American Foreign Policy: IR Seminar

Boland amendment

Established 3 U.S. legislative amendments between 1982-1984, aimed to limit U.S. assistance to the Contras in Nicaragua. These amendments were made in response to the CIA-back financing of these groups and the committed acts of sabotage that was occurred without Congressional intelligence committees being informed beforehand. Also prohibited the government from providing military support for the purpose of overthrowing the government of Nicaragua; it was later changed to prohibit any funds for military operations, after the NSC channeled funds to the rebels. The Reagan administration famously circumvented this legislation by getting money from weapons sales to Iran, and these funds were then diverted to the Nicaraguan Contras. Significance: Beyond restricting overt U.S. support of the Contras, the most significant effect of the Boland Amendment was the Iran-Contra Affair, during which the Reagan Administration illegally circumvented the Amendment in order to continue supplying arms to the Contras, behind the back of Congress. Shows the heightened power of the Executive Branch and the ability for the President to get away with unconstitutional behavior regarding foreign policy.

National Security Council

Established by the National Security Act of 1947, this is the principal forum used by the president to address issues of national security and foreign policy. The council is part of the executive branch and is comprised of national security advisers and cabinet members; main members: president, vp, SofS, SofD, chairman of the joint chiefs of staff, director of national intelligence, director of CIA

Operation Desert Storm (1991)

Evolved from Operation Desert Shield 1990 (blockade against Iraq, defending Saudi Arabia from Iraqi expansion). Saddam Hussein's Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990. The US began with a naval blockade and economic sanctions (fear of Iraq controlling 40% of the world's oil), and the UN gave Hussein a date to leave Kuwait. When he did not withdraw, the US and coalition partners transformed Operation Desert Shield (blockade) into Operation Desert Storm (massive air assault). Along with a massive air assault against Iraq, US-led forces destroyed bridges and roads that the Iraqi's used to supply forces in Kuwait. Within 100 hours the ground forces surrounded the Iraqi's, in which many of them surrendered. Saddam Hussein was not removed from power.

Funnel of causality and relative potency (foreign policy causation)

Funnel model used to explain decision making among large groups of people. Widest part = public. In the middle = congressmen, lobbyists, other leaders in Washington. smallest part = Pres. and executive branch. Problems and events filter form public all the way to exec and Pres. Eventually turns in concrete policy by Pres. Policy in turn affects public which affects policy again. Rel. Potency = respective strengths of each of the sections. Sig - pushing back on realist model.

Global commons and lifeboat ethics

GC - resource domains outside of reach of any 1 nation state. Spaceship metaphor we are all aboard one ship. We need to take care of the earth and each other. Garrett Hardin criticizes using lifeboat ethics in 1974 - metaphor for resource distribution. (argued unlike spaceship earth has no leader) Lifeboat with 50 people. 100 more swimming in ocean. Q: Should swimmers be rescued? Hardin argues no - either try to help them all and lifeboat sinks or randomly pick 10. Unfair selection process. In metaphor, rich countries are lifeboats and poor countries are swimmers. Sig - realist viewpoint. Every man for himself

'Statesman versus politician' (George)'

Generally, 'politician' is used to belittle 'statesmen.' Statesmen are considered to be people of integrity, with long and respected careers (domestically and abroad) of public service during which they always do what is best for their people. On the other hand, politicians are seen as self-serving. willing to sacrifice public interest for their own career.

Geoeconomics, geopolitics-Geoecon - Rel. z. econ and politics

Geopolitics - The relationship between politics and the geographical makeup of territories. Attempts to explain why events occur in certain areas based on geographical makeup. Ex: The United States has never experienced a full invasion after its independence due to its isolation from the major powers. Geostrategy: Utilization of geopolitics and geography in military planning. Generally concerned with the execution of a geopolitical strategy and how geographical or regional features could affect the ways and means of the strategy. For example: Mackinder advocated stronger U.S. influence in Eastern Europe, which he saw as a geostrategic "heartland" in Europe which would increase influence on the entire continent.

Kennan's 'long telegram'

George Kennan, the American charge d'affaires in Moscow, sends an 8,000-word telegram to the Department of State detailing his views on the Soviet Union, and U.S. policy toward the communist state. ... Kennan was among the U.S. diplomats to help establish the first American embassy in the Soviet Union in 1933.

Neoconservatives

In foreign policy, neoconservatives argue for a grand strategy of primacy. The United States' main concern should be to prevent the emergence of a new rival. The neoconservative view on foreign policy is also identified by the use of democracy promotion through military engagement and the Bush Doctrine of preemptive war. Wilsonians in combat boots - want to spread democracy through hard power → improve the world order for the US and other democratic states. democratic peace theory.

'Iron triangle' and military-industrial complex

Iorn triangle: - who really runs govt.? - Congress: seek to align themselves with constituency for political & electoral support - Interest groups: influence Congressional votes in their favor & influence re-election in return - Bureaucrats: pressured by interests groups they are designed to regulate -- speaks to bureaucratic politics model -- interaction/compromises between different entities to further own interests MIC: - gained popularity after Eisenhower's farewell address in 1961 - informal alliance between a nation's military & defense industry (which supplies it) - seen together as a vested interest which influence public policy -- speaks to bureaucratic politics model -- interaction/compromises between different entities to further own interests

Vietnam war and Vietnam syndrome

Is a term that was coined by Reagan in his speech to the Veterans of Foreign Wars that describes how the domestic controversy over involvement in the war impacted U.S. foreign policy after the end of the war. To many, the Vietnam War represented a moral turning point in American foreign policy; the United States was guilty of backing the more repressive and illegitimate side. In the United States, the 'Vietnam Syndrome' lingered until the end of the Cold War. The country became far less willing to commit itself to military intervention abroad. Furthermore, the Vietnam syndrome entailed a growing skepticism and distrust towards the government and its military leadership.

