American Government Exam 2

Which kind is only prohibited by laws passed by legislatures or regulatory agencies?

Private Discrimination

What did the Civil Rights Act of 1964 do in the areas of: voting rights

(Title I). The act limited the use of literacy tests. In particular, it made a sixth-grade education sufficient proof of literacy for purposes of voting registration.

What did the Civil Rights Act of 1964 do in the areas of: school segregation

(Title IV). This provision allowed the U.S. attorney general to file suit to desegregate schools. Individual citizens then did not have to sue in the courts. Rather, they could complain to the U.S. Department of Justice, which could initiate legal action.

What did the Civil Rights Act of 1964 do in the areas of: employment discrimination

(Title VII). Companies with twenty-five or more employees were forbidden from discriminating on the basis of race or sex in hiring and firing workers and granting pay and benefits.

Make sure to know whether each of the following groups tend to vote at relatively high rates or relatively low rates? Young voters (compared to older voters)

- 18-24 - least likely to vote of any category age, People in the 45-70 age bracket tend to vote the most - in 2000 election, roughly 38% of voters turned out to vote

Make sure to know whether each of the following groups tend to vote at relatively high rates or relatively low rates? High income voters (compared to low income voters)

- higher income is positively associated with higher turnout.

Make sure to know and understand how discrimination based on sex (i.e., against men or women) has been addressed by Congress and/or the courts in the following areas: Sexual Harrassment

- 1986, the Supreme Court ruled that sexual harassment in the workplace constituted unlawful gender discrimination in violation of federal civil rights laws. - 1993, the Supreme court adopted a legal standard that makes it easier for victims of sexual harassment to sue in federal court

Make sure to know whether each of the following groups tend to vote at relatively high rates or relatively low rates? The highly educated (compared to those with low education levels)

- A person with a college degree is almost twice as likely to vote as a person without a high school diploma.

What impact did the Voting Rights Act of 1965 have on African American registration and voting?

- Black registration and voting increased substantially - mid-1970s, black were voting in numbers close to whites - Several thousand African Americans had been elected to state and local office

Be sure to understand the relationship between interest groups and the First Amendment.

- Constitution guarantees the right to form interest groups - First amendment protects the right to join political associates for the purpose of petitioning government for a redress of grievances - Effective advocacy of both public and private points of view, particularly controversial ones, is undeniably enhanced by group association, as this Court has more than once recognized by remarking on the close nexus between the freedoms of speech and assembly. . . . It is beyond debate that freedom to engage in an association for the advancement of beliefs and ideas is an inseparable aspect of . . . liberty.

Make sure to know and understand how discrimination based on sex (i.e., against men or women) has been addressed by Congress and/or the courts in the following areas: Workforce

- Despite recent gains, women on average earn only about 70 cents for every dollar earned by men - Women complain of a "glass ceiling" an invisible barrier that keeps women out of top managerial positions

What are the two broad categories of interest groups in the United States?

- Economic and Noneconomic - Economic groups exist mainly to use the political process to secure financial gains for their members. Other than supporting the basic economic philosophy of capitalism within the context of a market, economic groups do not have ideological preferences. Their members do not share core political values that drive their action. Rather, they share economic interests, which may indeed transcend ideological feelings. - Noneconomic groups exist to articulate their values, not to advance material interests. Both economic and noneconomic groups are formed to advance the common interests of their members by influencing government policy. For the most part, leaders of interest groups do not seek government office.

Make sure to know and understand how discrimination based on sex (i.e., against men or women) has been addressed by Congress and/or the courts in the following areas: Educational Institutions

- Historically, many state run colleges were single-sex institutions - By late 1960s almost all state colleges and universities had become coeducational - In 1984, the Supreme Court required the Mississippi University of Women (MUW) to admit a male student to its all-female nursing program - MUW tried to defend its policy by saying it was an affirmative action program but it didn't work - 1996, the court ruled the Virginal Military Institute (VMI) an all-male state-run military college had to accept women as cadets

Make sure to know and understand how discrimination based on sex (i.e., against men or women) has been addressed by Congress and/or the courts in the following areas: military service

- In 1981, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the male-only draft registration law. - In Justice William Rehnquist's words men and women, "are simply not similarly situated for purposes of a draft or registration for a draft."

According to the Supreme Court, what exactly is required by the 6th Amendment command that criminal trials must be by an "impartial jury"?

- Juries are only required for charges carrying either the death penalty or a max sentence of more than 6 months - The Juries must not be biased, and must be tested with a series of questions relating to the case in order to see if they have any hidden biases - The pool of potential jurors must be randomly selected so that it resembles the community from which they are drawn - For example, if 40% of the members of a community are African American, then the jury pool should be composed of approximately 40% African American individuals.

Why do individuals decide to join interest groups? Why, for instance, might I become a member of AAA even if I'd rather free-ride on the public goods it seeks to provide?

- interest groups may provide selective incentives to members. Selective incentives can be any private benefit that induces a potential member to join or a current member to stay in an organization. - Clean-air legislation may not be enough of an incentive to get an individual to join the National Wildlife Federation, but selective incentives, such as a glossy calendar of wildlife scenes, a newsletter on wildlife preservation, bumper stickers displaying the member's support of a public good, or a T-shirt featuring an endangered species, may provide an individual with a tangible benefit that a nonmember could not receive. The benefit must be relatively inexpensive, or else it costs the interest group more than it receives from the individual.

What is the difference between (traditional) lobbying and grassroots lobbying?

- Lobbying are activities aimed at influencing government through direct contact with government officials - Grassroots lobbying is a broad category of lobbying in which people in the general public try to influence those in the government

How do collective action problems (including the incentive to free ride) shape the way in which interest groups try to recruit and retain members?

