Amind 140 Final

The Iroquois (or Haudenosaunee) Confederacy was also fractured during the American Revolution.

-Oneidas fought on U.S. side whereas Mohawks and Senecas fought with British. -Allegiances were determined by clan and kinship and different tribes had different relationships and alliances with American settlers and the British. -During the war, many of these tribes were burned out of their homes, their crops destroyed, and they faced starvation during a particularly cold winter. Many people from these tribes relocated north of the Canadian border.

Pequot Lithics, Stone Tools: What is going on

-The tools could have been made by someone who still knew how to flintknapold, traditional styles of stone tools. -The tools could have been dug up from another site historically and re-deposited or replaced in this very late site. -People could have been "curating" these old tools or saving them as heirloom items until they were finally buried or deposited in the ground in the 1800s.

Treaty of Paris, 1763, concludes these conflicts

-Britain became a powerful colonial force in America after Treaty of Paris -France ceded Canada and land east of Mississippi to Britain as a term in the Treaty of Paris -France also transferred lands of Florida, Louisiana and their lands west of Mississippi to Spain to keep them from going to Britain

Aftermath of Seven Years War, 1763

-Britain is victorious in the hundred years of conflict with France between the late 17th and mid 18th centuries -Treaty of Paris, 1763

Conflicts, War, and Genocide in the West

-"Manifest Destiny" is the idea that the expansion of the United States land base would eventually stretch from coast to coast, and this was inevitable. -War and treaties were main tools used to seize Native American homelands in the 1800s until the end of treaty-making in the late 1800s. This was a long-standing tradition established by the British in North America before the United States was established. -Disease and warfare during this century increasingly weakened many tribes' abilities to defend their homelands. -Raids (1830s and 1840s) by indigenous groups (Comanches, Kiowas, and Apaches) in the SW weakened Mexican authority in the SW and opened it up for U.S. expansion. -Texans won their independence from Mexico in 1836

California Genocide

-13,000 people arrived in 1848, huge surge in population. 65,000 arrived in 1849, often heavily armed. -Native American people between 1840 and 1860 killed about 18 whites on overland trails (outside of CA) per year which was 20 times less than immigrant deaths from diseases.: Immigrants would not discriminate between these attackers on the trails and CA Native peoples, and they would attack CA Native peoples. -Some miners took knives, guns, and all sorts of other weapons with them. In one case, men from Charlestown, West Virginia were so afraid of being attacked by Native Americans that they hauled a cannon across the United States (Madley 2016: 70). •Some settlers understood that CA Indians were not hostile and were very peaceful. -The indiscriminate killings and violence, however, spurred CA Indians to protect themselves, which escalated the violence. -California Indians were also killed because of their involvement in mining. Command over Native labor was "unfair" competition with free white men. -Pedagogic violence - indiscriminately killing people whether or not they were the perpetrators of a crime in order to "teach" others not to challenge white authority. -Violence by whites was also described in the media and other historical documents as being reactionary to Native American aggression, theft, or threat. This was a revisionary telling of what was really happening. The punishments for crimes perpetrated by CA Native peoples were way out of proportion and many times the Native American person who was punished for the "crime" wasn't even the person who committed it. -Hundreds of CA Indians died in these attacks, and only a couple of whites. Between 1849 and 1850, the state of California and federal officials became involved in the genocide financially supporting militia and military campaigns in California, which led to more widespread genocide in the state.

Massacres

-1850 - Bloody Island in Clear Lake, California (forgotten on the national stage) was also between 60-800 people murdered. -1863 - Shoshoni-Bannock village on Bear River, Idaho -1864 - Sand Creek massacre -1867-1883 - Slaughter of buffalo -1871 - A group of Mexicans, Tohono O'odam and American citizens of Tuczonmassacred more than 100 Aravaipa Apaches. -1890 - Wounded Knee - 200-300 Lakota were murdered by the U.S. Cavalry.

Religion in and coping with a time of extreme loss

-1850s - A Wanapum man from the Columbia River region, created "Dreamer religion" -1881 - John Slocum founded the Indian Shaker religion in the Puget Sound area of the Pacific Northwest region. -1880s - The Ghost Dance religion was created by a Paiute man named Wovoka. -In 1890, the Seventh Cavalry attacked Lakota people at Wounded Knee in South Dakota who were making their way back to Pine Ridge Reservation. -In the 1880s in California, the Ghost Dance influenced religious leaders and resulted in the incorporation of elements of the Ghost Dance religion in a new California religion.

Massacres: 1867-1883 - Slaughter of buffalo

-Buffalo were the main food source for many Native peoples on the plains. -These animals were also used by white settlers for leather belts in industrial machinery on East Coast. The hide market, drought in 1840s, bovine diseases, other factors contributed to the decline of the buffalo population. -By 1895, there were fewer than 1,000 buffalo left. -Some of the original Plains buffalo are living at Camp Pendleton, CA.

California Gold Rush and Genocide: In California, there were an estimated 300,000 indigenous people at first contact with the Spanish

-By 1861, only about 30,000 indigenous people remained, documented by the U.S. census. That is a reduction in population of 90% in a single century.

California Gold Rush and Genocide: There were many impacts to CA Native peoples as a result of the gold rush.

-CA Native peoples were often enslaved at this time for labor. -Some whole Native American villages were completely destroyed and everyone killed, because these people were near a mining area. -There was also sexual violence against CA Native women who were not needed for labor and other tasks in mining as opposed to women's role in the fur trade (helped process furs). -There was tremendous environmental pollution from mining, such as siltation of waterways that destroyed habitat for animals.

Potiac's War (1763)

-After the Treaty of Paris, there was growing anti-British sentiment, because France and Britain divided up lands in this treaty with very little input from Native American people. The British did not take Native concerns or sovereignty into consideration in these agreements. -The British Considered Native American people as defeated peoples and nations, but Native nations refused to accept defeat with the French. -Pontiac was a chief of the Ottawa people who mobilized a response to British policies that included a confederation of tribes mainly from the Great Lakes region. The goal of this response was to drive out the British from the Ohio Valley and surrounding areas. -Pontiac's War can be thought of as a continuation of Seven Year's War, because it was a direct response to the conclusion of this war and the postwar policies in the first year afterward. -In 1763, Pontiac and his warriors captured every British fort west of the Appalachians except Niagara, Detroit, and Fort Pitt.