Blowback

It refers to an unpredicted, negative response against a nation in regards to a diplomatic action previously undertaken by that nation. Blowback can include the unintended consequences of a covert operation that are suffered by the civil population or the aggressor government itself. Some argue that the United States' counterterrorism efforts in Afghanistan and Iraq have only exacerbated anti-American sentiments, breeding greater risk of terrorism in the near future.

National Security Act of 1947

Legislation enacted under Truman administration which established the National Security Council, reorganized/combined the armed forces under the Defense Department, and set up the CIA and the intelligence agency structure (US' 1st peacetime intelligence agency).

Goldwater-Nichols Act

Made the most sweeping changes to the United States Department of Defense since the department was established in the National Security Act of 1947 by reworking the command structure of the United States military. Signed into law by President Reagan on October 1, 1986. Named after Sen. Barry Goldwater & Rep William F. Nicols. Military advice was centralized in the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs as opposed to the service chiefs. The Chairman was designated as the principal military adviser to the President of the United States and National Security Council. Service chiefs no longer exercise any operational control over their forces. Sig - The restructuring afforded integrated planning and a reduction or elimination in inter-service rivalry.

Massive retaliation, flexible response, mutual assured destruction

Massive retaliation, also known as a massive response or massive deterrence, is a military doctrine and nuclear strategy in which a state commits itself to retaliate in much greater force in the event of an attack.

Free trade agreements (NAFTA, CAFTA-DR, TTIP, TPP)

NAFTA-DescriptionThe North American Free Trade Agreement is an agreement signed by Canada, Mexico, and the United States, creating a trilateral trade bloc in North America. The agreement came into force on January 1, 1994. CAFTA-DR-The Dominican Republic-Central America FTA (CAFTA-DR) is the first free trade agreement between the United States and a group of smaller developing economies: our Central American neighbors Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, as well as the Dominican Republic. The CAFTA-DR promotes stronger trade and investment ties, prosperity, and stability throughout the region and along our Southern border. TTIP-The Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership is a proposed trade agreement between the European Union and the United States, with the aim of promoting trade and multilateral economic growth. TPP-The Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), also called the Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement, is a defunct proposed trade agreement between Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, Vietnam, and the United States signed on 4 February 2016, which was not ratified as required and did not take effect.

NATO and 'San Francisco System'

NATO is an intergovernmental military alliance established in 1949 by the North Atlantic Treaty. During the Cold War, the alliance used its system of collective defense to protect against Soviet aggression into the West. In contrast, the San Francisco System, established in 1952, was a hub-and-spoke system of bilateral alliances between the United States (the hub) and several Asian states (the spokes) to protect against communist expansion and the emergence of a regional hegemon in Asia. solidified that the US was the financial and military center of world.

NSC-68-proposed by Paul Nitze

NSC-68 was one of the most significant statements of American policy in the Cold War. NSC-68 largely shaped U.S. foreign policy in the Cold War for the next 20 years, and involved a decision to make Containment against Communist expansion a high priority. The strategy outlined in NSC-68 arguably achieved ultimate victory with the collapse of the Soviet Union and the subsequent emergence of a "new world order" centered on American liberal-capitalist values alone. Truman officially signed NSC-68 in 1950.

Nation building and failed states

Nation building: refers to peacekeeping and state-building operations (infrastructure, elections, and civil society connection), such as Haiti, Bosnia i. Herzegovina, Haiti, Kosovo, Afghanistan, Iraq, etc. Other than postwar Germany and Japan, the US has had little success. more nation-building in the last 20 years (post Cold War) (b) Failed states: states which have failed in the basic conditions of a sovereign government (i.e. loss of territory, legitimate authority, ability to provide public services, or ability to interact with other states). Somalia. Afghanistan indicate that US has had problems with nation building and failed states failures outnumber the successes

Kissinger and Nixon's 'grand design'

Nixon and Kissinger developed a grand design for American foreign policy that was composed of three principal elements: (1) the acceptance of the emergence of a tripolar configuration of power among the United States, the Soviet Union, and the People's Republic of China; (2) the development of a moderate international system supported by these three powers; and (3) halting the spread of communism to areas of the world in the traditional Western sphere of influence while avoiding direct military confrontation with the USSR

Strategic Defense Initiative

Often referred to as "Star Wars," Ronald Reagan proposed SDI in 1983 to use ground and space-based defense systems to protect the United States from nuclear attack. Ultimately unsuccessful, many feared that SDI would spark another arms race, as it would give the United States the capability to attack the USSR without fear of nuclear retaliation, thus opposing the deterrence logic of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD). Another critique of SDI is that it would violate provisions in certain ratified treaties, including the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 (no nuclear systems in outer space), the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (limits on defense systems), and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.

Bay of Pigs

On January 1, 1959, Cuban nationalist Fidel Castro drove his guerilla army into Havana and overthrew General Fulgencio Batista, the nation's American-backed president. The Bay of Pigs was an unsuccessful attempt by the United States-backed paramilitary group to overthrow Castro's government. The failed invasion strengthened the position of Castro's administration, who proceeded to openly proclaim their intention to adopt socialism and strengthen ties with the Soviet Union, leading to the events of the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. The invasion was a major embarrassment for U.S. foreign policy, with Kennedy ordering a number of internal investigations. Across much of Latin America, it was celebrated as evidence of the fallibility of U.S. imperialism.

