Anatomy1 Exam questions

7) Trace the path of a drop of blood from the time it enters the heart via the superior vena cava until it is in the arch of the aorta.

Pathway of blood through the heart 1. Blood enters the right atrium from the superior and inferior venae cavae, and the coronary sinus. 2. From right atrium, it goes through the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle. 3. From the right ventricle, it goes through the pulmonary semilunar valves to the pulmonary trunk 4. From the pulmonary trunk it moves into the right and left pulmonary arteries to the lungs. 5. From the lungs, oxygenated blood is returned to the heart through the pulmonary veins. 6. From the pulmonary veins, blood flows into the left atrium. 7. From the left atrium, blood flows through the bicuspid (mitral) valve into the left ventricle. 8. From the left ventricle, it goes through the aortic semilunar valves into the ascending aorta. 9. Blood is distributed to the rest of the body (systemic circulation) from the aorta.

1) the structure of each of the following types of connective tissue and explain how the structure of each is related to its functions: areolar connective tissue, dense regular connective tissue, dense irregular connective tissue, hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, and bone.

-connective tissue- binds structures together; supportive -ground substance -fibers -cells 1. Main functions of connective tissue: -binding and support: bone and cartilage -protection: bone, cartilage, and fat -insulation: fat -transportation: blood -storage: fat 2. Distinguishing characteristics of connective tissue: -common origin: all connective tissues arise from mesenchyme (a type of embryonic tissue) -varying degrees of vascularity- from avascular (noble vessels) to richly vascular (rich supply of blood vessels) -extracellular matrix: nonliving material that makes up most of connective tissue; allows connective tissue to bear weight, withstand great tension, and endure physical trauma -collagen (white)- extremely tough fibers that provide high tensile strength -elastic (yellow)- long, thin fibers of elastin that form branching networks; allow for stretch; pull connective tissue back to normal length and shape -reticular fibers- short, fine collagenous fibers that branch forming delicate networks; surround small blood vessels and support the soft tissue of organs Description, function, and location of the following connective tissues: a. Areolar connective tissue b. Adipose connective tissue c. Reticular connective tissue d. Dense regular connective tissue e. Dense irregular connective tissue f. Elastic connective tissue g. Hyaline cartilage h. Elastic cartilage i. Fibrocartilage j. Bone k. Blood a. areolar connective- gel-like matrix with all 3 fiber types that are loosely arranged; cells include fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, white blood cells, and fat cells -functions- supports and binds other tissues- fibers; holds body fluid- ground substance; excess fluid causes edema; defends against infection- white blood cells and macrophages; stores nutrients- fat cells -location- widely distributed under epithelia (this is a pattern); present in muses membranes as lamina propria b. adipose connective- closely packed adipocytes (adipose or fat cells); scanty matrix similar to areolar connective tissue matrix; richly vascularized; also called white fat or white adipose tissue; brown fat occurs mostly in babies and uses lipid fuel to warm the body -adipocytes- large fat droplet (almost pure triglyceride) occupies most of cell volume, pushing nucleus tone side of cell; cells become plumper or more wrinkled as they gain or release fat -functions- energy storage; insulates against heat loss; supports organs; protects organs from shock -locations- found under skin (subcutaneous); serves general nutrient needs of the entire body; around organs with high energy needs like the heart, lymph nodes, some muscles, and bone marrow; surrounds the kidneys; behind the eyeballs; found in genetically determined fat depots such as abdomen and hips; in breasts c. reticular connective- delicate work or reticular fibers in a loose ground substance; reticular cells (fibrocells) are scattered throughout network -function- forms stroma (internal framework) or organs supports many free blood cells -locations- lymphoid organs- lymph nodes, bone marrow, sperm d. dense regular connective- closely packed bundles of collagen fibers running in the same direction, parallel to the direction of pull; wavy arrangement allows tissue to stretch a bit; a few elastic fibers; few cells other than fibroblasts -functions- withstand tensile stress when pulling force is applied in one direction; attaches muscle to bone, muscle to muscle, or bone to bone -locations- tendon- cord attaching muscle to bone; ligament- connects bone to bone; aponeurosis- sheet-like tendon; fascia- fibrous wrapping around muscles, blood vessels, and nerves e. dense irregular connective- thick bundles of collagen fibers that are irregularly arranged; forms tough sheets where tension is exerted in different directions; major cell type is fibroblasts -function- withstands tensile stress when pulling force is applied in may directions -locations- found in skin as the dermis; fibrous joint capsules; fibrous coverings of some organs f. elastic connective- dense regular connective tissue containing a high proportion of elastic fibers -functions- allows recoil of tissue following stretching; maintains pulsatile flow of blood (pulse) through arteries; aids passive recoil of lungs following inspiration -locations- within certain vertebral ligaments; walls of large arteries; within bronchial tube walls g. hyaline cartilage (gristle)- glassy matrix composed of evenly distributed collagen fibers; major cell type is chondrocytes -functions- supports and reinforces; cushions; resists compression -locations- forms most of the embryonic skeleton; covers the ends of long bones; costal cartilage of ribs; tip of nose; trachea and larynx h. elastic cartilage- nearly identical to hyaline cartilage, but has more elastic fibers in matrix -function- maintains shape of a structure while allowing great flexibility -locations- supports external ear (pinna); epiglottis- flap that covers the respiratory tract when we swallow; prevents food and fluid from entering the lungs i. fibrocartilage- rows of chondrocytes (a feature of cartilage) alternate with rows of thick collagen fibers (a feature of dense regular connective tissue) -functions- provides strong support; withstands heavy pressure -locations- intervertebral discs- cushion between bony vertebrae; pubic symphysis; menisci- discs of knee joint j. bone (osseous tissue)- hard, calcified matrix containing many collagen fibers; osteocytes lie in lacunae; very well vascularized -functions- supports and protects body structures; provides levers for muscles to act on; stores calcium, minerals, and fat; forms blood (hematopoiesis) in its bone marrow -location- bones k. blood- red and white blood cells surrounded by a fluid matrix called blood plasma; most cells are red blood cells (RBC's, erythrocytes); scattered white blood cells (WBC's, leukocytes); atypical connective tissue develops from mesenchyme -functions- transports respiratory gases, nutrients, wastes, and many other substances -location- contained within blood vessels