Seneca Settlement Strategies: Two Strategies for settlement patterns

-Aggregated - defense against armies taking lives -Dispersed - good for agriculture and defense against settlers taking land

American Revolutionary War (1775-1783)

-American settlers (British citizens at this time) were dissatisfied with their position under British rule with very little political representation. -The reason for this war was confusing for Native people. It seemed like the British were fighting the British and it was more like a family feud. -Many tribes sided with British, because the British were based overseas and there was more separation between this distant colonial nation and tribal nations in North America. To these tribes, this was better than helping the land-hungry American settlers that continued to encroach on Native American territories. Other tribes whose neighbors were Americans sided with them. -For the Cherokee nations, their land was whittled away by series of treaties with settlers. Younger Cherokees were frustrated at these sales of land and treaties and retaliated against American settlers. -Cherokees were eventually defeated. These conflicts and treaties left Cherokee nations shattered.

Change and Persistence/Continuity Key Points

-Change and Persistence of Native Practices and Lifeways -Native American people negotiated their circumstances within the missions despite bad conditions. -Native American people continued to keep core values and important cultural elements intact while changing and adapting to the pressures on their lives from settler colonialism.

Seneca Settlement Strategies: Some changes in material practices during the 1700s, but still a lot of freedom and agency for Senecas

-Changes in settlement patterns were indigenous strategies and responses to local, political and economic factors. -These changes were not forced acculturation or evidence for the loss of culture. -These changes to not pose drastic forced changes for Seneca culture and ways of life.

American Civil War (1861-1874): Cherokees

-Cherokees fought for South, because of their ties to southern culture and their ownership of enslaved peoples. -The American Civil War became a Cherokee Civil War, and thousands of Cherokee people died during the war. Their community was one of the most negatively impacted by the Civil War. -This war undid much of the rebuilding that Cherokees had accomplished after the Trail of Tears.

Pequot Lithics, Stone Tools

-During the 1740-1760, there are only a handful of lithics (stone tools and stone flakes/byproducts of making tools) on the Pequot reservation. -From the 1750s to the 1800s, there is a decrease in lithics. -In the 1800s, the decrease in lithics continues, meaning that very few if any people are actually making stone tools at this period of time. -Then, at one of the latest (youngest) sites on the reservation, sometime in the 1830s, Silliman and his team recovered fully-formed stone tools. These tools were of a particular style that is expected to be thousands of years old, even though the tools were found in this trash pit from the 1830. -Of the various options, it is highly likely that this appearance of old tools later in time represents persistence in cultural values and practices of Eastern Pequot peoples despite the various changes they were forced to make in their lives to survive very hard times and pressures from settler colonialism.

Consequences of the Civil War

-The "Five Civilized Tribes" were told that since they had supported Confederacy, they had broken their treaties with US and forfeited treaty rights. -Other tribes faced similar consequences.

California Indians and Spanish Missions (1769-1823): Reasons for setting up these settlements/pueblos, missions, and military forts/presidios

-Economics (pueblos), politics/war (presidios), and religious conversions (missions) -The Spanish were also invested in protecting their settlements in California and the land that they had stolen from Native American people. -There were Russians and British to the north and Americans to the east. The additional missions and presidios all the way up the coast and later ranchos were direct responses to the encroachment of these other colonial nations in California.

In 1763, Pontiac and his warriors captured every British fort west of the Appalachians except Niagara, Detroit, and Fort Pitt.

-Europeans used germ warfare to aid in defeating Native American forces. They regularly passed out blankets with smallpox to Native people seeking help at forts who passed these diseases on to other communities. -The outcomes of this war were that the government agreed to prohibit further expansion by settlers west as the conclusion to Pontiac's War, but it did not last. There were clashes between settlers and Native Americans throughout the Northeast, Great Lakes, and South.

Land Post-Revolution: The new United States set up an "Indian Department"

-Eventually the responsibilities of this department are taken over by the War Department in 1789. -In 1849, the BIA was finally transferred from War Dept to Dept of the Interior.

Lakota/Dakota Sioux in Minnesota

-First Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851) was signed to restrict tribes to boundaries within their territory in order to prevent conflict between Native peoples and white settlers. -However, even though these boundaries were established, a Sioux person killed a settler's cow, and incited retaliation from Lieutenant John Grattan who led an attack on a whole Sioux village. The Sioux killed Grattan, and another general, William Harney, retaliated again destroying another village. These conflicts between Lakota people and settlers set the stage for the next 20 years of conflict. -In these decades of the 1850s and 1860s, Lakota/Dakota Sioux people in in Minnesota were on the verge of starvation. Chief Little Crow pursued a policy of accommodation with the U.S. and signed treaties for the sale of land in exchange for annuities (regular shipments of food and supplies) to support his people. -The U.S. did not uphold their end of the agreement, and in 1862, Chief Little Crow agreed to lead his warriors in war against the U.S. -U.S. troops stopped the rebellion, and 1,700 Sioux people were marched to Fort Snelling. 400 of these people were put on trial for murder. The sentencing of these warriors was extremely disproportionate to what they had done. They had participated in warfare as soldiers. Thus, when the execution order came to Abraham Lincoln to sign, he was able to reduce the number of people being sentenced to 38. These 38 were the only people who had committed crimes against civilians, and they were executed at Mankato (largest public hanging in American history). Remember that in our discussions of California genocide and other instances where there were massacres that this would not have even been debated and many hundreds of Native Americans were killed by U.S. militia and army soldiers in "war." None of those soldiers were ever tried in court or convicted of their crimes. -Other Lakota Sioux people in the area were removed and relocated to a reservation in South Dakota where these communities still live today. -The hanging of the 38 Lakota warriors in Mankato was the largest mass execution in United States history. And it is an event that the Lakota community is still healing from

Religion in and coping with a time of extreme loss: 1881 - John Slocum founded the Indian Shaker religion in the Puget Sound area of the Pacific Northwest region.

-Followers shook their bodies when brushing away their sins. -This religion spread through the Pacific Northwest and Northern California.

What is "civilization" exchanged for

-Founding fathers justified taking Native land by giving Native American people "civilization"

Louisiana Purchase, 1803

-France owned the territory included in the Louisiana Purchase (lands west of the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains) between the years 1699-1762. However, after the French and Indian war, the French sold this land to the Spanish in order to keep it out of British control as the Treaty of Paris in 1763 designated all lands east of the Mississippi as British. -Napoleon purchased back this territory from Spain in 1800 wanting to expand the French empire in North America. -Then, the threat of renewed war between France and Britain prompted France to sell off all of their land between the Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi River in 1803 as the Louisiana Purchase. This land was sold to the United States. -The Louisiana Purchase included 827,000 acres of land. -Oregon Country at this time was claimed simultaneously by the U.S. and Britain (and Britain claimed Canada). California, Colorado, Texas, Florida, and the Southwest (as well as Mexico) was claimed by the Spanish at this time. -The lands included within the Louisiana Purchase were sold for $15 million ($11 million in cash, 4 million in debt cancellation). -This was a huge land purchase, and many tribes in these areas were not even aware that this deal was being made.