Congress and foreign policy; oversight, war powers, advise and consent, 'twilight zone'

- Congress has oversight powers over fp - checks & balances on executive branch by legislative branch - Constitution allows Congress to: --- declare war --- regulate commerce w/ foreign nations --- raise & support armies --- provide & maintain navy --- make rules for govt. & regulation of land & naval forces --- regulates budget --- signs for military/diplomatic affairs -- limits president's capabilities in foreign affairs by requiring Congressional approval War Powers Act/Resolution of 1973: limit authority of president to enact military force abroad --- avoid another Vietnam War --- requires president to notify Congress of military action within 48 hours --- president must pull troops after 60 days unless Congress passes declaration of war/authorizes continuation exception: Clinton in Kosovo exception: Obama in Libya -- limits president's capabilities in foreign affairs by requiring Congressional approval - War Powers Act/Resolution of 1973: limit authority of president to enact military force abroad --- avoid another Vietnam War --- requires president to notify Congress of military action within 48 hours --- president must pull troops after 60 days unless Congress passes declaration of war/authorizes continuation exception: Clinton in Kosovo exception: Obama in Libya -- limits president's capabilities in foreign affairs by requiring Congressional approval - Senate must approve treaties & diplomatic appointments- president can act if Congress is silent - Constitution's unclear allocation of authority between presidential and congressional powers

Dollar as world reserve currency

- USD, euro, & yen are most popular world reserve currencies (accepted throughout int'l trade) - USD is part of strongest world economy so unlikely to change - 1944: Bretton Woods pegged exchange rate for all currencies to dollar and got rid of universal gold standard - 1971: Nixon shock - 2009: Russia & china called for new world reserve currency not linked to any nation & able to stay stable in long run -- US plays important role in int'l economics, trade, & world market demonstrates US power

'China differential', 'China Card'

- late 1970s/early 1980s - US normalizes relations with communist China - 1972: Nixon visits China, showing Moscow that US is capable of influencing region previously under Soviet influence - Carter allows sale of "dual-use technology" to China, not USSR -- China important post-WWII -- limited influence over satellite states in Asia, but still powerful -- used as a piece in power-balancing game with Soviets -- China counterbalanced Soviet influence in Asia later in Cold War

Genocide

- study of economics trends/conditions of the world's countries & how they are related - economics considered on broadest global scale to advance geopolitics - geopolitics: politics (particularly or IR) that are influenced by geographical factors ex.: refugee influx in Europe -- influence of geostrategy of US & how it can sustain its dominance -- US geopolitics change after 1991 & again after 9/11 -- losing overseas political & economic influence due to rise of emerging poweres

Cuban Missile Crisis

1962-In response to the US's efforts to overthrow the communist Cuban government under Fidel Castro, the Soviet Union decided to place nuclear weapons in Cuba as a deterrent to US intervention. The US decided to implement a military blockade or "quarantine," which the Soviet government declared to be an act of aggression and attempted to charge.the Soviets agreed to dismantle the weapons in Cuba and return them to the Soviet Union and the US agreeing to end the military blockade, remove US nuclear missiles from Turkey, and to never invade Cuba.

Counterinsurgency doctrine

A counter-insurgency or counterinsurgency (COIN) is defined by the United States Department of State as "comprehensive civilian and military efforts taken to simultaneously defeat and contain insurgency and address its root causes".

Covert operations

A covert operation differs from a clandestine operation in that emphasis is placed on concealment of identity of sponsor rather than on concealment of the operation". The United States Department of Defense definition has been used by the United States and NATO since World War II.

Sanctions and embargoes

A form of soft/hard power, they are economic and political tools used with the aim of manipulating an actor in the international system to conform to a larger group's interests/behavior. This is commonly used in maintaining or restoring international peace/security. They are political trade restrictions put in place against a particular target country. An embargo is a full or complete import or export prohibition, whereas sanctions are limited to a certain type of good (ex. arms, or materials used for the construction of WMDs). Example: Sanctions on Iran- affecting civilian population. Economic strength can be converted into hard or soft power.

Pre-emptive and preventive war

A pre-emptive war is one in which a country strikes first due to an expectation that there is an imminent attack from an adversary that would be detrimental to vital national interests. It is a defensive war. This is in contrast to preventive war in which a country strikes first because of long-term concerns over a shift in the balance of power. In other words, they attack because they are more concerned about their power and position in the international system than an impending attack. Ex. Iraq 2003. Significant because each attack has certain perceptions associated with preemptive wars. one generally supported because they can be easily justified as self-defense. However preventive is seen as being aggressive

Status of Forces Agreement

A status of forces agreement is an agreement between a host country and a foreign nation stationing military forces in that country. SOFAs are often included, along with other types of military agreements, as part of a comprehensive security arrangement.

Elite theories of foreign policy determinacy

A theory which states that within any given country, there is group of elites close to the center of power who hold so much political power, or are connected to power so deeply that they are able to disproportionately influence foreign policy decisions. According to this theory, this group of elites is usually small and wealthy and often influence foreign policy decisions by dint of the access to power they receive from their positions on think tanks, powerful corporations, and by their control of the political process, which gives them disproportionate influence on who gets elected and who does not. These elites often share similar values and ideals.

Ethnic lobby groups (AIPAC, CANF, AAA)

AIPAC- The American Israel Public Affairs Committee is a lobbying group that advocates pro-Israel policies to the Congress and Executive Branch of the United States. CANF-The Cuban American National Foundation (CANF) is a Cuban exile organization. Established in Florida in 1981 by Jorge Mas Canosa and Raúl Masvidal, CANF is an organization with numerous members in the United States and other countries AAA-The Armenian Assembly of America is the largest Washington-based nationwide organization promoting public understanding and awareness of Armenian issues.

Fast-track authority

Ability of US President to negotiate international agreement that Congress can approve or disapprove but cannot amend or filibuster, which can affect the President-Congress relationship. The authority is granted to the President. Many bilateral trade agreements were created in this manner.