9) Name and describe the locations of the two major lymphatic ducts. Also describe the portions of the body drained by each.

A lymph duct is a great lymphatic vessel that empties lymph into one of the subclavian veins. There are two lymph ducts in the body—the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct. The right lymphatic duct drains lymph from the right upper limb, right side of thorax and right halves of head and neck. The thoracic duct drains lymph into the circulatory system at the left brachiocephalic vein between the left subclavian and left internal jugular veins. the thoracic duct is the larger of the two lymph ducts. It carries chyle, a liquid containing both lymph and emulsified fats. Structure[edit] The thoracic duct originates in the abdomen from the confluence of the right and left lumbar trunks and the intestinal trunk, forming a significant pathway upward called the cisterna chyli. It traverses the diaphragm at the aortic aperture and ascends the superior and posterior mediastinum between the descending thoracic aorta (to its left) and the azygos vein (to its right). The duct extends vertically in the chest and curves posteriorly to the left carotid artery and left internal jugular vein at the T5 vertebral level it drains into the systemic (blood) circulation at the venous angle of the left subclavian and internal jugular veins as a single trunk, at the commencement of the brachiocephalic vein,[1][2] below the clavicle, near the shoulders. The right duct drains lymph fluid from: * the upper right section of the trunk, (right thoracic cavity, via the right bronchomediastinal trunk), * the right arm (via the right subclavian trunk), * and right side of the head and neck (via the right jugular trunk), * also, in some individuals, the lower lobe of the left lung.

11) Describe the route traveled by bile from where it is secreted to the duodenum.

Bile Production The liver cells (hepatocytes) produce bile which collects and drains into the hepatic duct. From here it can enter the small intestine to act on fats by traveling down the common bile duct, or it can enter the gallbladder through the cystic duct, where it is stored. The liver is constantly secreting bile, up to 1 liter in a 24 hour period, but most of it is stored in the gallbladder and can be 6 times more concentrated than bile salts in liver bile. Bile Secretion Between 20 to 30 minutes after eating a meal, the partially digested food enters the duodenum of the small intestine from the stomach as chyme (gastric emptying). The presence of food, especially fatty foods, in the stomach and duodenum stimulates the gallbladder to contract due to the action of cholecystokinin (CCK). The gallbladder then forces out bile and relaxes the sphincter of Oddi thereby allowing bile to enter the duodenum.

5) Using the terms prime mover, antagonist, synergist, and fixator, describe the various roles muscles may play in a group.

