiple choice and half of it is essay. You realize the essay section will be harder than the multiple-choice part of the exam. This is an example of

metamemory

Recent research into what causes working memory deficits in older adults has found that

older adults have more trouble juggling all of the information at once.

Claiming that one had performed an activity that one had actually only observed is more common among

older adults.

Neuroscience research shows that during encoding, the prefrontal cortex in older adults shows

overactivity

One way to distinguish normal from abnormal memory changes is to ask whether the changes disrupt a person's ability to _________________.

perform daily living tasks.

Identifying the correct information from a larger list of information is an example of

recognition memory.

Age-related decline in ________ working memory tends to be greater than the decline in _________ working memory.

spatial; verbal

Which of the following was found to be a protective factor for maintaining one's cognitive state over time?

speaking multiple languages

The use of _____________ makes tasks easier and increases the efficiency of encoding and retrieval.

strategies

When asked to remember life events, vivid memories from which age range are most likely to be reported?

10-30 years of age

Older adults from 75 to 95 years of age who spoke _______ languages or more showed the best cognitive state.

4

Research findings that indicate differences between older and younger adults with issues such as memory, attentional capacity, and processing speed must be interpreted carefully. Why?

Age differences are sensitive to the conditions under which they are measured.

What is sensory memory? Describe its importance in information processing and identify age-related differences

All memories begin as sensory memory. Sensory memory is where new incoming information is first registered.We only have to experience things for a small fraction of a second to process the information. Sensory memory takes in large amounts of information rapidly. However, unless we pay attention to the sensory information, its representation is lost quickly. Age differences are not typically found in sensory memory.

Summarize the findings concerning age-related changes in divided attention.

Divided attention is concerned with how well people can perform more than one task at the same time. It is widely believed that older adults have more trouble than younger adults with divided attention. However, it appears that the age differences are due to older adult's difficulties with individual tasks, not dividing their attention across the tasks per se. Observational studies reveal that older workers are just as able to multitask, but they perform each task slightly slower than younger workers. There is one caveat. When the tasks become complex, older adults do have more trouble dividing their attention and, as a result, their performance suffers.

_______________ involves remembering items or events that did not occur.

False memory

What are factors that preserve memory?

One factor is exercise. A major meta-analysis found that physical training improved the cognitive performance of older adults regardless of the physical training method or the characteristics of the older adult. Neuroscience has found that regular exercise has a wide range of effects on the brain, including increasing neural plasticity. Another factor is multilingualism. Speaking multiple languages might be a protective factor against cognitive decline as we age. In one study, older adults ages 75 to 95 who spoke more than four languages showed the best cognitive states.

What impact does memory self-efficacy have on older adults' memory performance?

Self-efficacy is a belief that one can accomplish things. Memory self-efficacy is an important type of memory belief that is distinct from things such as general knowledge of memory. For example, one may know a great deal about how memory works but still believe that one's ability to perform in a specific situation is poor. Not surprisingly, older adults with low levels of self-efficacy do not perform as well on memory tasks, bringing to mind the concept of a self-fulfilling prophecy. However, older adults with lower levels of memory self-efficacy compensate for poor memory performance by using people for assistance and compensatory strategies to aid in their performance.

_______________ is how quickly and efficiently the early steps in information processing are completed.

Speed of processing

Do negative stereotypes about aging have any impact on older adults' memory performance?

There is a stereotype that aging negatively affects memory. When confronted, or threatened, by this stereotype, older adults do not perform as well on memory tests. It appears that negative or threatening stereotypes suppress older adults' controlled or conscious use of memory, and they are more likely to use an automatic response instead.

Most evidence indicates

a. significant age-related decline in working memory. b. loss of the ability to hold items in working memory may limit older adults' overall cognitive functioning. c. age-related declines in working memory may vary across different tasks. *d. all of the above*

Negative stereotypes about aging _____________ the memory performance of older adults.

decrease

Taking notes while listening to a lecture requires

divided attention

Evidence suggests there are no age-related deficits in memory processes such as language comprehension, the structure of language, and the activation of general knowledge. This is because _______ is relatively spared in normal aging.

semantic memory

Which type of memory is concerned with learning and remembering the meanings of words and concepts that are not tied to specific occurrences of events in time?

semantic memory

Because it remains relatively unimpaired, _________ may have an enhancement effect on ________ for older adults.

semantic memory; episodic memory

What part of the information processing system has an unlimited capacity, takes in information rapidly, and is almost an identical representation of the stimuli as it exists in the observable environment?

sensory memory

The earliest step in information processing is

sensory memory.

Older adults are likely to have difficulties with _____, which involves remembering where a piece of information was acquired.

source memory

Melena is having trouble remembering whether she took her medication or if she just thinks she did. This is an example of a(n)

source memory.

One implicit internal memory aide has proven quite powerful, and those with Alzheimer's can learn new things using it. What is it?

spaced retrieval

Metamemory refers to what one knows about

the memory system and how it works.

Physical fitness training improves cognitive performance in older adults regardless of

the training method

Research has shown that when older adults are asked to predict how well they will perform on a memory task, they are more accurate when

they have direct experience with the task.

Flashbulb memories feel very real, and people think they can remember them down to the smallest detail. Research on the accuracy of flashbulb memories indicates that

this is false. When comparing people's memories with independent records of actual events, people's memories are often wrong.

TBI stands for _________________.

traumatic brain injury

Under which conditions do older and younger adults show similar patterns of attention allocation?

when the goal is to have familiarity with the material

Michael is trying to remember an address. He repeats it in his mind until he gets to his car and enters it into his navigation system. Michael is using his

working memory

A smallcapacity store that deals with the items currently "in use" is

working memory.