Smart Diplomacy

According to Joseph Nye, Smart Diplomacy (or Smart Power) is a strategic combination of soft power and hard power techniques. According to the CSIS "an approach that underscores the necessity of a strong military, but also invests heavily in alliances, partnerships, and institutions of all levels to expand American influence and establish legitimacy of American action." It claims that neither military force, nor cultural capital are sufficient in solving most modern security dilemmas (i.e. terrorism). Smart Diplomacy (as opposed to Smart Power) specifically refers to President Obama and Secretary Hillary Clinton. (Ex. US' intervention in Libya exemplifies 'Smart Diplomacy' because US combined military force, persuasion, and influence along with working with the Arab League to regain prominence all to stabilize the state, which was the initial interest)

Alison's three models

After the Cuban Missile Crisis - Allison contended the traditional methods of analyzing government decision-making because Political Science and International Relations were saturated with rational expectations inherited from the field of economics, suggesting that all states act rationally to maximize their utility. Allison offers the following three ways (lenses) through which analysts should examine events: 1) Rational Actor -- Governments are the primary actors; evaluate goals based on utility, then make decision to receive maximum payoff 2) Organizational Process Model -- Reflects the constraints that organizations place on decision-makers' choices. 3) Governmental Politics Model -- commonly referred to as government bargaining or bureaucratic politics model. Key individual decision-makers are most important because they are in a position to have great influence on the decision-making of large organizations. Animosities and friendships among the key individuals are an important factor. This model helps explain why policy will sometimes appear irrational from a unitary government perspective.

'New world order'

After the fall of the USSR, Gorbachev influence waned dramatically, and Bush (41) sought to determine the future nature of US foreign policy. new balance of power post cold war; new collective security effort through the UN (driven by the success of Kuwait) , US' role in global governance. Key element here is at the end of the cold war and success in Kuwait promised a new era of effective global governance, collective security etc led by the US. Partial successes like the Oslo Accords supported this idea. Failures like Somalia and Rwanda undermined it.

Mueller thesis ('syndromes')

As war drags on unresolved, public support decreases as the public loses interest and knowledge, e.g. Vietnam. Creates a situation in which it is difficult to create/pass policies. came out of the Vietnam war, 1970s when there is a crisis the public will rally around the flag, the president, lots of activity as the crisis continues- many years, public wouldn't want to deal with issues, wouldn't know the issues, support dwindles and becomes apathetic.

Attentive public, mass public, 'one-issue mobilizables

Attentive Public refers to a demographic who typically pays close attention to several particular issues that concern them; they are well-informed, have a strong opinion on the topic, and therefore can exert more influence because of their depth of knowledge. Mass Public refers to the general political opinions of a vast quantity of people. 'One-Issue Mobilizables' are political parties that focus their entire campaign on a single issue, hoping to mobilize action on the very issue -- most of their voters will be people who are dedicated to the exact issue the party is pushing (mind you, this party won't ever win elections because they will only appeal to a very specific demographic).

Balance of power

Balance of power refers to both the distribution of power in the world system as well as a policy of balancing other powers to prevent a state from gaining a preponderance of power. As articulated by neo-realist (structural realist) Kenneth Waltz (1979), the balance of power theory assumes that in an anarchic international system, the hegemonic aspirations of powerful states will be checked by smaller weaker states through internal or external balancing in an attempt to ensure their own survival in a self-help world. Unipolarity in international politics is a distribution of power in which one state exercises most of the cultural, economic, and military influence. The post-Cold War system is unipolar given the United States' preponderance of power. Bipolarity: distribution of power between two states. Often results in spheres of influence, as in the Cold War system in which the United States and the Soviet Union dominated. Multipolarity: two or more states have influence.

Belief systems, evoked set, operational code

Beliefs play a pivotal role in explaining the process of foreign policy decision making, the ensuing process of strategic interaction between actors engendered by their decisions, and the political outcomes resulting from this interaction process Belief system: the organized and integrated perceptions of individuals in a society, including foreign-policy decision makers, often based on past history, that guide them to select certain policies over others. Evoked set: The tendency to look for details in a contemporary situation that are similar to information previously obtained. Operational code: a set of general beliefs about fundamental issues of history and central questions of politics, and their effect on a decision-maker's action.

Brinksmanship

Brinkmanship is the practice of trying to achieve an advantageous outcome by pushing dangerous events to the brink of active conflict. It occurs in international politics, foreign policy, labour relations, and military strategy involving the threat of nuclear weapons, and high-stakes litigation.

Bureaucratic politics

Bureaucratic politics theories or explanations of why particular public policy decisions got made the way they did stress the motivation by the relevant officials in the government bureaucracy to protect or promote their own agency's special interests (in competition with other agencies) as a major motivating factor in shaping the timing and the content of government decisions.

Coercive diplomacy

Coercive diplomacy or "forceful persuasion" is the "attempt to get a target, a state, a group within a state, or a nonstate actor-to change its objectionable behavior through either the threat to use force or the actual use of limited force".

Soft power

Coined by Joseph Nye, soft power is the ability to get the outcomes you want without the use of "hard power" (use of coercion/force or payment/wealth). More about influence than coercion. However, soft power can be wielded by all actors in international politics, including cultural actors. It is the power of culture and the desire for states to emulate that culture. Nye considers soft power to be harder for states to wield than hard power but to be more effective than hard power, as it convinces others to emulate them. Soft power mechanisms include diplomacy, strategic communications, foreign assistance, civic action and economic reconstruction and development. The U.S. has used soft power in spreading its democratic and liberal values

Collegial, competitive and formalistic models of presidential management

Collegial: - team of advisors collaborate & bring in several perspectives - president in middle mediates & sets atmosphere - emphasizes cooperation over competition ex.: JFK -- each president processes info & deals with conflict differently -- can demonstrate their own confidence in dealing with fpfp -- some administrations use different models depending on circumstances Competitive: - president is at center & very demanding - info-sharing is more open & agencies have overlapping responsibilities that president can tap into to resolve conflicts ex.: FDR -- each president processes info & deals with conflict differently -- can demonstrate their own confidence in dealing with fp -- some administrations use different models depending on circumstances Formal: - hierarchical structure which limits presidents exposure to conflicts - bottom-up approach --- issues only reach president as needed ex.: Truman ex.: Eisenhower ex.: Nixon -- each president processes info & deals with conflict differently -- can demonstrate their own confidence in dealing with fp -- some administrations use different models depending on circumstances