Massacres: 1864 - Sand Creek massacre

-Gold was discovered in Colorado (1858), and tensions between gold miners and Native American peoples escalated. -The U.S. feared a Native American uprising, and U.S. troops marched east for war duty. -The Black Kettle leader of the Cheyennes and some Southern Arapahos camped near Sand Creek. -270 people, mostly women and children were murdered. -Native American warriors retaliated, and the war Americans feared began.

California Indians and Spanish Missions (1769-1823)

-In addition to the missions that were set up in California, there were civilian settlements or pueblos of Spanish (and eventually Mexican people) as well as military forts to protect them. -Four main ports on the California coast is where the presidios or military forts were located: San Diego, Santa Barbara, Monterey, San Francisco -Presidios, missions, pueblos or ranches -Native people were forced to labor -The Spanish mission system established a labor system that were continued on the Mexican and American ranching and farming operations.

Black Hills of South Dakota (1875-1878)

-Gold was reported to be present in the Black Hills of South Dakota and this was verified in 1874. However this area was sacred to the Lakota Sioux and guaranteed to them in the Treaty of Fort Laramie. -Any gold prospectors who trespassed in this area were killed. In 1876, the U.S. government responded by launching a "pacification campaign" against "hostiles" or Native American people resisting settler encroachment on their lands. This U.S. retaliation was led by General George Custer. -Crazy Horse resisted resulting in the Battle of Little Big Horn. General Custer entered the valley of the Little Bighorn and attacked a village there. Crazy Horse was able to defeat Custer and his army in a famous battle and killed Custer. This battle has been memorialized in many media retellings of this event since it occurred. -Over the next few years (1876-1878), however, the bands that were involved in these battles were tracked down and confined to reservations. -Sitting Bull fled to Canada and Crazy Horse surrendered in 1877. This same year, Crazy Horse was bayonetted to death "trying to escape," but it was probably an excuse for what was actually an execution without trial.

Religion as Revitalization and Resistance: Handsome Lake (Seneca), 1799 and into early 1800s

-Handsome Lake was the founder of the Longhouse Religion which is still an enduring religion and way of life for people in Haudenosaunee communities today. -Renounced alcoholism -Return to traditional living: Thanksgiving festivals and other ceremonies and denounced the sale of lands. -Additions from Christianity: Men did the farming and headed the nuclear family. -This religion incorporated both change and persistence of cultural traditions, and it received opposition from both strict traditionalists and Christians.

Change and Persistence Case # 2: Steven Silliman's (2009) study of continuity on the Eastern Pequot reservation

-History at different Scales: Windows of time -If you look at a very small window of time, there will be very little change in how people live their lives. For example, changes in music, clothing styles, and transportation in America from year to year or within a single decade changed very little. Cars from 2010-2020 were mainly gas-powered with many hybrid-electric and fully electric cars on the road. -If you look at a very large window of time, there will be a lot of change in how people live their lives. For example, changes in music, clothing styles, and transportation in America from 1900 to 2020. In the early 1900s, people used the horse and buggy. Then in the 1920s Ford and other companies began mass-manufactured automobiles which entirely replaced the horse and buggy. In each decade after that time, there have been improvements in fuel efficiency and the power of engines. The hybrid-electric car became abundant in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Today, hybrid-electric and fully electric cars are common on the road. -This work critiques the notion that there is a gradual incorporation of Native American people into mainstream society, because they are adopting dominant culture and values from mainstream society and eventually losing their own (acculturation model).

End of Treaty Making (1871)

-In 1871, Congress declared an end to making new treaties. Old treaties came under attack as well. -U.S. politicians wanted the government to deal with tribes through mechanisms other than treaties, such as, creating reservations, making alternative agreements, statutes, and presidential executive orders -In California from 1851-1852, 18 treaties were drafted between California Native representatives of tribes from across the state and the United States government. These treaties were found to be problematic, however, because of the legal technicality of whether Mexico recognized Native land titles at the time that land in California was acquired by the U.S. If they did not, then tribes did not have legal claims to land under U.S. law. There was also additional issues of commissioners being appointed irregularly and gold that was recently found in California. The majority white public in California around this time objected to treaties because they did not want tribes to own land that potentially had valuable resources.

Resistance Across the Country: 1886 - Geronimo surrendered to General Miles. Many Chiricahuas were sent to florida, and many died of malaria.

-In 1894, Chiricahuas relocated to the Kiowa and Comanche Reservation in Indian Territory. -The defeat of Geronimo was the last major military defeat in Native American resistance to westward expansion.

California Gold Rush and Genocide

-In California, there were an estimated 300,000 indigenous people at first contact with the Spanish -Gold was discovered at John Sutter's mill on January 24, 1848. -In some cases CA Native people participated willingly -There were many impacts to CA Native peoples as a result of the gold rush.

Clear Lake Massacre

-In December 1849, a horse and ox ran off while a Native laborer was trying to lasso the ox. These animals were owned by Andrew Kelsey and Charles Stone who lived on and operated the Big Valley Ranch. They were former gold miners and had a group of Eastern Pomo and Clear Lake Wappo (CA Native peoples) who were their labor force. This was a situation where these people were de facto enslaved peoples to Stone and Kelsey. Stone and Kelsey mistreated these laborers, raping women within their community, physically beating some of the laborers to death, and torturing others to instill fear in this community and reaffirm their authority over them. -After the horse and ox incident, the laborers on Stone and Kelsey's ranch gathered to talk and decide what to do, because they knew that there would be harsh retaliation against all of them for the loss of Stone and Kelsey's livestock. It could mean indiscriminate killings of people within their community. Thus, the Native laborers decided that they had no choice but to kill Stone and Kelsey before they found out and hurt or killed people within their community. -Note: De facto enslaved Native peoples in California were sold for only $35-$200, whereas enslaved African peoples in the U.S. South were sold for hundreds of dollars if not more than $1,500 in some cases.: This provides some context for mistreatment of CA Indian laborers, because they were "expendable," cheap labor. -The Native leaders could not have anticipated how the killing of Stone and Kelsey would become the turning point in increasingly widespread genocide after May 1850. -The Native laborers killed Stone and Kelsey, and then provisioned themselves to go into hiding. -The U.S. 1st Dragoons were nearby and heard of the killings. This unit had served on the Oregon Trail and in the Mexican-American War. -Soon vigilante groups appeared in Sonoma, Napa, and Santa Rosa, and white settlers began perpetrating violence against Native American peoples in all these areas.

Standing Rock and NoDAPLProtest: Have We Seen This Before?

