ANT 101 Chap 3 Economic Systems

Exchange

is the transfer of something that may be material or immaterial between at least two persons, groups, or institutions

What new health problem do indigenous Amazonian groups now face as a result of the adoption of Western foods? -gout -cancer -rheumatism -diabetes

diabetes

Agriculture

is a mode of livelihood that involves growing crops on permanent plots with the use of plowing, irrigation, and fertilizer; it is also called farming.

generalized reciprocity

is a transaction that involves the least conscious sense of interest in material gain or thought of what might be received in return, and when.

Mobile money

is on the rise throughout the world, including in low-income countries with many countries in Africa leading the way (see Map 3.6). Mobile money refers to financial transactions that take place through a cell phone, also called a mobile phone.

Pure gift

is something given with no expectation or thought of a return.

Theft

is taking something with no expectation or thought of returning anything to the original owner for it.

expected reciprocity

is the exchange of approximately equally valued goods or services, usually between people of roughly equal social status.

Industrialism/ Digital Economy

is the mode of livelihood in which goods and services are produced through mass employment in business and commercial operations and through the creation, manipulation, management, and transfer of information through electronic media and the Internet.

Exploitation

-or getting something of greater value for less in return, is a form of extreme and persistent unbalanced exchange. -ex: slavery is a form of exploitation in which people's labor power is appropriated without their consent and with no recompense for its value.

How could this happen in a country dedicated to equality of opportunity?

A large part of the answer lies in the simple fact that, in a capitalist system, inequality leads to more inequality through the transfer of wealth and property across generations. -

Economic Anthropology

is the subfield of cultural anthropology that focuses on economic systems cross-culturally This term includes three areas: -livelihood, or making money -Consumption, using goods and money Exchange, or transfer of goods or money between people or institutions

An anthropologist is researching an isolated culture and is told of a semi-annual event in which villagers' largest pigs are weighed, the heaviest is killed, butchered, and forms the basis of a village-wide meal. This is an example of a(n) __________. -leveling mechanism -market exchange -intensive strategy -division of labor

leveling mechanism

Members of a community in Australia typically make all of their own goods or receive their goods from someone they know. The consumption in this community illustrates __________. -depersonalized consumption -redistribution -personalized consumption -market exchange

personalized consumption

How is the concept of subjective well-being related to the definition of poverty? -It is the same measurement but is preferred by anthropologists because it has fewer negative connotations. -It is the same measurement, but poverty is measured quantitatively and subjective well-being qualitatively. -Poverty is one of the factors considered when calculating subjective well-being. -It is a distinct form of measurement that does not rely on economic indicators.

It is a distinct form of measurement that does not rely on economic indicators.

Use Rights (Property relations)

It means that a person or group has socially recognized priority in access to particular resources such as gathering areas, hunting and fishing areas, and water holes.

A form of unbalanced exchange in which the buying and selling of commodities is controlled by the forces of supply and demand is called __________. -redistribution -expected reciprocity -general reciprocity -market exchange

Market exchange

Pastoralism as a sustainable system

Pastoralists have developed sustainable cultures in extremely varied environments, from the relative lushness of Iran to the more depleted situation of Mongolia.

What is the primary function of dogs in the culture of the Hare Indians? -social status -source of meat -hunting assistance -transportation

Transportation

Banaba Island was severely strip-mined for a resource desired by what industry? -textiles -agriculture -electronics manufacturing -construction

agriculture

Leveling Mechanisms

are unwritten, culturally embedded rules that prevent an individual from becoming wealthier or more powerful than anyone else.

What are the main factors affecting changing patterns of consumption and exchange today? -awareness of environmental toxins and global warming -warfare and political revolutions -powerful market forces controlled by core industrial countries -programs that promote fair labor conditions

powerful market forces controlled by core industrial countries

Industrial Capital Agriculture

produces crops through capital-intensive means, using machinery and inputs such as processed fertilizers instead of human and animal labor (Barlett 1989). - Much of the labor demand in industrial agriculture is seasonal, creating an ebb and flow of workers, depending on the task and time of year.

A form of exchange in which one person collects goods or money from members of a group and provides a social return at a later time is called __________. -market exchange -redistribution -generalized reciprocity -expected reciprocity

redistribution

A family-run farm grows an indigenous species of wild rice, cooks it, forms it into snack bars, and markets the bars to independent retailers located in the same region as the farm. What aspect of this operation runs contrary to the priorities of alternative food movements as defined in the text? -family-run -sold by a retailer -wild rice -snack bars

snack bars

Mode of consumption

the dominant pattern, in a culture, of using up goods and services,

Consumption (mode of consumption)

-Consumption has two meanings: First, it is a person's "intake" in terms of eating or other ways of using things; second, it is "output" in terms of spending or using resources to obtain those things. - for example, "intake" is eating a sandwich; "output" is spending money at the store to buy a sandwich. Both activities fit within the term consumption.

Anthropologists distinguish five phases in the horticultural cycle:

-Division of Labor -Gender and age are the key factors structuring the division of labor, with men's and women's work roles often being clearly differentiated -manioc or cassava, a starchy root crop that grows in the tropics. -Manioc requires lengthy processing to make it edible, including soaking it in water to remove toxins and then scraping it into a mealy consistency. -No one can explain the origins of the different divisions of labor in horticulture, but we do know that the differences are related to men's and women's status Most importantly, analysis of many horticultural societies shows that women's contribution to food production is a necessary but not sufficient basis for women's high status. -PROPERTY RELATIONS Private property, as something that an individual can own and sell, is not characteristic of horticultural societies. Use rights are typically important and more clearly defined and formalized than among foragers. By clearing and planting an area of land, a family puts a claim on it and its crops. -HORTICULTURE AS A SUSTAINABLE SYSTEM Fallowing is crucial in maintaining the viability of horticulture.