Foreign policy & Department of

Commerce: serves as a voice for U.S. business within the President's Cabinet by creating jobs, promoting economic growth, increasing technological competitiveness, and encouraging sustainable development. It was first formed in 1903 as Dept. of Commerce and Labor and helps increase the standard of living for all Americans. Ex. Census Bureau, International Trade, Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) and similar trade agreements. Defense: Existed as the War Department till Truman signed the National Security Act in 1947, creating the "National Military Establishment" (under control of the Sec of Defense), the CIA, NSC, Nat'l Security Resources Board, the Air Force, and the Joint Chiefs of Staff. In 1949, the NME was renamed the DoD and gained a stronger Secretary of Defense (currently headed by Chuck Hagel) This position oversees Depts of Navy, Army, and Air Force. Also subordinate are 4 intelligence agencies: DIA, NSA, NGA, and NRO and the nine regional/functional combatant commands. Energy: concerned with U.S. policies regarding energy and safety particularly when handling nuclear material. As a result of the 1973 oil shock, Carter created the DOE in 1977. Their responsibilities include the U.S.'s nuclear weapons program, nuclear reactor production, energy conservation, energy-related research, radioactive waste disposal and domestic energy production. Ex. Negotiations with Iran of Nuclear program Homeland Security: was first proposed 1/01 and created in 2002 because of 9/11. Protects the USA from terrorist attacks, man-made disasters, natural disasters, and handles immigration as of 2003 It is considered one of the most significant government reorganizations since the Cold War and most substantial since the 1947 National Security Act. Also includes FEMA and the Coast Guard. Justice: Officially established in 1870 headed by the attorney general (position existed prior to the DOJ) tasked with enforcement of the law and administration of justice and overseeing all attorneys, marshals and clerks. DOJ prosecutes claims demanded by and against the U.S. government and can be considered the equivalent to other countries' justice or interior ministries. State: Created in 1789, the first executive department and is primarily responsible for IR. Since 1947, it has been losing ground as the DoD gains power. Publishes the Quadrennial Diplomacy and Development Review (QDDR). Treasury: Created in 1789 and first headed by Alexander Hamilton with the task of managing government revenue. Other tasks include printing mints, currency, coins, collecting taxes, managing gov't debt. Reorganized in 2003 and some capabilities given to DHS.

'Burden sharing, Free riders, hegemonic stability theory

Common to both versions of the theory of hegemonic stability is a structural focus. The outcome, the openness and stability of the international economic system, results from the distribution of power among states. States are assumed to be rational actors, and domestic policy the product of systemic factors.

Containment

Containment is a geopolitical strategy to stop the expansion of an enemy. It is best known as a Cold War foreign policy of the United States and its allies to prevent the spread of communism.

Central Intelligence Agency, Director of National Intelligence, Intelligence Community

Daniel Coats. The Honorable Daniel Coats was sworn in as the fifth Director of National Intelligence (DNI) on March 16, 2017. As DNI, Mr. Coats leads the United States Intelligence Community (IC) and serves as the principal intelligence advisor to the President.

3. Asymmetrical warfare

Describes warfare between two or more agents who have dissimilar military power, resources, and overall tactics. "Asymmetric warfare" can describe a conflict in which the resources of two belligerents differ in essence and in the struggle, interact and attempt to exploit each other's characteristic weaknesses. Such strategies may not necessarily be militarized. This is in contrast to symmetric warfare, where two powers have similar military power and resources and rely on tactics that are similar overall, differing only in details and execution. The term is frequently used to describe what is also called "guerrilla warfare", "insurgency", "terrorism", "counterinsurgency", and "counterterrorism", essentially violent conflict between a formal military and an informal, poorly equipped, but resilient opponent.

Realism and neorealism-Realism-

Dominant IR paradigm in the post-WWII era that rests on the assumption that international relations is driven by the constant pursuit of power by sovereign states in an effort to secure national interests. Human nature realists, or classical realists, contend that state decisions are driven by humans that are inherently violent and power-hungry beings. On the other hand, structural realists (or neo-realists) argue that states behave the way they do because of the essential characteristics of international system.

Economic liberalism

Economic liberalism is an economic system organized on individual lines, which means the greatest possible number of economic decisions are made by individuals or households rather than by collective institutions or organizations. economic nationalism-refers to an ideology that favors state interventionism over other market mechanisms, with policies such as domestic control of the economy, labor, and capital formation, even if this requires the imposition of tariffs and other restrictions on the movement of labor, goods and capital. In many cases, economic nationalists oppose globalization or at least question the benefits of unrestricted free trade. Economic nationalism is disputed as the doctrine of mercantilism, and as such favors protectionism

Empire, 'unipolar moment', 'indispensable nation'

Empire: are political entities which extend across vast geographical regions over which they have to prior claim of sovereignty and exert hegemonic political, military, social power over these regions, extracting value from them in an uneven balance. Ex British Empire, Roman Empire. Unipolar moment: one power which far outstrips every other in its military capabilities and its ability to project power over would-be competitors. It is widely believed that the United States is the current unipole in the international system, a role it assumed after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Indispensable nation: An indispensable nation is one upon which the international system is dependent on, either for leadership and guidance, or military support and security. Tied closely to the above definition, the United States is believed by many to be an indispensable nation within the international system.