-In the late 1800s as well as today (2016), there continue to be conflicts over natural resources and tribal lands. The lands in dispute in both cases are where there are existing or proposed routes for transferring a natural resource. -In the case of Standing Rock and the Dakota Access Pipeline, the natural resource is oil that corporations want to ship overland from the oil fields of the Bakken formation in northwest North Dakota through South Dakota and Iowa to an oil terminal near Patoka, Illinois. Then it connects to another pipeline that terminates in Nederland, Texas. -As we learned in previous slides, the resource that was exploited in the late 1800s was gold in the Black Hills. -There is resistance from tribes in both cases who want to protect these sacred places or lands guaranteed to them by treaties. In the 1800s, the tribal response is military resistance whereas in 2016, the response is a peaceful protest by Standing Rock tribal citizens and their allies. -Native resistance in both cases is met with militaristic opposition from U.S. or state military or police forces. -Eventually tribal resistance is ended, and the resource is exploited.

Turner: What is going on when non-Native people play "dress up" and embody racist stereotypes of Native American peoples?

-It makes real Indigenous peoples invisible. -It reaffirms the stereotype. -It conceals ongoing colonial violence.

British policies included

-Jeffery Amherst (British) demanded the return of prisoners of war taken during the wars of the previous decades. -Prisoners taken by Native American warriors had been adopted into Native society in their respective tribes. -The demand for these prisoners was not what was done traditionally among these tribes in the past. There was a culture clash between the expectations of the British and Native American nations. -Amherst also prohibited gift giving in trade deals and restricted the trade of gunpowder and lead ammunition to Native Americans.

Land Post-Revolution

-Land was a vital resource for the new nation of the United States. -The new country of the U.S. needed "public land" to sell to settlers to make money and operate as a government. -U.S. established legal framework through which to own land, and through which Native people could not own it. -The U.S. government could not control squatters, settlers, etc. on frontiers who caused problems with Native American peoples and nations. -The land base of Native American nations was shrinking - fewer resources, less mobility, uprooted from traditional stories about places. -The British no longer provided Native peoples with support against Americans, because they did not want another costly conflict. -The new United States set up an "Indian Department" -Declaration of Independence

Land Post-Revolution: Declaration of Independence

-Language in this document identifies Native Americans as "savage," and the obligation of U.S. is to "civilize" them. -These statements are ironic considering the U.S. borrowed from the Iroquois in constructing their government.

Accommodating and Resisting Change

-Long before the 1800s, Native American peoples and cultures underwent changes and adaptations as they engaged with Europeans in trade, politics, and social affairs. Even though changes occurred throughout this time and many more into the 1800s, traditional culture persisted. As some people like to say, the core values of the culture in many cases stayed the same, while the superficial aspects (clothes, tools, some aspects of diet, etc.) changed. Some changes were the choice of Native American people while others were forced on Native people. Sometimes Native American people chose to change some aspects of their societies (for example, restricting themselves to reservations by signing treaties) in order to persist as nations and communities and preserve their people and traditional ways of life. This may seem like a contradiction, but change and continuity/persistence can be opposites as well as go hand in hand. -Farming practices - In the 1800s, Indian agents as well as missionaries increasingly tried to encourage Native American communities to farm in an intensive style of European farming as opposed to traditional farming that was conducted in the Eastern Woodlands before. This also changed gender roles, because Europeans wanted men to transition from hunting to farming. Farming had been the job of women before, but Europeans wanted women to engage in European domestic work such as spinning and weaving. -Other changes that were taking place at the beginning of the 19th century was that Native American communities were increasingly adopting European styles of clothing, fencing their lands, and becoming literate in English. -In the South, many tribes adopted slave-holding as a labor force in tobacco and cotton production to support their economies. -Many people in these Southern tribes adopted racial attitudes toward African-Americans causing conflict and change in traditional kinship. That is, they did not always recognize their children from interracial unions with African peoples.

Conflicts and Land Cessions, 1850-1890

-Manifest destiny -Eastern tribes removed, conflicts with tribes in their new homes -War and treaties -SW tribes weakened Mexican defense of SW territory

End of Treaty Making (1871): Reasons

-Many U.S. politicians wanted tribes to be wards of government, not independent nations

California Gold Rush and Genocide: Participants in the gold rush

-Many local California settlers, immigrants from all over the United States, and many men from Oregon participated in the gold rush. -Many viewed California Native people as barriers to their search for wealth in the gold fields, even though some tribes allowed prospectors to mine without conflict.

Resistance Across the Country: It should also be noted: Native American people also joined the U.S. army or aided in fighting against other Native American groups at times.

-Many reasons for this: survival, fighting traditional enemies, and grievances against tribes that were removed and placed in another tribe's territory causing conflict.

Resistance Across the Country

-Many tribal leaders resisted confinement of their communities to reservations. -1878 - Cheyennes made a desperate attempt to go home (1,500 miles). Many were killed, most were captured, and only some were allowed to go home to a reservation in Montana. -1877 - Chief Joseph of Nez Perces of Oregon attempted to seek asylum for his people in Canada rather than go to a reservation in Idaho. He and his tribe were very close to reaching Canada before they were surrounded and forced to go to the Colville reservation in Washington. -1877 - Victorio led Warm Springs people off the reservation, but was eventually defeated and his people brought back to the reservation. -1880s - Geronimo, Naiche and a small band of Chiricahua Apaches evaded and resisted the U.S. military for years. -1886 - Geronimo surrendered to General Miles. Many Chiricahuas were sent to florida, and many died of malaria. -It should also be noted: Native American people also joined the U.S. army or aided in fighting against other Native American groups at times.

Impact of the Spanish Missions

-Many tribes along the coast did not receive federal recognition in the early 1900s because federal officials perceived these tribes as too impacted by the missions to be "intact" tribal nations. -This was just a ploy to not have to meet their responsibilities to these tribes. -There are many tribes in need of federal aid on the coast who still are not recognized. -The Federated Indians of Graton Rancheria were one of these tribes and one of only a handful in the mission area to receive federal recognition.

Massacres: 1863 - Shoshoni-Bannock village on Bear River, Idaho

-More than 200 men, women, and children were killed by CA volunteers.

Resistance Across the Country: 1877 - Victorio led Warm Springs people off the reservation, but was eventually defeated and his people brought back to the reservation.

-Most Apache bands had been confined to reservations at San Carlos, Arizona. This reservation was desolate, unproductive land with no grass or wild game or other means of subsistence, and so some Apaches preferred to fight even if it meant dying in battle, because at least it did not mean dying a slow death on the reservation.