- Mancur Olson argued that groups that pursue benefits for society at large, as opposed to selective benefits for their members, are not likely to succeed. These types of groups have difficulty recruiting and retaining members because anyone can benefit from the group's activities without joining. If individuals were to act purely on the basis of self-interest, they would prefer to be free riders, or persons who enjoy the benefits of an organization's activity without having to pay the costs.

How do interest groups differ from political parties?

- Political parties exist to recruit political leaders, mobilize voters in elections and guide governance - Parties are large, undisciplined, ill-defined and stand for broad, even vague, notions of what the public ought to be - Interest groups exist to get government to do what they want it to do

How do they differ in the policies that they pursue? Be sure to know an example of each subtype (for instance: the AFL-CIO is a labor union). professional groups

- Professional associations are organizations of individuals employed, or self-employed, in a variety of skilled enterprises, such as medicine, law, accounting, and engineering. - By state law, certain professional organizations are allowed to control their membership so that the public is protected against unqualified, incompetent individuals. - Typically, the main task confronting any professional association is securing state action that confers professional status on its members. Often, major battles in state legislatures ensue between competing professional groups. For example, ophthalmologists, who have medical degrees, and optometrists, who are trained in colleges of optometry, are continually at odds over the degree to which the latter should be allowed to perform medical procedures or prescribe drugs to their patients. Each group makes major contributions to candidates for state legislatures. - The best-known professional organizations are probably the American Bar Association (ABA), which represents lawyers, and the American Medical Association (AMA).

What did the founding fathers think about public opinion?

- Realized the importance of public opinion - The campaign for ratification of the constitution was a battle for public acceptance of a stronger central government - Yet the Founders also maintained a healthy fear of public opinion - Foresaw dangers in the popular will, and their concern over government responding to momentary surges in public opinions inspired them to create governmental institutions to blunt popular passions

How do they differ in the policies that they pursue? Be sure to know an example of each subtype (for instance: the AFL-CIO is a labor union). Labor Union

- The American Federation of Labor (AFL) was created in 1881 as a means of unifying diverse trade unions. The Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) was created in the late 1930s to provide representation for less-skilled industrial labor. - This country experienced an epic battle in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries over the right of workers to form labor unions. The labor movement eventually won the battle, and in 1935 Congress adopted legislation that guaranteed the rights of workers to unionize and collectively bargain with management over wages and other terms of employment.

How do the four political scientific models of American politics (majoritarianism, elite theory, pluralism, and biased pluralism) conceive of the relationship between public policy and public opinion?

- The majoritarianism model would imply a direct link between mass public opinion and policy makers. This is depicted in Model A. - In Model A, public opinion prompts policy makers to adopt policies to which, in turn, the public reacts. - elite theory, pluralism, and biased pluralism would imply something like Model B. - In this model, which we can call the "elite-pluralist model," the policy process is initiated by activists (such as interest groups) or members of the power elite. These "policy initiators" get issues on the public agenda and help to frame the discussion of these issues. The activities of the initiators have direct influence on policy makers as well as on public opinion, but public opinion also has a direct effect on policy makers. - The policies that emerge from the process have a feedback effect on all the other elements of the model. Even though public opinion is not the prime mover, as it is depicted in Model A, it is still a crucial element of the process.

How are issue networks different than iron triangles?

- conglomeration of decision makers, activists, and experts in a particular policy area. - It is typically larger, more diverse, and more dynamic than the iron triangle. - In the issue network, relationships change, participants come and go, and roles and levels of influence likewise change. - An issue network in a particular policy area may involve governmental actors from several branches and several levels of government; activists and lobbyists representing numerous diverse interests; and experts from think tanks, consulting firms, and academia. - Because it is more inclusive and less insular than the iron triangle, the issue network is less objectionable to those who object to the undue influence of private actors over public policy.

What is strict scrutiny?

- the label given to the most stringent approach taken by courts when reviewing potentially unconstitutional government actions. - Courts apply strict scrutiny to actions that are discriminatory (in ways that have been specifically defined over time) and/or that infringe upon particular fundamental rights (which have been identified over time).

What are some negative consequences of hyperpluralism?

- the prevalence of group demands makes it impossible for government to plan, deal with long-term problems, and make policies that further the public interest. - Gridlock, the inability of government to make or implement any decision, may be one of the consequences of hyperpluralism

Public Discrimination

:the conscious or unconscious denial of equal treatment to a person based on their membership in some recognizable group.

What is one example of a possible iron triangle today?

A bureaucrat in the Department of Energy, a congressman on the Energy Committee, and a lobbyist from a major oil company, like Exxon Mobil. The bureaucrat's goal is to maintain his department's funding and thus his job. The congressman's goal is to gain re-election. The lobbyist's goal is to represent his company and get legislative bills of interest to his company passed. According to the iron triangle theory, all three will work together so that all three can achieve their goals. It all comes to three relationships among the three groups.

What is meant by hyperpluralism?

A critical account of American politics, most famously offered by Theodore Lowi, which holds that the prevalence of interest groups putting pressure on government makes it impossible for government to plan, deal with long-term problems, and make policies that further the public interest.

What is a party platform?

A document that is developed at a party's national convention and establishes what the party stands for

What is a partisan realignment?

A durable shift in an a political system's configuration of voters' partisan identifications and political parties' vote shares.

What are proto-parties? What separates them from third parties? What are recent examples of proto-parties?