Functional types of muscles: o The agonist (or prime mover) ‒the muscle(s) that produces the action during a particular joint movement. o The antagonist ‒ the muscle(s) that opposes or reverses that movement. o The antagonist relaxes so the agonist can cause the desired action. o A synergist ‒ the muscle(s) that helps the agonist by adding extra force or by reducing undesirable movements at the joint. o A fixator ‒ the muscle(s) that prevents an origin from moving, allowing the agonist attached to it to pull on something else. o For example, fixator muscles attached to the scapula contract to hold (fix) it in place while the biceps brachii contracts. o This ensures that the biceps moves the radius and not the scapula. o A given muscle may play different roles at various times and for different movements.

8) Define portal system. Explain how the renal portal system fits your definition and describe its function.

In the circulatory system, a portal venous system occurs when a capillary bed pools into another capillary bed through veins, without first going through the heart. Both capillary beds and the blood vessels that connect them are considered part of the portal venous system. They are relatively uncommon as the majority of capillary beds drain into veins which then drain into the heart, not into another capillary bed. Portal venous systems are considered venous because the blood vessels that join the two capillary beds are either veins or venules. Examples of such systems include the hepatic portal system, the hypophyseal portal system, and (in non-mammals) the renal portal system. Unqualified, portal venous system often refers to the hepatic portal system. For this reason, portal vein most commonly refers to the hepatic portal vein. The nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney. A nephron is made up of two parts, a renal corpuscle or glomerular capsule and a renal tubule forming foltration membrane •A renal corpuscle consists of a blood capillary network called the glomerulus Each nephron contains a miniature portal system consisting of A glomerulus which is a network of fenestrated capillaries. It receives blood from an afferent arteriole and An efferent arteriole (Blood drains into an efferent arteriole) A juxtamedullary nephron has also peritubular capillary network/vasa recta. A nephron produces urine as a result of three processes:oGlomerular filtration ‒ fluid (a filtrate) is filtered from blood in the glomerular capillaries into the capsular space.oTubular resorption ‒ most of the nutrients, water, and essential ions are passively reabsorbed into the peritubular capillaries from the filtrate as it passes through the renal tubule.oTubular secretion ‒ metabolic wastes that were not filtered in the renal corpuscle are secreted from the blood of the peritubular capillaries into the filtrate. During foltration Blood draining from the peritubular capillaries and vasa recta enters a cortical radiate vein (or interlobular vein).

12) The liquid portion of semen is secreted by accessory sex glands. Name and describe the glands and state the contents and functions of their secretions.

The male reproductive system is located outside of the man's body. These external structures are the penis, scrotum, epididymis, and testes. The epididymus is located at the back of the testis and connects it to the vas deferens. Its function is to store and carry sperm. The testis is the location for testosterone production. The coiled collection of tubes within the testes are the seminiferous tubules. Within these tubules, spermatogenesis takes place. Accessory Sex Organs The internal organs of the male reproductive system are called accessory organs. They include the vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands. * Vas deferens: Transports mature sperm to the urethra in preparation for ejaculation. * Seminal vesicles: Sac-like pouches that attach to the vas deferens near the base of the bladder. The vesicles produce molecules such as fructose that serve as energy sources for sperm. The seminal vesicle fluid makes up most of the volume of a man's ejaculate. * Prostate gland: A walnut-sized structure located below the urinary bladder in front of the rectum. It contributes additional fluid to the ejaculate that serves as nourishment for sperm. * Bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands: Pea-sized structures located on the sides of the urethra just below the prostate gland. These glands produce a clear, slippery fluid that empties directly into the urethra. Fluid produced by these glands lubricates the urethra and neutralizes acidity associated with residual urine.

3) Define, number, and locate the vertebrosternal ribs, vertebrochondral ribs, and vertebral ribs (also called floating ribs).