NATO out of area disputes; articles 4, 5, 6 of NATO treaty

Out of Area Disputes: Debate amongst NATO member states over whether or not NATO should expand its operations to include missions outside of the North Atlantic area. NATO involvement in the Balkans sparked this debate and the dispute has continued over the issue of Afghanistan. Some scholars argue that NATO must go, "out of area or out of business." -Article 4-The Parties will consult together whenever, in the opinion of any of them, the territorial integrity, political independence or security of any of the Parties is threatened. -Article 5-Core article of the North Atlantic Treaty that says that any attack on a NATO member state is an attack against the alliance and therefore each member state will assist the party or parties being attacked. -Article 6-defines the areas in which an armed attack can invoke Article 5 -on the territory of any of the Parties in Europe or North America, on the Algerian Departments of France (2), on the territory of or on the Islands under the jurisdiction of any of the Parties in the North Atlantic area north of the Tropic of Cancer; -on the forces, vessels, or aircraft of any of the Parties, when in or over these territories or any other area in Europe

Détente and linkage

Relaxing of tensions - example: Cold War relations between Soviet Union and US were relaxed during the 1970 through nuclear weapons' control talks.Linkage was a foreign policy that was pursued by the United States and championed by Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger in the 1970s détente,

Marshall Plan (1947)

The Marshall Plan was an American initiative passed in 1948 to aid Western Europe, in which the United States gave over $12 billion in economic assistance to help rebuild Western European economies after the end of World War II.

Pivot to Asia

The Pivot. Also known as 'Pivot to Asia', the American military and diplomatic 'pivot,' or 'rebalance' toward Asia became a popular buzzword after Hillary Clinton authored America's Pacific Century, in Foreign Policy.

USA Patriot Act (2001)

The USA PATRIOT Act is an Act of Congress signed into law by United States President George W. Bush on October 26, 2001. With its ten-letter abbreviation expanded, the Act's full title is "Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001"

United Nations

The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization that was tasked to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international co-operation and be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations.

Global War on Terror

The War on Terror, also known as the Global War on Terrorism, is an international military campaign that was launched by the United States government after the September 11 attacks against the United States.

Deterrence

The ability to dissuade another state from acting against one's own interests by the threat of harm one might do in response.

Domino theory

The domino theory was a theory prominent from the 1950s to the 1980s that posited that if one country in a region came under the influence of communism, then the surrounding countries would follow in a domino effect.

Mission creep

The situation of a ground operation changes as the US expands its mission, e.g. Afghanistan (attacking al-Qaeda & toppling Taliban --> stabilizing country/setting up effective governance) nation building commonly associated with counterinsurgency go in with one intention and something is added while there Sig - fear of mission creep plays a role in deciding whether to intervene. Ex. Syria. Could easily become nation building mission. 66. Monroe doctrine-The Monroe Doctrine was a United States policy of opposing European colonialism in the Americas beginning in 1823.

Extended deterrence

This refers to the ability of the United States to use the concept of deterrence not only for its own safety against an attack, but to also protect (and reassure) its allies. This concept can be seen in practice in the tendency of American allies to step back and let the United States take the lead on international security and defense issues. Ex. US protects NATO

Washington Consensus

This term was created in 1989 by the economist John Williamson to describe a set of ten specific economic policy prescriptions that constituted a template reform package for developing countries. To Williamson's dismay, his 'Washington Consensus' was interpreted to become the basis of neoliberal policies based on market fundamentalist ideas imposed by the International Monetary Fund. In the early 1990s, industrialized and developing countries alike adhered to the Consensus, but by the end of the century this formula for success was under attack and failed to produce the expected economic growth. At the same time, the economic 'miracle' in East Asia proved to be an illusion. These developments left citizens disillusioned in many parts of the world and ready to experiment with other economic models, contributing to a decline of American economic soft power/ability to influence economic models of development.

War Powers Resolution of 1973

a federal law that requires the authorization of Congress before the President can commit to an armed conflict abroad. The only exception to this law is in the case of "a national emergency created by attack upon the United States, its territories or possessions, or its armed forces." A joint resolution passed by Congress providing that the President can send US armed forces in action abroad ONLY by authorization of Congress of it the US is already under attack or serious threat. Resolution requires that the president notify Congress within 48 hours of committing armed forces to military action and forbids armed forces from remaining for more than 60 days, with a further 30 day withdrawal period, without an authorization of the use of military force or a declaration of war. Resoution was passed 2/3 of Congress- overriding presidential veto

Selective Engagement

a less ambitious and reduced vision of america's role in the world. America's security ties should be limited to major regions of the globe where there are imbalances of power, and military commitments should be minimized. Selective engagement rejects that peace requires a preponderance of American power, but provides measures for other states to contain its influence in the world. Some argue that selective engagement is outdated, and impractical at this day and age. E.g. Bush Jr. initially wanted to follow a policy of selective engagement, but was forced to abandon this after 9/11.

Foreign direct investment

an investment made by a company/ entity based in one country, into another company/entity based in another country. Occurs between open economies and investors generally have a great deal of influence/ control over the company.

CNN effect

essentially it is the way in which news outlits cause the public to act to certain problemes, which leads to the politians doing something about it.

Global warming agreements

he Paris Agreement is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, dealing with greenhouse-gas-emissions mitigation, adaptation, and finance, starting in the year 2020.

Civil-military relations-Civil

military relations describes the relationship between civil society as a whole and the military organization or organizations established to protect it. CMR is an umbrella concept that incorporates a diverse, often normative field, which moves within and across management, social science and policy scales.

Base force plan, Bottom-up review

review-Bottom Up Review: process of analyzing defense structures, assets and resources. Last big BUR in 1990s after Cold War--how to restructure? Base closing, consolidation of command structures, reductions. Base Force Plan: one type of BUR. The Base Force military strength cut of 25 percent was predicated in part on the collapse of the Soviet Union and the demise of the Warsaw Pact. A "new world order" was anticipated. There would be fewer challenges to US interests and security, and the US could rely more on periodic deployments of forces to demonstrate commitment and protect American interests.

National Security Adviser

serves as the chief advisor to the president on national security issues and meets with the NSC. Has no authority over the DoD or State Department, but can offer advice independently of bureaucracies' interests. Best known was Kissinger. current NSA: Thomas Donilon; established by the National Security Act of 1947

Linkage

strategy championed by Henry Kissinger in the 1970s that tied together Soviet access to US trade to perceived "good behavior" on the part of the Soviet Union around the world. This was meant to ease the tensions started in the wake of the Vietnam War. Connecting two separate issue areas. Can also be used as a threat

Democratic peace theory

the hypothesis that (liberal) constitutionally secure democratic states will not wage war against each other.