A group of individuals affiliated with one ideological wing of the existing parties, but are neither breakaway groups nor officially sanctioned parts of existing parties Third parties now tend to be narrowly ideological, basing their appeal on a fairly strict set of beliefs about government. Tea Party

What role did white supremacist terror organizations, such as the Ku Klux Klan, play in perpetuating the Jim Crow system?

African Americans were told in a myriad of ways that they should stay in their "place." No institution or politician dared articulate, let alone espouse, their cause. Any African American so foolish as to stray from her place faced a high likelihood of a violent visit from the Ku Klux Klan, which had been formed during Reconstruction as a secret society dedicated to the intimidation of blacks. This intimidation often took the form of murder, with lynching as the preferred mode of execution. African Americans, especially in the South, were virtually without hope.

In 1896, in Plessy v. Ferguson, the Supreme Court established the doctrine of separate but equal. What was this doctrine?

Allowed separate facilities for African Americans as long as they were considered "equal" They however were rarely equal.

What happened to the proposed objectives of the Equal Rights Amendment

Although Congress extended the period for ratification until 1982, the amendment ultimately failed to win approval by the requisite number of states. However, roughly one-third of the states eventually amended their own constitutions to provide explicit protections against sex discrimination.

Do constitutions protect civil liberties against infringement by private individuals (or businesses) or do constitutions only protect against infringement by government?

Constitutions only protect against infringement by the government, NOT in private establishments

What was its significance for the Jim Crow system of segregation?

Beginning in the 1880s, a number of state legislatures passed a series of laws that virtually mandated a dual society based on race. Most southern and border states changed their constitutions to create separate school systems. Laws required African Americans and whites to ride in separate railroad cars, to use separate facilities in public buildings, and even to be buried in separate cemeteries. Courts maintained separate Bibles so that white witnesses would not have to touch the same Bible touched by African Americans.

What is meant by the term "political intolerance"?

Being unable to be mindful or a certain race, religion, or ethnicity

These two concepts are closely tied to the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment: (1) Incorporation and (2) Unenumerated Constitutional Rights. What's the difference between those two constitutional sources of civil liberties?

Both are similar in that they involve protecting "liberty" (from the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment) against actions taken by state governments. But they differ in how liberties protected are discovered. Incorporation is about those rights explicitly listed (i.e., "enumerated") in the text of the Constitution—specifically, in the Bill of Rights—whereas the Court's protection of unenumerated constitutional rights involves rights nowhere explicitly mentioned (i.e., "enumerated") anywhere in the text of the Constitution.

Civil rights and civil liberties are both types of legal rights. How are they different from each other?

Both have different aims

In what case did the U.S. Supreme Court declare that the doctrine of "separate but equal" has no place in public education?

Brown v Board of Education

Even when a majority of the public in the 1950s and 1960s became supportive of ending de jure segregation, the major efforts at resolving continued de facto segregation—busing and affirmative action—were quite unpopular. What is meant by "busing" and "affirmative action"?

Busing was to transport children by bus across school attendance zones to achieve a degree of racial integration. Of course, the idea of busing was extremely unpopular in white communities, and school boards were not inclined to take this type of action unless ordered to do so by a federal judge. Affirmative action were The policies by which federal agencies move to remedy past discrimination by assuring inclusion of minorities through the use of goals, quotas and timetables

What have historically been barriers to voting (especially for minorities)? According to the textbook, are most of these barriers still present today or have most of them been removed?

By the end of the 1960s, virtually all the structural impediments to registration and voting had been removed. Ruy Teixeira lists seven major changes in the registration system that occurred between 1960 and 1988: The abolition of the poll tax The abolition of literacy tests Formal prohibitions against discrimination in registering voters The increased availability of bilingual registration materials The increased number of states allowing registration by mail A decline in residency requirements The moving of registration deadlines closer to elections Voter registration has been the greatest barrier of all time to vote, all citizens who want to cast a ballot in an election must register in advance of the election

Is the voter turnout rate about the same today as it was in 1960 or has it changed? If it's changed, has it increased or declined?

Changed, decreased

What was the proposed Equal Rights Amendment?

Civil rights to all people regardless of sex.

Which U.S. President ended the policy Don't ask don't tell policy?

Barack Obama

What does "reasonable expectation of privacy" have to do with how the Supreme Court has interpreted the 4th Amendment?

Basically we should be able to keep our own information to our self and not be forced to overturn information.

What, according the textbook, is the most notable trend in regards to the party in the electorate over the past four decades?

the rise of the Independent voter—the voter who identifies with no particular party. This is true not only in the United States, but also in most democracies around the world.

Who (liberals or conservatives) tend to think the Establishment Clause allows government to accommodate religion so long as it does not force anyone to participate in religious activities against their will and does not promote one religion over another?

Conservatives

Is it liberals or is it conservatives who tend to favor gun rights more than gun control?

Conservatives are more favorable toward gun rights than gun control

What is the difference between de jure segregation and de facto segregation?

De jure segregation was segregation as provided by law. De facto segregation was segregation not mandated by the law

Make sure that you understand the decentralized nature of our political parties and what it means for party politics.

Decentralization in political parties is a result of the party out of power lacking a strong leader, the federal system distributing power too widely, and pitting parties against each other in the nominating process.

What seven things do national party conventions do (according to the textbook)?

Determine the rules for conducting party business. Bring together diverse groups in the party. Develop and provide exposure for upcoming party leaders. Debate and write the party platform. Showcase the party's image. Nominate the president and vice president. Launch the campaign.

According to the U.S. Supreme Court, what part of the U.S. Constitution is violated if state or local governments deprive same sex couples of the right to marry?

Due Process Clause: Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment that says "No State shall ... deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law." (The Fifth Amendment also has a due process clause, but the Fourteenth Amendment's is specifically directed at state government action whereas the Fifth Amendment's only pertains to actions by the federal government.)