The thoracic cage (rib cage) forms the thorax (chest) portion of the body. It consists of the 12 pairs of ribs with their costal cartilages and the sternum (Figure 1). The ribs are anchored posteriorly to the 12 thoracic vertebrae (T1-T12). The thoracic cage protects the heart and lungs. Ribs Each rib is a curved, flattened bone that contributes to the wall of the thorax. The ribs articulate posteriorly with the T1-T12 thoracic vertebrae, and most attach anteriorly via their costal cartilages to the sternum. There are 12 pairs of ribs. The ribs are numbered 1-12 in accordance with the thoracic vertebrae. All ribs are attached posteriorly to the thoracic portion of the vertebral column. 1. Shaft (body)—main portion. 2. Head—articulates with vertebral bodies by way of the superior and inferior pedicle facets. 3. Neck—between the head and body and is slightly narrower. 4. Tubercle—short enlargement adjacent the neck that on its posterior side articulates with the transverse process of the vertebra of the same rib number. The first ribs also attach to the manubrium. The second rib attaches to the sternum at the sternal angle. Since the first rib is hidden behind the clavicle Ribs 3-7 attach to the sternal body. The rib articulates primarily with the costal facet located on the body of the same numbered thoracic vertebra A. True ribs (superior 7 pairs)— attach directly to sternum by costal cartilage. B. False ribs (ribs 8-10)— attach to sternum indirectly via the costal cartilage of the 7th rib. C. Floating ribs (11-12)—no sternal attachments. Ribs 1-7 are classified as true ribs (vertebrosternal ribs). The costal cartilage from each of these ribs attaches directly to the sternum. Ribs 8-12 are called false ribs (vertebrochondral ribs). The costal cartilages from these ribs do not attach directly to the sternum. For ribs 8-10, the costal cartilages are attached to the cartilage of the next higher rib. Thus, the cartilage of rib 10 attaches to the cartilage of rib 9, rib 9 then attaches to rib 8, and rib 8 is attached to rib 7. The last two false ribs (11-12) are also called floating ribs (vertebral ribs). These are short ribs that do not attach to the sternum at all. Instead, their small costal cartilages terminate within the musculature of the lateral abdominal wall.

2) Name and describe the five layers of the epidermis, including the four major cell types, and explain growth of the epidermis. Accompany your answer with a labeled diagram.

This skin is further divided into five, separate layers. In order from most superficial to deepest, they are the: * Stratum Corneum * Stratum Lucidum * Stratum Granulosum * Stratum Spinosum * Stratum Basale Stratum Corneum This layer is composed of the many dead skin cells that you shed into the environment—as a result, these cells are found in dust throughout your home. This layer helps to repel water. Stratum Lucidum This layer is found only on the palms of the hands, fingertips, and the soles of the feet. Stratum Granulosum This is the layer where part of keratin production occurs. Keratin is a protein that is the main component of skin. Stratum Spinosum This layer gives the skin strength as well as flexibility. Stratum Basale the only cells of the epidermis that can divide via the process of mitosis. This is where the skin's most important cells, called keratinocytes, are formed before moving up to the surface of the epidermis and being shed into the environment as dead skin cells. Keratinocytes in the stratum basale proliferate during mitosis and the daughter cells move up the strata, changing shape and composition as they undergo multiple stages of cell differentiation. This layer also contains melanocytes, the cells that are largely responsible for determining the color of our skin and protecting our skin from the harmful effects of UV radiation. These harmful effects include burns in the short term and cancer in the long run. This protein is appropriately called keratin. Keratin makes our skin tough and provides us with much-needed protection from microorganisms, physical harm, and chemical irritation. Millions of these new cells arise in the stratum basale on a daily basis. The newly produced cells push older cells into the upper layers of the epidermis with time. As these older cells move up toward the surface, they change their shape, nuclear, and chemical composition. These changes are, in part, what give the strata their unique characteristics. From there the keratinocytes move into the next layer, called the stratum granulosum. The keratinocytes produce a lot of keratin in this layer—they become filled with keratin. This process is known as keratinization. Once the keratinocytes leave the stratum granulosum, they die and help form the stratum lucidum. This death occurs largely as a result of the distance the keratinocytes find themselves from the rich blood supply the cells of the stratum basale lie on top off. From the stratum lucidum, the keratinocytes enter the next layer, called the stratum corneum The keratinocytes in this layer are called corneocytes. They are devoid of almost all of their water and they are completely devoid of a nucleus at this point. They are dead skin cells filled with the tough protein keratin. This entire cycle, from new keratinocyte in the straum basale to a dead cell flaked off into the air, takes between 25-45 days. Layers of the epidermis: The epidermis provides a protective waterproof barrier that also keeps pathogens at bay and regulates body temperature. The epidermis is made up of 95% keratinocytes but also contains melanocytes, Langerhans cells, Merkel cells, and inflammatory cells. The stratum basale is primarily made up of basal keratinocyte cells, which can be considered the stem cells of the epidermis. They divide to form the keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum, which migrate superficially.

6) Describe the epithelium lining the respiratory tract from the external nares (nostrils) to the beginning of the trachea (i.e., include the larynx above and below the vocal folds). Relate the lining to the function of each area.