American Civil War (1861-1874)

-Native American people fought on both sides -Like other wars, tribes or groups of Native people chose sides based on family alliances, opposition to tribal enemies, or historical grievances with other individuals or groups

Change and Persistence/Continuity Key Points: Three issues with how mission histories are portrayed:

-Native people could not leave mission communities -Missions were "carceral institutions" that gradually eliminated indigenous culture -Histories are focused on mission communities themselves and not the areas outside the missions

Change and Persistence Case Study # 1: Panich and Schneider's (2014) study of Spanish missions and Places of Refuge: Problems with the way histories of the missions are written about and presented in classrooms. These problems in how they are represented are the following:

-Native people could not leave mission communities. -Mission were "carceral institutions" that gradually eliminated indigenous culture. -Histories are focused on mission communities themselves and not the areas outside the missions.

Clear Lake Massacre: The Events of Bloody Island, May 1-15, 1850

-Native people sought refuge in the mountains and on the Islands on Clear Lake in the wake of the killings of Stone and Kelsey. -The settler forces brought with them boats, dragoons, infantry, militia, two howitzers. This response was completely out of proportion to what had happened to Stone and Kelsey (a few Native people killed them and ran away). The U.S. response was to field an entire army as though this was a war, and there was no attempt to discern who among the Native American people they saw on their campaign actually committed any crime at all. -The U.S. military surrounded the shores of Clear Lake and killed Native people who were still at the surrounding villages in order to secure the perimeter around the lake and there would be no escape from the islands for Native peoples seeking refuge there. -The military also unnecessarily killed their two Native American guides, before they began their final assault. Then, they loaded their boats and crossed the water. -No one knows the exact number of Native American casualties from this massacre, but it could have been anywhere from 60-800 Native people killed. There were no white casualties, which also highlights the fact that this was a massacre, not a war or conflict resolution between equal parties. -This was one of the worst massacres in United States history. A few examples of others were Wounded Knee in 1890 (260-300 murdered), Pequots massacred at Mystic, CT in 1637 (400-700 murdered), and Puebloan people killed at Acoma, NM in 1599 (600-800 murdered). -After the events at Bloody Island, the militia continued to raid CA Indian villages and kill innocent people in the area for days afterward. -Newspaper coverage of these killings and subsequent ones condoned these actions and also taught California residents that they would not be punished for killing CA Native peoples. In this way, the press and media had a hand in promoting the genocide in California. -This was one of the first major massacres in California, however there were others later that ranged in scale. The CA media, U.S. Senate, CA State Supreme Court, and U.S. Army Headquarters condoned these kinds of campaigns which led to a much more violent era in CA history throughout the 1860s and 1870s.

Gold Mines of CA

-Nisenan employees found gold near John Sutter's Mill -January 24, 1848 -Towns in CA emptied as people rushed to mines -Slave raids for CA Indians to labor in mines ensued

Change and Persistence/Continuity Key Points: Native American people negotiated their circumstances within the missions despite bad conditions

-Obtained passes or ran away -Visit family and sites, gathered resources -"Places of Refuge"

Clear Lake Massacre: The U.S. 1st Dragoons were nearby and heard of the killings. This unit had served on the Oregon Trail and in the Mexican-American War.

-On the day after Christmas, the dragoons made their way to Clear Lake. -On the way to Clear Lake, the dragoons made two stops. Two miles south of Calistoga, they killed 35 Native American people from a village. They stopped again at the Cyrus family ranch and shot more Native American people there. -These dragoons assumed that peoples on the Island in Clear Lake were harboring the perpetrators of the crime and they were just as guilty for their association with the "criminals."

California Genocide: Settlers and miners with no relationship to CA's economy or society came to CA for the gold rush:

-Oregon men in particular are a very important piece of the story of genocide and treatment of CA Native peoples in the mid-1800s which set the stage for the continued genocide in the late 1800s -Native American people in CA were killed out of vengeance and frustration by Oregon men who had the Whitman massacre in mind. -These people saw CA Indians as obstacles to wealth. -They also killed many CA Indians in the Central Mines, beginning of genocide in California. -These initial killings started normalizing the killing of CA Indians in the mid and late 1800s.

Killing Campaigns of the mid-1800s

-Pedagogic violence or the indiscriminate killings of whole groups of CA Native peoples in order to "teach" them not to retaliate against white settler authority. -Vigilante groups of U.S. citizens killing California Native peoples were common in this era. -State and federal funding to support militia and U.S. military (reimbursed for bullets, etc.). -Legislative Restrictions on CA Indians. -Vagrancy Laws were passed that required CA Native peoples to work. If CA Native peoples wanted to travel, they needed a pass or they could be incarcerated. Employers could also be fined if they took other employers' CA Native laborers.

Seneca Settlement Strategies: Drastic changes happen after American Revolution

-People removed from territory and confined to reservations -Fewer diplomacy or economic opportunities on the reservations going into the 1800s.

California Indians and Spanish Missions (1769-1823): Native people were forced to labor

-Physical and sexual abuse, disease, and poor living conditions were part of daily life for California Native peoples in the missions. -Cultural practices and language were also discouraged in the missions.

Change and Persistence Case Study # 1: Panich and Schneider's (2014) study of Spanish missions and Places of Refuge

-Problems with the way histories of the missions are written about and presented in classrooms. -There is a need to focus on Native "agency" in these histories, which is what scholars are now researching in history and archaeology. -Some Native people were granted passes to go outside of the mission system or they ran away. There were many reasons for this. -Change and Continuity - There was both culture change and continuity for Native American peoples after contact with Europeans and throughout the centuries after up to the present day. -Native American people in California learned skills in the Missions and took on the practices of ranching and wage labor throughout the Spanish and Mexican rancho system. But there was also considerable continuity or persistence of traditional culture. -Native American people continued to hunt, gather, make baskets, and visit traditional places. The core values of the culture persist up to the present day.

California Gold Rush and Genocide: •In some cases CA Native people participated willingly

-Reasons for CA Native people's participation in the gold rush were for wealth and to support themselves (buy food). As in other parts of the country traditional resources were becoming less accessible with environmental degradation or restricted movements in hunting and gathering grounds due to colonial laws and treatment of CA Native peoples. -CA Native peoples filled many positions on ranches around California where laborers left for the mines.

Religion as Revitalization and Resistance: Common themes

-Revitalization, strict moral code, turning back to traditional practices and foodways, no drinking, incorporation of some aspects of Christianity -These religions give Native American people a sense of hope for the future in times of conflict, and in some cases the religion and their leaders are rallying points for confederacies that form to confront colonial armies in battle. In either case, peace or war, these movements brought Native American communities together.

Conflicts, War, and Genocide in the West: Texans won their independence from Mexico in 1836

-Sam Houston was the first president of Republic of Texas.: Houston worked with Native people as a buffer to Mexico. -After Houston though, Mireau B. Lamar (1838) devised policy of ethnic cleansing to drive all Native people out of Texas. -The Texas Rangers were vigilante companies perpetrating racial violence mainly on Native American people. -In 1835, the indigenous population in Texas was 35,000, and by 1875, this population was almost zero.