Priming

Fallacy in which a previous question can influence the answer of the current question That is why a survey about the presidential election usually begins with the key question of vote intention. If the vote intention question is asked after a series of questions on presidential job performance, respondents might be primed to match their vote intention to the candidate they had indicated was superior at the tasks presented in the survey.

double-barreled question

Fallacy that occurs when the surveyor ask respondents a question that deals with more than one issue. Answers are often vague and not valid.

Make sure that you are aware of the costs of registering to vote as well as the actual process of voting.

Generally, many aren't interested in politics until they feel or see the effects of it in their lives. A lot of people believe that their single vote will not sway any change so they do not vote. Reasons for not voting include: distance, time, (Rational abstention) costs are greater than benefit

Why are these two things thought to be "dangerous" for democracy?

If a political culture does not support a reasonable degree of tolerance for others, it is doubtful that political institutions can do much more than stave off a majority who would use their power to limit the rights of a minority.

What is extraordinary political participation? What are some examples?

Groups that perceive themselves as "outsiders" in the political system typically use demonstrations, marches, protests, and other extraordinary forms of political action.

How do they differ in the policies that they pursue? Be sure to know an example of each subtype (for instance: the AFL-CIO is a labor union). Trade Associations

Higher prices on steel might help the steel industry, but the American auto industry, which uses large amounts of steel, wanted lower steel prices so that it could produce inexpensive cars to compete with foreign automakers. Consequently, general business organizations, such as the Chamber of Commerce and the National Association of Manufacturers, could not take a stance on this issue without alienating one set of members or the other. On the other hand, an organization with a narrower focus and a smaller membership that shares the same interest could pursue protective tariffs for the steel industry. Trade associations fill this important need for industries. American industries and businesses make most of their efforts to affect government through trade associations of companies producing the same type of goods or services.

What according to the textbook did the "undue burden standard" open the door for pro-life leaders to successfully implement?

In Mississippi, for example, laws requiring expensive upgrades to abortion facilities and steep requirements on whom may lawfully perform abortions have resulted in the closure of all but one clinic in that state. It is thus currently nearly impossible to have a legal abortion in Mississippi.

What are some movements that used extraordinary political participation?

In the 1950s and 1960s, for example, the civil rights movement successfully used extraordinary activities—marches, demonstrations, and protests—to raise white Americans' consciousness of the injustices of racism and discrimination.

What reforms did Georgia make to its system that led the Court (in 1976) to declare the death penalty no longer unconstitutional there?

The Supreme Court reinstates the death penalty when it upholds Georgia's statute in Gregg v. Georgia. after the rewriting of state statues, juries don't have the discretion to deliver death penalty sentences.

How do socioeconomic factors influence our stance on certain issues?

Individuals vary greatly in their attitudes, opinions, beliefs, and values. To a great degree, the process of political socialization explains these differences. Though the agents of socialization are not particularly numerous, their effect varies depending on the situation. It is never possible to explain completely all the variation in political attitudes and opinions.

What are some of the most common ways in which interest groups seek to influence policy?

Influencing elections Fundraising Lobbying Influencing public opinion Engaging in litigation

Who (liberals or conservatives) tend to think the Establishment Clause requires a strict "separation of church and state"?

Liberals

What does it have to do with how liberals and conservatives view the "unenumerated constitutional rights" discussed in the textbook?

Liberals are more open to unenumerated rights versus conservatives who believe we should stick directly to the constitution

What does strict scrutiny have to do with the so-called Sherbert Test?

It is the second phase of the Sherbert Test. The Sherbert test is a test where a court reviewing claims under the Free Exercise Clause performs a two phase analysis. In Phase 1, the Court must determine whether 1. the person has a claim involving a sincere religious belief and 2. the government action is an actual burden on the person's ability to act on that belief.

What does it mean to read someone their "Miranda Rights" or issue "Miranda warnings"?

It means to briefly tell them what rights they are given by the constitution and the rights they can exercise, as well as what can happen if they choose to exercise those rights "You have the right to remain silent and refuse to answer questions. Anything you say can and will be used against you in a court of law. You have the right to consult an attorney before speaking to the police and to have an attorney present during questioning now or in the future. If you cannot afford an attorney, one will be appointed for you before any questioning if you wish. If you decide to answer questions now without an attorney present, you will still have the right to stop answering at any time until you talk to an attorney."

According to the textbook, an act of Congress (the Religious Freedom Restoration Act) provides greater protection for the free exercise of religion against federal government infringement than does the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment. Why?

It varies state by state, each state can have their own law about this and it's better suited to the individuals living there.

Beginning with Roe v. Wade (1973), what part of the Constitution has the Supreme Court claimed to be the source of protection for the right to privacy?

Justice Harry Blackmun, writing for the majority, argued that the decision to have an abortion is a properly private decision (between a woman and her doctor) and that this decision is protected by a constitutional "right of personal privacy." By this, he meant that there are certain activities and decisions of such a deeply private nature that government may not legitimately interfere with them.

How do they differ in the policies that they pursue? Be sure to know an example of each subtype (for instance: the AFL-CIO is a labor union). Business Organizations

Large corporations, such as General Motors, AT&T, and IBM, have many strategies for attempting to influence public policy that may have an effect on their interests. Hiring a lobbying firm or creating a political action office within the company is the most expensive strategy, but it also allows the firm to make individual decisions on the political issues most crucial to its interests.

What is an amicus curiae brief? How do interest groups use them to seek to influence policy?