Upper respiratory tract + part of the lower resrpiratory tract below the vocal folds and trachea epiglotis glottis nasal cavity external\internal nostrils nasal passages - warming, moistening, filtering Most of the nasal cavity lined by ciliated, pseudostratified columnar epithelium with goblet cells and underlying connective tissue Lamina propia. Goblet cells are simple columnar epithelium, secrete mucus that traps debris in the incoming air. The cilia move contaminated mucus posteriorly toward the pharynx. Olfactory mucosa is near the roof of the nasal cavity. It consist of olfactory receptors and CT. Posterior to the nasal cavity: nasoparynx. It conducts Air Posterior to the nasoparynx. — oropharynx and laryngopharynx - the stratified squamous epithelium of the oral cavity It conducts Air and Food. It is lined by nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium. The Larynx Conducts Air and Food. It routs Air and Food to the proper channels by closing its superior during swallowing and breathing. It containes vocal folds. It is covered by respiratory mucosa. It secrete mucus, which moistens the epithelial surface and moves dust-laden mucus up toward the pharynx. The trachea is a tube extends from the Larynx up to Bronchi. It is covered by respiratory mucosa. It secrete mucus, which moistens the epithelial surface and moves dust-laden mucus up toward the pharynx. Trachea also has Submucosa os Areolar CT

4) Name and describe the locations of the eight bones of the carpus (wrist).

https://boneandspine.com/anatomy-of-the-carpal-bones/

10) Describe the gross anatomy of the stomach. Illustrate your answer with a labeled diagram. Alimentary canal

intraperitoneal organ Mechanical digestion —physically breaking down large pieces of food into smaller pieces, giving a larger surface area for enzymes to work on. o Churning of food by the stomach. The four major layers of the wall of the alimentary canal 1 The mucosa, which actually begins in the oral cavity 1.1 Simple columnar epithelium for secretion (viz., stomach) The lamina propria,a layer of areolar connective tissue ‒ contains blood vessels and lymphatic vessels. This layer also contains most cells of the mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT). The muscularis mucosae, a thin layer of smooth muscle tissue The submucosa‒consists of loose CT containing blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, nerve fibers, MALT in the ileum, and often glands. 3) The muscularis (externa) ‒ consists of either skeletal muscle tissue or smooth muscle tissue: c) Three layers of smooth muscle (inner oblique, middle circular, and outer longitudinal) in the stomach. The serosa or the adventitia, the outermost layer ‒ contains blood vessels, nerves, and fat. The lesser omentum ‒ suspends stomach and duodenum from liver. o The greater omentum ‒ the largest peritoneal fold; connects the stomach to the transverse colon. The stomach is a J-shaped organ located directly under the thoracic diaphragm in the LUQ of the abdominal cavity.oIts concave medial border is called the lesser curvature; its convex lateral border is called the greater curvature.oMajor functions of the stomach include:oChurning the food, turning it into a paste called chyme.oStarting the breakdown of food proteins by secreting the enzyme pepsin and hydrochloric acid; the latter also kills bacteria in the food. The stomach is divided into four major regions:oThe cardia ‒ the ring-like area surrounding the entranceoThe fundus ‒ the dome-like portion above and lateral to the cardiaoThe body ‒ the large central portionoThe pyloric region ‒ the inferior portion that ends at the opening to the duodenum called the pylorus.oThe proximal pyloric antrum is continuous with the stomach's body.oThe distal pyloric canal leads to the pylorus.oThe pyloric sphincter is a thickening of the muscularis externa in the wall of the pylorus ‒ it controls entry of chyme into the duodenum. The wall of the stomach has several special features:oWhen the stomach is empty, its mucosa lies in large folds called rugae.oGoblet cells in the mucosal epithelium of the stomach secrete a protective mucus.oThe epithelium invaginates to form crevices in the mucosa.oThe more superficial part of a crevice is called a gastric pit. oThe deeper part of a crevice is called a gastric gland. The gastric glands in the fundus and body contain three types of cells that together produce gastric juice: oMucous neck cells secrete a special mucus (function unknown).oParietal cells secrete hydrochloric acid, creating low pH in the lumen.oChief cells secrete pepsinogen, which is converted to pepsin by the low pH in the lumen.oEnteroendocrine cells in the gastric glands secrete the hormone gastrin into the blood when food enters the stomach.oGastrin stimulates the secretion of gastric juice.oThe muscularis externa contains a third layer, called the oblique layer, between the submucosa and circular layer.