Change and Persistence Case # 2: Steven Silliman's (2009) study of continuity on the Eastern Pequot reservation: European vs Native American objects, practices, settlements, etc. also change over long periods of time despite the persistence in core values and very important cultural practices.

-Silliman (2009) presents the case of changes and continuities that can be seen archaeologically within the cultural practices of the Eastern Pequot tribe after they had been confined to a reservation in Connecticut. -Silliman studies how physical materials are used and discarded at archaeological sites from different periods of time on this reservation, and is able to construct a story or narrative of how some aspects of Pequot culture and practices stayed the same and how others changed.

American Civil War (1861-1874): Stand Watie's

-Stand Watie's personal and political grievance against followers of John Ross for the assassination of his brother. This was because Stand Watie and his brother were supporters of removal to Indian Territory, and his brother was killed for it. -Many of Stand Watie's followers joined the confederate army during the Civil War and Watie used his position as a general in the Confederate army to burn down John Ross's home in 1863.

Religion as Revitalization and Resistance: Tenskwatawa and Tecumseh (Shawnee), first decade of 1800s

-Tecumseh started a pan-Indian religious and political movement that renounced Christianity and many aspects of European culture and promised a return to traditional Shawnee ways of life. -His message spoke to Shawnees, but also united other Eastern tribes such as Delawares, Kickapoos, Ottawas, Potawatomis, Anishinaabeg, etc. Tecumseh preached avoiding intertribal conflict and communal ownership of land. -Tecumseh and his followers fought against the U.S. and joined British in War of 1812. Tecumseh was killed in battle in Ontario in 1813, which effectively ended his confederacy of tribes and his resistance to U.S. settler colonialism.

Native Victories: Red Cloud's Resistance to the Bozeman Trail (1866-1867)

-The Bozeman Trail stretched from Fort Laramie in Wyoming to gold fields of Montana, and the U.S. government wanted to protect settlers traveling on it. -The use of this trail was contested by Oglala Sioux people. Oglala chief Red Cloud fought the U.S. army to a standstill over control of the trail. -In the late 1800s, the U.S. began to consider raids for horses and mules to be "acts of war." However, the U.S. ignored these raids by SW tribes when directed at Mexico and Texas. -In 1867, the U.S. government established an Indian Peace Commission in order to make treaties with a number of tribes in the wake of their defeat. These later treaties demand tribes' confinement to Indian Territory or other reservation spaces. The result of negotiation between the U.S. and the Lakota was the second Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1868. -In the second Treaty of Fort Laramie, the U.S. agreed to abandon Bozeman Trail, but they had already built a railroad past the contested territory, so it was not much of a compromise on their part. Red Cloud had won and kept the peace, a term of the treaty, but the U.S. eventually did not and broke the treaty.

Change and Persistence Case # 3: Kurt Jordan's (2008) study of Seneca political economy and settlement pattern

-The Seneca tribe is one of the Six Nations of Iroquois or Haudenosaunee peoples. The Six Nations is a confederacy of tribes consisting of Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora (who joined this confederacy of tribes as the sixth nation after moving to New York in the 1700s from their original territory in North Carolina because of conflict and warfare with settlers). -Throughout their history (before and after contact with Europeans), the Seneca tribe maintained two principal settlements that moved every 40-50 years or so (mostly because they would exhaust available firewood within 1-2 miles of the settlement within that time). -These settlements consisted of different configurations or organizational structures depending on the politics and economics of the time when they were built. -During the 1600s and 1700s, Seneca people became involved in many of the conflicts between the French and the British. Depending on whether the wars were closer or further away from Seneca villages, Seneca people re-built their villages as aggregated, fortified towns of longhouses inside palisade wall or dispersed cabins among agricultural fields.

Religion in and coping with a time of extreme loss: In 1890, the Seventh Cavalry attacked Lakota people at Wounded Knee in South Dakota who were making their way back to Pine Ridge Reservation.

-The U.S. cavalry massacred 200-300 men, women, and children.

The Indian Removal Act, 1830

-The West was viewed by many American citizens and politicians as a barren and empty landscape. However, it was not empty at all, and it was the home of many tribal nations. -When eastern tribes (Cherokee, Creek, Shawnee, Potawatomi, etc.) were relocated, there were often conflicts with local tribes living in areas where "Indian Country" and reservations were set up by U.S. -The policy of removal was an intentional strategy that U.S. politicians used to gain Native American land. -In addition, American politicians and businessmen employed systems of debt in their efforts to entrap Native American people and force them to give up land to pay those debts. This is a very explicit policy that expresses the desire of the United States to have Native American people disappear (in whatever fashion) so that they can increase U.S. land base. -Thomas Jefferson said: "they will perceive how useless to them are their extensive forests, and will be willing to pare them off from time to time in exchange for necessaries for their farms and families." To promote this process "we shall push our trading houses, and be glad to see the good and influential individuals ... run into debt, because we observe that when these debts get beyond what the individuals can pay, they become willing to lop them off by a cession of lands." In this way, American settlements would gradually surround the Indians, "and they will in time either incorporate with us as citizens of the United States, or remove beyond the Mississippi." -The U.S. government could not regulate the frontier, which allowed conflict to break out between settlers and Native Americans who were fighting over land. Settlers encroached on Native American land, and Native American people defended their territory. -The U.S. government was complacent, because when conflict occurred, it would give them "cause" to invade the territory where the conflict occurred and suppress it. The result would be treaties in which defeated Native Americans would be forced to sign away land. -Many American citizens and politicians believed that Native American people stood in the way of the "progress" of the United States. Many of these people believed that the United States was destined to control all of the lands between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans south of Canada and north of Mexico. -Andrew Jackson, a renowned enemy of Native American people, advocated for removal when president in 1828. He believed that Native American people were "better off" in the West where they will not be disturbed. -The Indian Removal Act was passed by congress in 1830, and it authorized the negotiation of treaties of removal with all tribes living east of the Mississippi. -This act impacted all tribes east of the Mississippi and proposed moving all of them to west of the Mississippi. "Indian Territory" or Oklahoma became one of the primary places to which Native American peoples were removed. -The state of Oklahoma today is home to numerous tribes—Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Seminole, Caddo, Comanche, Southern Cheyenne, Southern Arapaho, Kiowa, Apache, Shawnee, Potawatomi, Wyandot, Quapaw, Osage, Peoria, Ottawa, Seneca, Pawnee, Ponca, Oto, Kansa, Tonkawa, Kickapoo, Modoc, Wichita, Iowa, and Sauk & Fox.