Literally meaning "friend of the court," an amicus brief is filed by a person or group that is not a direct party to a case but wants to inform the court of its views on how the case should be decided. In a case involving a major social, political, or economic issue, many different groups may file amicus briefs. Interest groups filed amicus briefs in more than half the noneconomic cases decided by the Supreme Court in the 1970s and this trend continues now.

Many Democrats think the nomination of Hillary Clinton in 2016 signaled a failure of the party's system for nominating presidential candidates. What problem do these critics see with the system?

Many Democrats complained that the Super Delegate system was to blame—that it gave party elite too much influence at the expense of ordinary voters.

Many Republicans think the nomination of Donald Trump in 2016 signaled a failure of party's system for nominating presidential candidates. What problem do these critics see with the system?

Many Republicans, on the other hand, argued the opposite: that the system did not allow party elites to have enough influence over the party's choice of nominee.

a. In what Supreme Court case was it established that if these rights or warnings are not read/issued at the time of arrest, statements made by a suspect may not be used against him or her at trial?

Miranda V. Arizona

How does pluralism differ from elite theory

Model of American politics that says a tiny group of connected and wealthy Americans, totaling around 3000 in number, are the real rulers of America. (Contrast with Biased pluralism, Majoritarianism, and pluralism)

What is pluralism?

Model of American politics that says government is influenced by the efforts of multiple minority organized groups with opposing interests and values. According to the classic theory of pluralism, all citizens potentially affected by policies can and will organize and thereby exert influence over policy.

How does pluralism differ from majoritarianism

Model of American politics that says the opinions and interests of the majority of Americans tend to prevail, through the mechanism of democratic elections, in the struggle for power over government. (Contrast with Biased pluralism, Elite Theory, and pluralism)

How does pluralism differ from biased pluralism

Model of American politics that sees the process as plural (i.e., represented by diverse values and interests) but biased toward the particular values and interests that concern and divide the relatively affluent and well educated. (Contrast with Elite Theory, Majoritarianism, and pluralism)

Make sure to know whether each of the following groups tend to vote at relatively high rates or relatively low rates? Women (compared to men)

No significant gap now exists between women and men—if anything, women are slightly more likely to vote than men.

When do parties adopt their party platform?

Party's national convention

What are third parties? Be sure to know the different major third parties in the United States since 1992.

Political Parties that don't align with democratic or republican values Reform Party, Green Party, Libertarian Party

How do values, beliefs, and attitudes shape our opinion on political issues?

Political attitudes are built on both values and beliefs. Political attitudes are "more or less enduring orientations toward an object or situation and predispositions to respond positively or negatively toward that object or situation."

How were the following tactics used to keep African Americans from voting during the Jim Crow period: The White Primary

Practice in southern states where only white people could vote in the primaries, insuring that there would be no African American political figures

Which kind of discrimination is prohibited by the Constitution?

Public Discrimination

What is the name given to non-economic interest groups that strive for "a collective good, the achievement of which will not selectively or materially benefit the membership or activists of the organization?"

Public Interest Group

Why, according to the textbook, is public opinion "vital" in a democratic system?

Public opinion is most important in democratic governments since such governments are expected to be held accountable to the will of the people. Even authoritarian governments cannot afford to ignore public opinion. After all, authoritarian leaders want to avoid popular revolts and, thus, actively seek to shape public opinion so that the people accept their rule. If a government is designed to follow the preferences of the populace, then there must be some way for regular communication of citizen preferences to their elected leaders.

How do they differ from economic interest groups?

Rather than push for a broad policy agenda, these types of groups may be concerned about only a few legislative proposals or regulations. Groups exist for almost every conceivable policy area. Although most are organized for action at the national level, many act only in certain states or local areas.

What does the "right to privacy" have to do with "unenumerated constitutional rights"?

Sexual acts or acts done in private shouldn't be affected by the government

Who (or what) are the different factors that influence political socialization?

Social class, religion, ethnicity, family, school, and one's peer groups

What did the Supreme Court declare about that Act in The Civil Rights Cases (1883)?

Supreme Court struck down the key provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1875, ruling that the Fourteenth Amendment limited congressional action to only the prohibition of official, state-sponsored discrimination, not discrimination practiced by privately owned places of public accommodation.

On what ground did the U.S. Supreme Court, in Lawrence v. Texas (2003), declare unconstitutional a Texas statute that made it a crime to engage in sodomy "with another individual of the same sex."

That is, according to the Court, the privacy protected by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment is violated when laws seek to regulate sexual activity engaged in by consenting adults. Thus, the Court declared unconstitutional all laws that outlaw sodomy by consenting adults (and not just that engaged in by homosexuals).

Liberals and conservatives disagree over many things when it comes to the interpretation of the Establishment Clause. What, according to the textbook, do they agree about?

That states are not allowed to establish a religion

What is "Incorporation"? What does it have to do with the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment?

The Court declares a civil liberty from the Bill of Rights to be protected against state government abuse through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. So, for example, in a case in 1925, the Supreme Court ruled that when state governments violate the freedom of speech, they are violating the Fourteenth Amendment by depriving persons of a vital "liberty" found in the Bill of Rights

What did the Supreme Court declare about the 6th Amendment right to an attorney in Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)?

The Court overturned Gideon's conviction and ruled that the Sixth Amendment requires government to provide an attorney to any criminal defendant who requests and cannot afford one.

What led to the development of the Democratic Party as a majority party in the 1930s?

The New Deal Program by FDR. They appealed to a variety of people including southern whites, black and other ethnic groups, Catholics and Jews.

How did the issue of slavery factor into the demise of the Whig Party, the loss of majority-party status by Democrats, and the rise of the Republican Party?