'Two presidencies' thesis

the term invented by scholar Aaron Wildavsky during the Cold War. Wildavsky proposes that there are two versions of American Presidents: one is concerned with domestic policy and one is concerned with foreign policy. According to Wildavsky, the president has more power to act decisively and independently when it comes to foreign policy than domestic policy, making foreign policy his focus more than domestic one. However, since that time, domestic impact has become increasingly important in shaping foreign policies with increasing access of the public and Congress to information, and president has to rely largely on domestic opinion in the process of foreign policy making.

Iran-Contra Affair (1986-1987)

The Iran-Contra affair, also referred to as Irangate, Contragate, the Iran-Contra scandal, or simply Iran-Contra, was a political scandal in the United States that occurred during the second term of the Reagan Administration

Grand strategy of the US // National Security Strategy (NSS)

Grand Steategy: - guidelines which bind country's highest interests to its daily actions in world - exists during periods of peace & war so must function long-term - Comes from I-BITE: --- Ideas: democratic peace, benefits of globalization, human rights, etc. --- Bureaucratic politics: agencies compete in shaping key documents (such as NSS) & make their own --- Interest groups: domestic interests (Israel lobby, man rights) and int'l (allies, trade) --- Trends: rise of China; US decline; shift of political/economic power to the East; decline of US dependency on foreign oil; climate change --- Events: external (9/11) and internal (electoral reverses, economic crises) -- currently no grand strategy -- arguably spread of democracy/war on terror NSS:- articulates strategies - released once/twice per presidential term - highlights most important goals/strategies - dictates other documents --- National Military Strategy (NMS) --- Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR) --- Quadrennial Diplomacy & Defense Review (QDDR) Truman: - Truman's Golden Age (1945 - 1953) - start of containment --- leads to Marshall Plan, NATO, NSC-68 - aim to restore global balance -- considered a "good" grand strategy Kissinger: - personal diplomacy & secrecy & centralization of power --- not sustainable - détente: too hard to keep balance - pursued other strategies that were containment-like -- considered not a good grand strategy

Group of 2, Group of 8, Group of 20, BRICs

Group of 2: Proposed informal relationship between the world's two largest economies, the U.S. and Peoples Republic of China (PRC). Idea by C. Fred Bergsten. China and US would work together on global issue. Also would avoid possibility of tension build-up. China refused stating prefers a multipolar world. -Group of 8: (G8) Forum for the governments of a group of eight leading industrialized country. Originally formed by six leading industrialised countries and subsequently extended with two additional members. Began 1975 with France, West Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Russia was added to the group from 1998 to 2014, which then became known as the G8. In 2012 the G8 nations comprised 50.1% of 2012 global nominal GDP (excludes China). The G8 discusses and creates global policies. However, adherence to these policies is not obligatory, and other countries can decide whether or not to obey. -Group of 20: A group of the world's 20 major economies that convenes to discuss issues related to the global economy. -BRICs: Brazil, Russia, India, China- the four countries with the most rapid rates of economic growth. They are important because they are the most likely competitors to the United States' global economic dominance. Sig - Liberal institutionalism. 52. Groupthink-The term was proposed by Irving Janis. It's a type of thought within a deeply cohesive group whose members try to minimize conflict and reach consensus without critically testing, analyzing and evaluating ideas. Problem is unwillingness to test, desire to have a consensus and cohesion, but things that actually might be the right outcome don't get tested. (Cuban Missile Crisis- Kennedy and the people around him)

Hamiltonians, Wilsonianism, Jeffersonianism, & Jacksonianism (Mead)

HAM: - people who believe the US needs to be great power like Britain was at its peak - emphasizes strong economy - federal govt. should work with large corporations & great business interests to advance interests in overseas trade - build a global order of trade & economic relations that keep us rich and therefore hegemonic - build up coalition (if threatened) & bring down threat by peace or war Wilsonian: spread democracy & capitalism - opposed to isolationism & non-interventions - pro-imperialism - rests on a lot of Puritan ideals --- USA created to lead humankind toward freedom, including protecting democracy at any point & opposing anything that may limit it, such as European wars (hence, League of Nations) - freedom of seas/trade ex.: Bill Clinton ex.: Bush 43 Jeff: - core political value of American republicanism - citizens have civic duty to help state & resist corruption, monarchy, & aristocracy - federal govt. is dangerous entity; must be checked carefully - pro-manifest destiny/expansion to the west for more territory/opportunities for farmers --- pro-farmers, pro-states' rights --- industrialists/bankers = corrupt - Britain: threat due to monarchy - standing army/navy: bad - non-interventionist Jack: - mistrust of big govt. & elites (like Jeffersonians) --- favor manifest destiny & anti-communism as a means of geographic expansion - "warrior ethic" -- first priority is physical security & economic well-being - keep out of foreign issues, but if involved, WIN - laissez-faire - opposed to govt. granted monopolies to banks

Ideology, culture, national character and national style (as foreign policy determinants)

Idology: - help secure support for fp goals & helps criticize other countries' fp goals - unites nation under a "cause" or goal/motivation - establishes fp goals & justification of said goal (providing context for actions) ex.: anti-communist ideology Culture: - norms & traditions that characterize the life of people of a state are highly influential factors - strong cultural unity = strength ex.: weak fp in Asia & Africa is partially b/c of internal dissensions/conflicts National character: - patterns of though & mood which shape our attitudes & opinions toward external world and which account for reactions/responses to int'l problem ex.: could explain interventionism since Marshall Plan (1947) National Style: - from nation's perceived characteristic - will help determine a nations actions --- resources, capabilities, population, regime type, belief systems, etc.