California Genocide: Settlers and miners with no relationship to CA's economy or society came to CA for the gold rush: Oregon men in particular are a very important piece of the story of genocide and treatment of CA Native peoples in the mid-1800s which set the stage for the continued genocide in the late 1800s.

-The Whitman massacre occurred on Nov 29, 1847. Marcus and Narcissa Whitman (missionaries) in Walla Walla, WA were blamed by Native people for the measles epidemic in that area. The Witmans also engaged in unfair trading practices and helped immigrants which brought many new people into this territory. Cayuse men were also dissatisfied that they had not been paid for their service in the Mexican-American War. The killing of the Whitmans happened for these reasons. -This incident provided proof to Oregonians of the stereotype that Native Americans were unpredictable and violent even though there was good reason on the part of Native American peoples to retaliate at this time. It was not random or unpredictable.

Lewis and Clark expedition: fail or success

-The expedition failed to find the Northwest Passage to the Pacific. -The expedition failed to establish intertribal peace on Missouri River (cemented Sioux and Blackfeet hostility toward US). -But the expedition did succeed in putting the American West on the map, which spurred the beginning of U.S. Western expansion.

California Gold Rush and Genocide: Gold was discovered at John Sutter's mill on January 24, 1848.

-The gold was found by James Marshall and Sutter's Nisenan (California Native) employees. -Sutter tried to keep the discovery confidential, but he was ultimately unsuccessful. The word of gold in California spread quickly and people began traveling to California in great numbers in hopes of finding gold.

Treaty of Paris (1783) - This is the second Treaty of Paris

-The lands south of the Great Lakes, east of the Mississippi, and north of Florida are now the territory of the new United States of America. -At this treaty, Iroquois (Haudenosaunee) were not involved at all, like many tribes, and they saw the ceding of land to the U.S. as a betrayal by the British. (Even Oneidas and Tuscaroras who supported Americans had lands encroached upon).

The Louis and Clark Expedition, 1804-1806

-The purpose of Meriwether Louis and William Clark's journey across the continent was to travel through and survey the land that the United States had just bought in the Louisiana Purchase and beyond the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. This territory had never before been traversed by white people in its entirety even though many of the tribes in the West had been interacting with Europeans such as missionaries and traders for years. -Louis and Clark begin their journey in June 1804 from St. Louis to a camp at Fort Clatsop at the mouth of the Columbia River. They stayed on the Pacific coast for the winter of 1805-1806. They arrived back in St. Louis in April 1806. -Thomas Jefferson gave Louis and Clark the directive to "treat them [Native American peoples] in the most friendly and conciliatory manner which their own conduct will permit." Louis and Clark's mission also included diplomacy with tribes within the Louisiana Purchase, because many of these tribes were not aware that the purchase had been made and had been left out of European diplomacy within the region entirely. -Louis and Clark carried gifts and flags to present to Native leaders and were tasked with explaining that their land "belonged" to the Great Father in Washington. -There were about 50 men in Louis and Clark's expedition. -Some tribes like the Sioux were accustomed to levying tribute from traders and took part of Louis and Clark's cargo as tribute for passing through Sioux territory. -The Mandans were very amenable to the expedition and allowed Lewis and Clark to camp for the winter in their territory. -Sacagawea (Shoshoni woman, captured by Hidatsas as a child), married to a French-Canadian trader, became an important interpreter for the expedition. -Louis and Clark discovered that the Rocky Mountains were vast and difficult to traverse. The Shoshonis provided them with guides and horses to traverse the mountains. Once on the other side, Louis and Clark put in canoes on the Columbia River to travel out to the coast. -Winter was miserable on the Pacific Coast. It rained a lot, and the journal entries from their expedition reflected this. After the winter, they headed back east to St. Louis.

Impacts of the Indian Removal Act on Native American nations

-The state of Georgia launched an assault on Cherokee nation, because of gold found in their territory in 1827. They prohibited meetings of Cherokee nation's tribal council, closed down Cherokee courts, and denied rights to protest and testify against whites. -Cherokee nation (one of the so-called, "five civilized tribes") had many citizens who were literate and able to participate in government and politics. -Cherokee nation sued the U.S. government over how Georgia was treating them, because they were a sovereign nation, and their rights were protected by treaties signed with the United States government. -Cherokee Nation brought their suit against US Supreme Court in 1831. There are several decisions that are vitally important and foundational in federal Indian law that result from these cases: Cherokee Nation v. State of Georgia (1831) and Worcester v. Georgia (1832). -These cases define the status of tribes within the U.S. federal system as domestic dependent sovereign nations and embedded within the U.S. because of the doctrine of discovery. These nations exist within the United States and cannot sell their land to other nations (not fully sovereign), but they are able to act independently from U.S. state governments which are also domestic sovereigns within the U.S. federal system. Tribal nations and U.S. states should be equal sovereigns within this system. -Thus, Chief Justice John Marshall declared that the court lacked jurisdiction over the case since Cherokees were neither US citizens or citizens of a completely independent nation. -Native American lands were too valuable though. Even though the courts ruled in favor of Cherokee nation, politicians were determined to remove Cherokee nation as well as other tribal nations from their original territories in the East. -John Ross, the Principle Chief of the Cherokees was an opponent of removal, but some Native American people including some Cherokees were in favor of making agreements with the U.S. government to be removed to a new location rather than to continue to be harassed by the state government and U.S. citizens. -In 1835, a minority of Cherokee people, called the "Treaty Party," signed the Treaty of New Echota that agreed to the voluntary removal of Cherokee people. This minority party was led by Major Ridge, John Ridge, Elias Boudinot, his brother Stand Watie, and others. -The rivalry between John Ross and Stand Watie on the issue of removal is important and still divides Cherokees later during the Civil War. -In 1838, federal troops removed Cherokee people from their territory in Georgia, placed them in internment camps, and finally marched them east to Indian Country or Oklahoma where Cherokees rebuilt their home. -The journey of these Cherokee people across the country to Oklahoma is called the "Trail of Tears." Along the route of this journey, ¼ of Cherokees died. It was a crushing blow to Cherokee nation. •In addition to the Southern tribes that were removed, the U.S. signed 86 treaties with 26 Northern tribes between NY and Mississippi from 1829-1851. -Often times, bribery, threats, and alcohol factored into the agreements to sell remaining lands and relocate to reservations. -The Senecas were able to successfully combat bribery and fraud, and the U.S. Senate did not ratify the treaty that would have taken their 4 reservations and moved them to Kansas.

Comments by Cutcha Risling Baldy, Professor of Native American Studies at Humboldt State

-These comments give a contemporary perspective from a California Native person and professor on settler colonialism. -Settler colonialism refers to the fact that colonization is a structure not an event. When settlers came to North America, their intent (especially the British) was to stay and take land. In order to do this, Native American people had to be removed. The irreducible or quintessential element of settler colonialism (its goal) is to take land and territory from Native people for settler purposes. -Settler colonialism is an important concept in the history of Native Americans, and this discussion on the topic presents how the idea of the "American Dream" is entangled with the colonial project of stealing land and resources from Native American tribes throughout this history.