The Whigs were less unified on slavery during the 1830s, when they were the party out of power. They were therefore less committed to the status quo and more likely to take the risk of establishing a new image.9 In the 1840s and 1850s, first the Whigs and then the Democrats became increasingly split over the slavery issue. The Whigs collapsed under the pressure, and the Democrats were weakened to a degree sufficient to make them vulnerable to the newly constituted Republican party.

What is judicial review?

The authority of courts to decide whether an act of government is constitutional or unconstitutional

What is "the Culture War"?

The conflict between liberals and conservatives over the legitimacy of laws that seek to promote or uphold traditional moral values vs those that seek to promote the equal status of traditionally subordinated groups

What does it mean to say someone has "low political efficacy"?

The degree to which an individual feels that they can make a difference in politics persons of low political efficacy feel that they have very little affect on government Ex. In this country, politicians looking to appeal to persons of low political efficacy have also been prone to scapegoating. African Americans, Jews, Asian Americans, and many other ethnic minorities have been the targets of these types of efforts.

Why did the civil rights movement present a long-lasting challenge to the Democratic Party's coalition that originally emerged in the 1930s?

The democratic party had trouble of appealing to southern whites and minorities at the same time

Private Discrimination

The denial of equal treatment by a private citizen pursuing their interests in the private sector against someone based on their membership in some recognizable group

According to the Supreme Court, what was wrong with the death penalty as practiced in Georgia when (in 1972) the Court declared it to be unconstitutionally cruel and unusual?

The five justices in the majority in Furman disagreed over what made capital punishment cruel and unusual. Only two justices argued that the death penalty, in and of itself, offended contemporary standards of decency and, therefore, should be considered unconstitutional under any circumstances.

Why, according to the textbook, has the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) of 2002 had a mixed impact on the ability for parties to influence candidates' campaigns?

The impact of this on the ability for parties to influence candidates' campaigns has been mixed. On the one hand, in part by using the power of the internet, parties have been able to raise money from enough small donors to raise much of the revenue that had formerly been raised through soft money. On the other hand, large donors—such as corporations, large not-for-profit organizations, and unions—now have an increased ability to seek to influence campaigns without the help of political party organizations. They are able to do this through so-called "independent expenditures," which is spending on behalf of a candidate that is not made with the cooperation of, or in consultation or concert with, the candidate or a political party. 

Why do we only have two major parties?

The major reason for the two-party system has to do with the winner-take-all electoral system for president and Congress. In a winner-take-all electoral system, a party must capture the most votes in a district to obtain any representation in the government. For instance, a presidential candidate must win the most votes in a state before obtaining any electoral votes. In a winner-take-all system, a new party must win entire districts in a race for the House of Representatives before it has any representation in the House. It must win entire states before obtaining any Senate seats or accumulating any electoral votes for president. Thus, if a new party were to form and get 15 percent of the votes nationwide, it could easily end up with no House seats and win no electoral votes in a presidential contest. This system makes it hard for any new party to grow.

What are parties in government and how do they differ from parties in the electorate?

The party in government consists of those officeholders from a particular party. Although party affiliation is crucial to the way the president and cabinet operate in office, they do not have to contend with members of the other party in day-to-day internal operations. The party in the electorate refers to all those voters who identify with a party. In the United States, individuals do not formally express their party preference. The closest Americans come to making this type of declaration is when they register as Democrats or Republicans in those states that require voters to state a party preference to vote in a party primary.

What was the "don't ask, don't tell" policy with respect to gay men and lesbians in the military?

The policy prohibited people who "demonstrate a propensity or intent to engage in homosexual acts" from serving in the armed forces of the United States, because their presence "would create an unacceptable risk to the high standards of morale, good order and discipline, and unit cohesion that are the essence of military capability". The act prohibited any homosexual or bisexual person from disclosing his or her sexual orientation or from speaking about any homosexual relationships, including marriages or other familial attributes, while serving in the United States armed forces.

What separates scientific polling from unscientific polling?

The unscientific poll consists of examples such as 900-number call in surveys, man on the street polls, some internet polls, and shopping mall polls. In these poll's respondents often volunteer their answers, rather than being chosen, and only give the opinions of those surveyed rather than providing an accurate picture of the overall population. It is important to note that unscientific poll results can rarely be trusted and are merely useful as a means of entertainment. On the other hand scientific polls often can be trusted as accurate when being applied to the larger population. Scientific polls are typically performed over the telephone, through the mail, in person, or even through the internet. One of the major characteristics that makes a poll scientific is the fact the pollster identifies and seeks out respondents. This allows the pollster to create a sample that much more closely resembles the overall population being studied.

How did their views about public opinion influence their approach to designing democratic government?

The very constitutional structures that have come to be celebrated by the public were designed to temper the influence of variable popular majorities on public policy while allowing policy to reflect a societal consensus. The Framers of the Constitution wanted to prevent government from acting under the pressures of fleeting popular passions.

Do searches always require warrants in order to be lawful?

There Are At least 4 Different circumstances in which a search without a warrant can be considered lawful 1. Search Incident to a lawful arrest i. If police have met the requirements for an arrest to be lawful, then, at the time of the arrest, they may search the suspect and the surrounding area under their immediate control. 2. Exigent Circumstances i. Sometimes searches are allowed without a warrant due to exigent (i.e., emergency) circumstances. If police are in "hot pursuit" chasing a suspect, and the suspect runs into a house, police do not need a warrant to forcibly enter the house. 3. Plain View i. If a police officer is somewhere that he or she has a legal right to be, then the officer may seize evidence if the evidence is "in plain view." For example, if a police officer is standing on the street, and someone walks by juggling three bags of cocaine, the police officer does not need a warrant to stop the person and seize the cocaine as evidence. 4. Automobile Exception i. Police may conduct searches of automobiles without a warrant so long as they have probable cause for believing the owner of the vehicle is guilty of a crime.