'Imperial presidency'

Imperial Presidency is a term some use to describe the modern presidency of the United States which became popular in the 1960s and served as the title of a 1973 volume by historian Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., who wrote The Imperial Presidency out of two concerns: that the U.S. presidency was uncontrollable and that it had exceeded the constitutional limits.

Operation Iraqi Freedom (2003)

The Iraq War was a protracted armed conflict that began in 2003 with the invasion of Iraq by a United States-led coalition that overthrew the government of Saddam Hussein, in breach of international law.

Arms control negotiations (SALT, SALT II, INF, START, New START)

Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT), negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union that were aimed at curtailing the manufacture of strategic missiles capable of carrying nuclear weapons. The first agreements, known as SALT I and SALT II, were signed by the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1972 and 1979, respectively, and were intended to restrain the arms race in strategic (long-range or intercontinental) ballistic missiles armed with nuclear weapons. First suggested by U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1967, strategic arms limitation talks were agreed on by the two superpowers in the summer of 1968, and full-scale negotiations began in November 1969. The SALT II negotiations opened late in 1972 and continued for seven years. A basic problem in these negotiations was the asymmetry between the strategic forces of the two countries, the U.S.S.R. having concentrated on missiles with large warheads while the United States had developed smaller missiles of greater accuracy. Questions also arose as to new technologies under development, matters of definition, and methods of verification. As finally negotiated, the SALT II treaty set limits on the number of strategic launchers (i.e., missiles that can be equipped with multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles [MIRVs]), with the object of deferring the time when both sides' land-based ICBM systems would become vulnerable to attack from such missiles. Limits were put on the number of MIRVed ICBMs, MIRVed SLBMs, heavy (i.e., long-range) bombers, and the total number of strategic launchers. The treaty set an overall limit of about 2,400 of all such weapons systems for each side. The SALT II treaty was signed by President Jimmy Carter and Brezhnev in Vienna on June 18, 1979, and was submitted to the U.S. Senate for ratification shortly thereafter. The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty is an arms control treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union. U.S. President Ronald Reagan and Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev signed the treaty on 8 December 1987. START (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty) was a bilateral treaty between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) on the reduction and limitation of strategic offensive arms. The treaty was signed on 31 July 1991 and entered into force on 5 December 1994. New START Currency(possibly treaty) - April 2010 - Renews the start treaty. The Treaty limits each side to 1550 deployed strategic warheads, 700 deployed strategic delivery vehicles, and 800 deployed and non-deployed ICBM launchers, SLBM launchers and heavy bombers equipped with nuclear armaments.

Bounded rationality; substantive and procedural rationality, crisis decision making

Substantive rationality: a type of decision making which is subject to values and an appeal to ethical norms. Substantive rationality does not take into account the nature of outcomes. Procedural rationality: Decision making using a reasonable procedure. However just because procedure is good doesn't guarantee good outcome. Outcome of appropriate deliberation. Crisis decision making: everyone will go through the three stages of stalling, deciding what to do, and doing something. It is natural behavior to stall and human instinct to establish some comfort factors in a situation which we find uncomfy. In the stalling phase you aren't frightened, but in the doing something phase the 2 reactions are paralysis and panic. Paralysis is more prevalent but panic is rare, and getting through the paralysis stage means you can come up w/ a rational strategy

Intermestic issues

Such issues as energy, immigration, international trade, and transnational environmental issues, are all "intermestic" in nature, and they will grow in importance in the future. the existence of "two presidencies:" one in foreign affairs and one in domestic matters

Bretton Woods system

The Bretton Woods system of monetary management established the rules for commercial and financial relations among the United States, Canada, Western European countries, Australia, and Japan after the 1944 Bretton Woods Agreement.

Doctrines

Truman-The Truman Doctrine was an American foreign policy whose stated purpose was to counter Soviet geopolitical expansion during the Cold War. It was announced to Congress by President Harry S. Truman on March 12, 1947, and further developed on July 12, 1948, when he pledged to contain threats in Greece and Turkey. Eisenhower-1957-commits the US to assisting Middle East countries that resist communist aggression. Nixon-The Nixon Doctrine was put forth during a press conference in Guam on July 25, 1969 by US President Richard Nixon and later formalized in his speech on Vietnamization on November 3, 1969. Carter-1980-Commits the US to security of Persian Gulf oil-producing states if they are externally threatened. Reagan-jan 1985 a roolback to currant policy, commits the US to funding rebels that fought against communist governments Clinton--( Feb. 1999) the US will use military force to to end conflicts and humanitarian atrocities. Bush-The Bush Doctrine declared America could launch first strikes to defend itself from terrorists and countries that supported terrorists in order to prevent possible attacks before they occurred( 2003?) Powell / Weinberger-It is based in large part on the Weinberger Doctrine, devised by Caspar Weinberger, former Secretary of Defense and Powell's former boss. The doctrine emphasizes U.S. national security interests, overwhelming strike capabilities with an emphasis on ground forces, and widespread public support.

Foreign aid: USAID & Millennium Challenge Corporation

USAID: "US Agency for Int'l Development"- provides and administers US aid to countries, typically in the form of disaster and poverty relief, technical and economic development. It is less than 1% of US federal budget. Millennium Challenge Corporation: est. by the Bush Admin. in 2004 to administer US development aid to countries eligible for aid, based on a set of 17 criterion that took into account openness of trade, good governance, civil liberties, etc.

Manifest destiny and US 'exceptionalism'

Westward Expansion, Manifest Destiny, American Exceptionalism. Westward Expansion is a piece of American history that is not always associated with its non-domestic sub-contexts. The partitioning of land in the western frontier was a process that made foreign territory part of what is now the contiguous United States.

Monroe Doctrine (1823)

Written by John Q. Adams, this doctrine stated that Europeans could not intervene in the Western Hemisphere in exchange, the U.S. would not interfere with existing European colonies and wars. If Europe intervened, the U.S. would interpret this as dangerous to U.S. national security and take appropriate action.