Two types of Seneca Households in the 1700s: Short house or cabin

-These types of houses accommodated about 1-2 families and were spread out across the landscape rather than concentrated or aggregated in one area. -These types of houses were placed next to agricultural fields and were much more convenient for economic pursuits such as farming and ranching rather than the aggregated settlements, because people lived right next to their fields. -This type of settlement pattern was great for occupying greater amounts of space within Seneca territory, and was used as a strategy to keep out settlers who could potentially steal that land if not physically occupied/used at all times.

In Whose Honor?

-This film summarizes the controversy over the "Chief Illiniwek" mascot of the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. The mascot was used at the school from 1926 to 2007. -Charlene Teters, a graduate student at the time, began protesting the mascot in 1989, because it was an appropriation of Native American regalia and stereotypical or racist portrayal of Native American dances, rituals, and practices. -The alumni and college administration support the mascot because of donor funding based on a "tradition" of rallying around this particular mascot (that has only been around for 50-60 years as opposed to actual Native American traditions that have been around for thousands of years). -The portrayals are racist, essentializing, and stereotypical with little acknowledgement of a specific tribe from which these traditions are appropriated. -Using regalia for a silly mascot is also disgraceful, because these items are usually only used for ceremonial purposes by designated people within Native American communities. White people dressing up in such regalia is "playing Indian" or appropriating Native American cultural heritage. -In 2005, the NCAA intervened in the debate over the use of Native American mascots throughout the country in collegiate sports, and they banned schools that used Native American mascots from participating in their sponsored sports events. -In 2007, the mascot was retired, though the University regtains the "Illini" or "Fighting Illini" as their current mascot name without the Chief Illiniwek symbol.

Religion in and coping with a time of extreme loss: In the 1880s in California, the Ghost Dance influenced religious leaders and resulted in the incorporation of elements of the Ghost Dance religion in a new California religion.

-This new religion was the Earth Lodge religion and Bole Maru "dreamer" religion that were developed in Northern California. -William Bauer (Wailacki and Concow of the Round Valley Indian Tribes) argues that these dances were efforts to heal from the most intense decades of genocide in American history.

Religion in and coping with a time of extreme loss: 1850s - A Wanapum man from the Columbia River region, created "Dreamer religion"

-This religion included abstaining from drinking alcohol, revival of old ways and traditional culture, and separating themselves from white influences.

Religion in and coping with a time of extreme loss: 1880s - The Ghost Dance religion was created by a Paiute man named Wovoka.

-This religion promised the return of the old ways (traditional culture) and the disappearance of white settlers. This religion also required its followers to abstain from drinking alcohol. -Followers were supposed to live in peace, harm no one, and damage no property, etc. -Lakotas sent messengers to receive new religion. -Even though the message of this religion was peaceful and encouraged its members to harm no one, white settlers became nervous that Native people were gathering in large numbers and thought it was a prelude to an uprising

Adams-Onis Treaty, 1819 (Transcontinental Treaty or Florida Purchase Treaty or Florida Treaty)

-This treaty involved the United States and Spain. -After the American Revolution, there were increasing boundary tensions between the U.S., Spain, and Britain in North America. -During the early 1800s leading up to 1821, there were conflicts lasting over a decade between colonials in Mexico and the Spanish government, which amount to Mexico's War of Independence. During the final years of this conflict, Spain cedes Florida to the United States, because it had become a burden for Spain to secure. -This treaty defined the boundary between the U.S. and New Spain (Mexico), which had been disputed before. -The U.S. paid residents' claims against the Spanish government up to a total of $5 million. -The U.S. also relinquished U.S. claims on Spanish Texas west of the Sabine River. -The borders within the Southwest were again disputed by Mexico after it won its independence in 1821 and signed the Treaty of Cordoba with Spain. These border disputes would eventually lead to the Mexican American War from 1846-1848.

Lewis and Clark

-Travelled and treated with tribes -Mapped territory for US expansion -Failed to find Northwest Passage to Pacific -Failed to establish intertribal peace

Aggregated settlement with traditional longhouses

-Very compact, multi-family longhouses with a protective palisade wall. -Very good for defense against attacks. -Not as comfortable living, very close quarters. -More effort to farm, collect resources, etc. outside of the walled-in housing area.

San Francisco Before and After beginning of Gold Rush

-Very few boats before the rush, 1848 -Harbor filled with ships as people sought gold, 1849

Change and Persistence Case Study # 1: Panich and Schneider's (2014) study of Spanish missions and Places of Refuge: Some Native people were granted passes to go outside of the mission system or they ran away. There were many reasons for this

-Visiting family and significant places (home sites, ceremonial places), hunting and gathering for food, because the missions often could not produce enough food to support everyone within the mission system. -Some Coast Miwok people in Marin and Sonoma County north of San Francisco sought safety with the Kashia Pomo and Russians at Fort Ross. The Russians offered protection from the Spanish and the Mexicans and treated Native American people in California much better, because they were in California primarily for the fur trade. -"Places of Refuge" refer to villages, gathering sites, traditional places that were safe havens for Native people during the time when Spanish missions and later Mexican ranchos were in operation. This is a theoretical term that refers to this situation where Native American people maintained relationships to these places during and after these very disruptive times in their histories in order to stay connected to traditional culture. This term comes from the work of Tsim Schneider (2010, 2015).

civilization

-Western concept of what a complex society should look like, agriculture, literacy, architecture, specialization, hierarchical form of government, Western "appearances," clothes, values, etc.

How is the situation of European-Americans teaching Native American men how to farm ironic?

-Women had farmed for centuries and millennia before European-Americans "taught" Native men to farm

Haudenosaunee

-confederation of tribes that had already been practicing representative democracy for hundred of years

American Revolution: American settlers broke their treaties with tribes

-such as the Delaware. -Delaware Chief, White Eyes, made the Treaty of Fort Pitt in 1778 with the Americans, but he was murdered and his tribe ended up siding with the British

Cultural Appropriation

-the act of people from one culture borrowing or taking aspects or elements of another culture without consent, especially in the case where there is an imbalance in power over or ability to control how culture is appropriated. -One example is the appropriation of Native American culture and practices by non-Native people in the United States.

"Playing Indian"

-the act of performing Native American identities by non-Native American peoples in various ways including but not limited to wearing Native themed Halloween costumes, acting like a Native character in a play or pageant, acting out stereotypes or assumptions about Native Americans, and living out fantasies of Indianness.