How, according to the textbook, do political parties "provide a vital function in any democratic system"?

They promote compromise and cooperation among various interests. They allow the multiplicity of interests to find their voices, even though those voices may be somewhat muted.

How do proponents of gun rights differ from proponents of gun control in how they interpret the Second Amendment?

This seems to clearly indicate that "the people" have a "right ... to keep and bear Arms" and that this "shall not be infringed" by government the first part of the Second Amendment shows that the amendment's purpose is solely to assure that citizens are able, when needed, to "bear Arms" when serving in a "well-regulated Militia."

How were the following tactics used to keep African Americans from voting during the Jim Crow period: Poll Taxes

This tax was just a free for the privilege of voting

What, according to the textbook, is "the primary purpose" of the 4th Amendment?

To protect citizens from unjustified government interference when law enforcement officials search for evidence of criminal activity.

Which model, according to the textbook, is the more accurate account of how interest groups influence government today?

Today, the issue network may be a more realistic model of interest group influence in most policy areas.

What are political resources? How do these resources influence political participation?

Tools for exercising influence that an individual or group can bring to bear in the political arena. These include money, time, communication skills and personal connections. Moving up the hierarchy of political participation, the number of people participating in each category declines. At the same time, however, a person who engages in an action partway up the hierarchy is likely to participate also in the lower activities.

What is the difference between values, beliefs, and attitudes?

Values: Basic set of feelings about what ought to be and how people ought to behave Beliefs: Propositions about what is true or false. Ex. an individual's position on whether the death penalty deters crime. Attitudes: A consistent predisposition either positively or negatively toward an object or situation. Attitudes are built upon beliefs and values

What, according to the textbook, is by "far the greatest barrier to vote"?

Voter registration. All citizens who want to cast a ballot in an election must register in advance of the election. Registration is the most significant reason most people do not cast ballots in a given election.

According to the book, there are many different ways to participate in politics. What are some of them? Can you place them on a scale of participation (most participation to least participation)?

Yeah

What is meant by the word public opinion?

aggregation of individual opinions on issues of concern to the public.

Make sure to know and understand the definition of interest groups

an association of individuals or organizations that seeks to influence government to benefit members of the association or advance a cause they share a belief in.

What kind of discrimination did the Civil Rights Act of 1875 seek to outlaw?

attempted to eradicate racial discrimination in "places of public accommodation," including hotels, taverns, restaurants, theaters, and "public conveyances." This act was an ambitious one that, if enforced, would have represented a direct confrontation to the southern way of life.

Why are a growing number of constitutional scholars, lawyers and judges questioning its wisdom?

because police may have failed to strictly follow Fourth Amendment standards. One criticism is that the exclusionary rule is too rigid. Instead of automatically excluding unlawfully obtained evidence, according to this argument, courts should be able to take into account multiple factors, such as the seriousness of the crime committed and the importance of the evidence for ascertaining guilt, when deciding whether evidence should be excluded.

What are the different types of economic interest groups?

business organizations, trade associations, professional groups, and labor unions.

What does JR have to do with how civil liberties are enforced in practice?

can overturn acts of government that infringe upon the civil liberties of citizens.

What is the exclusionary rule's purpose?

deterring police from conducting unlawful searches.

Liberals and conservatives today disagree over what the Eighth Amendment requires under contemporary conditions. What do they agree about?

everyone agrees that the Eighth Amendment prohibits the kinds of punishments that the Founding Fathers thought of as cruel, such as drawing, quartering, and burning at the stake.

What does Oliver Wendell Holmes' notion of a "marketplace of ideas" have to do with the Court's insistence that content-based restrictions are almost always in violation of the constitutional right to free expression?

free speech rights afforded by the First Amendment, while generous, are not limitless, and context determines the limits.

In Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), the Supreme Court replaced the "trimester framework" (from Roe v. Wade) with something called the "undue burden standard"?

government may pass laws intending to "inform a woman's free choice" about abortion in the earliest stages of pregnancy so long as doing so does not "hinder" that free choice.

What is the exclusionary rule?

if government seizes evidence through an unconstitutional search, then the evidence may not be admitted into court.

What is a "PAC"?

legal mechanisms through which interest groups funnel contributions to candidates for public office For example, the MoveOn Political Action Committee, affiliated with the liberal group MoveOn.org, contributed more than $2 million to congressional campaigns in 2000, and more than $3.5 million in 2002. This money came from more than ten thousand individual contributors.24 By concentrating and targeting money raised from individual contributors, PACs can have a significant effect on the political process.

How does it define "civil liberties"?

legal rights designed to protect individuals from abuse of power by government.

How does the textbook define "civil rights"?

legal rights that aim at eliminating and/or remedying various forms of unequal treatment in American society. More specifically, civil rights are primarily concerned with discrimination against people based on such characteristics as race, sex/gender, disability, and sexual orientation.

Why, according to the textbook, is the incorporation of criminal justice rights under the 14th Amendment "especially important."

most law enforcement activities are conducted by state and local police departments and most criminal trials take place in state courts and pertain to state criminal laws. This means that the U.S. Constitution is now understood as guaranteeing protections for the criminally accused where most law enforcement activities and criminal legal proceedings take place.

How were the following tactics used to keep African Americans from voting during the Jim Crow period: Literacy Tests

often high-level constitutional tests rather than simple tests of reading ability. Not surprisingly, whites who took the test were not required to demonstrate similar levels of "literacy."

random sample

one in which every member of the sampling frame has an equal chance of being selected.

What's the difference between "selective incorporation" and "total corporation"? Which approach has the U.S. Supreme Court used?

over the years, one case and one civil liberty at a time, the Supreme Court has incorporated nearly all (24 out of 28) of the civil liberties listed in the Bill of Rights. This gradual process of incorporation is referred to as "selective incorporation." In the past, some scholars and judges advocated instead for what is called "total incorporation," which is the idea that all of the civil liberties protected by the Bill of Rights should automatically be incorporated into the Due Process Clause all at once. But the Court instead chose to follow the gradual process of selective incorporation.

What did Congress do in 1988 to compensate Japanese Americans for their internment during World War II?

paid $20,000 compensation to each survivor of the internment.

What kind of discrimination did Title II of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 seek to outlaw?

prohibited racial discrimination in "places of public accommodations" that affected interstate commerce, including restaurants, stadiums, theaters, and motels or hotels with more than five rooms.

What did the Supreme Court declare about Title II that Act in the Heart of Atlanta Motel decision?

ruled that Title II was a reasonable regulation of interstate commerce because racial discrimination by privately owned places of public accommodation constituted a serious impediment to interstate travel by blacks. The Court also held that the Heart of Atlanta motel was subject to the requirements of Title II because a substantial proportion of its clientele came from out of state.

What are the different types of non-economic interest groups?

single-interest, ideological groups and public interest groups

According to the Supreme Court, which of the following forms of expression are entitled to less First Amendment protection than ordinary forms of political expression:

slander (said out loud) of public figures; obscenity; student speech (in public schools); fighting words;" expression that merely promotes (but is unlikely to actually produce) lawless action, expression that promotes, and is likely to incite or produce, imminent lawless action; libel (in writing) of public figures

What specific impact (discussed by the textbook) did this decision have on the criminal justice system?

state governments now directly employ over 15,000 Public Defenders who each year provide legal counsel to millions of criminal defendants who cannot afford to hire their own attorneys.

If someone goes a full year after being charged with a crime before having a trial, would this necessarily result in charges being dropped on account of the person being deprived of a speedy trial?

the Court has interpreted the word "speedy" in a rather expansive way, in some cases holding that delays of multiple years are still speedy enough to meet the Sixth Amendment requirement of a "speedy trial." Nevertheless, the Court has also held that if there is too long of a delay before trial, then charges must be dropped.

What did the Court declare in McCleskey v. Kemp (1987) about Georgia's use of the death penalty?

the Court held that a proven record of racial bias in sentencing decisions in Georgia could not in itself render a particular death sentence unconstitutional unless actual racial bias in that case could be demonstrated.

Has the U.S. Supreme Court incorporated the Second Amendment under the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment?

the U.S. Constitution prohibits state governments, like the federal government, from infringing upon the individual right to own and carry guns for self-defense.78 In so doing, the Court incorporated the Second Amendment into the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

According to recent U.S. Supreme Court decisions, does the Second Amendment protect a right for individuals to own firearms for self-defense? Or does it only instead protect the right for persons to own guns for purposes of serving in a "well-regulated militia"?

the U.S. Supreme Court did declare for the first time that the Second Amendment protects a person's right to own a firearm for self-defense (at least) within the home.

Why, according to the U.S. Supreme Court, do the Boy Scouts of America have a constitutional right to have a policy of disallowing gay men from serving as scoutmasters?

the U.S. Supreme Court took the case and ruled that the application of the state antidiscrimination law to the Scouts violated that organization's rights under the First Amendment. Splitting five to four, the Court held that the Boy Scouts' First Amendment freedom of association trumped the state's interest in advancing the cause of gay rights.

How does the textbook define "religious freedom"? What is the name of the first two clauses of the First Amendment that are the constitutional basis of religious freedom in the United States?

the freedom to develop and live according to one's own religious beliefs insofar as doing so does not interfere with the same freedom of others. Establishment Clause: states congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion Free Exercise Clause: Congress shall make no law prohibiting the free exercise of religion.

Did civil liberties listed in the Bill of Rights of the U.S. Constitution apply to actions taken by state governments prior to the Civil War? Did they apply to actions taken by the federal government prior to the Civil War?

the nature of Americans' constitutional right to free speech, and of Americans' civil liberties in general, changed after the Civil War (1861-1865) and particularly upon the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868. Before the Civil War, it was understood that the U.S. Constitution only protected the freedom of speech and other civil liberties from interference by the U.S. federal government. Yes

How do we measure turnout?

the number of people voting expressed as either a percentage of those registered to vote or a percentage of the voting-age population

What is political socialization?

the process by which people learn about their political world.

nonresponse bias

those who respond to a survey may hold different opinions from those who do not

What is an iron-triangle?

three-way relationship involving a legislative committee (or subcommittee), an executive agency, and an interest group

What, according to the textbook, is the purpose (or "aim") of Civil Liberties and procedures?

to empower government to prevent and punish crime while also leading government to respect the rights of the innocent, the accused, and even (to some extent) the guilty.

Is voter turnout in the U.S. generally higher in the U.S. compared to other countries or is it lower?

turnout has always been low in the United States compared to the other democracies of the world

Generally speaking, how do liberals and conservatives tend to differ in how they interpret civil liberties pertaining to the criminal justice system?

when it comes to the criminal justice system, liberals tend to be more concerned than conservatives with protecting the rights of criminal suspects and convicts, while conservatives tend to be more concerned than liberals with the importance of empowering government to prevent and punish criminal activity. Consequently, liberals tend to see these liberties as providing strong protections for the criminally accused while conservatives tend to interpret these liberties as providing more modest protections.