Consumerism

-a mode of consumption in which people's demands are many and infinite, and the means of satisfying them are never sufficient, thus driving colonialism, globalization, and other forms of expansionism. -Consumerism is the distinguishing feature of industrial/digital economy cultures. -Globalization is spreading consumerism throughout the world and, in some cases, leading to hyperconsumerism, as among the very wealthy people around the world. -Hyperconsumerism is consumption for its own sake, often driven by the perceived need to purchase certain brands and related to constructing and maintaining identity in a socially competitive context.

David Graeber

-author of a monumental study entitled Debt, modern debt did not emerge until a period when settled states began to engage in warfare in the Middle East around 5,000 years ago. -Graeber argues that contemporary patterns of massive national debt are inextricably linked to warfare and a pervasive value of military solutions to national security of major world powers.

What items did the Brazilian government give to Amazonian groups in order to "pacify" them? -cooking pots and steel tools -dried meat and baked goods -clothing and jewelry -alcohol, tea, and coffee

-cooking pots and steel tools

Trade

-formalized exchange of one thing for another according to set standards of value, in which the party with the sought-after good seeks to make a profit from the party seeking the good.

Horticulture

-is a mode of livelihood based on cultivating domesticated plants in gardens using hand tools. -Major horticultural crops include yams, corn, beans, grains such as millet and sorghum, and several types of roots, all of which are rich in protein, minerals, and vitamins. -Horticulture involves the use of handheld tools, such as digging sticks, hoes, and carrying baskets. -Thus, another term for horticulture is shifting cultivation. -Horticulture is more labor-intensive than foraging because of the energy required for plot preparation and food processing.

Gambling

-is the attempt to make a profit by playing a game of chance in which a certain item of value is staked in hopes of acquiring the much larger return that one receives if one wins the game.

Alternative food movements seek to reestablish direct links between food producers, consumers, and marketers by promoting consumption of locally grown food and food that is not mass produced. Such movements exist in direct opposition to the agro-industrial food system, which:

-leads to economic ruin of small-scale producers who promote biodiversity. -shifts diet to fast foods, convenience food, take-away food, and microwave preparation. -transforms meals into eating on the run. -promotes a depersonalized, global market and supply chain, with Walmart as the prime example. -has little regard for the environmental consequences of mass production and global marketing.

Which statement best describes the system of property rights and land access used by agriculturalists? -Agriculturalists make substantial investments in the land they farm, so they typically create firmly defined property rights. -Agriculturalists must work together to grow enough food for the community, so land is typically shared with permission. -Agriculturalists rely on use rights rather than private property laws, and the use rights are loosely defined. -Agriculturalists must move with the seasons, so they typically do not establish clearly defined property rights.

Agriculturalists make substantial investments in the land they farm, so they typically create firmly defined property rights.

How does agriculture differ from foraging, horticulture, and pastoralism? -Agriculture is still in use today. -Agriculture is an intensive strategy. -Agriculture is better for the environment. -Agriculture is an extensive strategy.

Agriculture is an intensive strategy.

The Sustainability of Agriculture

Agriculture requires labor inputs, technology, and nonrenewable natural resources than the economic systems discussed earlier. -The ever-increasing spread of corporate agriculture worldwide is now displacing other long-standing practices and resulting in the destruction of important habitats and cultural heritage sites in its search for land, water, and energy sources. - Intensive agriculture is not a sustainable system. For many years, anthropologists have pointed to the high costs of agriculture to the environment and to humanity.

Division of Labor

Families and clusters of related families are the basic production unit. Gender and age are, again, key factors in the allocation of work. In many pastoralist cultures, gender roles are clearly divided. Men are in charge of herding—moving the animals from place to place. Women are responsible for processing the herd's products, especially milk.

How many major forms of livelihood do cultural anthropologists identify? -12 -five -two 36

Five

What mode of livelihood is most closely associated with use rights as a basis for property relations? -agriculture -horticulturalism -foraging -industrialism/digital economy

Foraging

What form of unbalanced exchange have some Indian tribal groups in the United States used as a successful capitalist venture? -gambling -periodic markets -pure gifts -permanent markets

Gambling

Intensive strategy

In contrast to foraging, horticulture, and pastoralism, agriculture is an intensive strategy. -Intensification involves the use of techniques that allow the same plot of land to be used repeatedly without losing its fertility. Crucial inputs include substantial amounts of labor for weeding, use of natural and chemical fertilizers, and control of water supply. -Agriculture relies on the use of domesticated animals for plowing, transportation, and organic fertilizer either in the form of manure or composted materials. -It is highly dependent on artificial water sources such as irrigation channels or terracing the land -agriculture involves complex knowledge about the environment, plants, and animals, including soil types, precipitation patterns, plant varieties, and pest management. -Long-standing agricultural traditions are now being increasingly displaced by methods introduced from the outside, and so the world's stock of indigenous knowledge about agriculture is declining rapidly. In many cases, it has become completely lost, along with the cultures and languages associated with it.

Which of the following was a factor in why most of the victims of kuru among the Fore people were women? -Men received preferential access to the best sources of protein. -Ritual cannibalism was a requirement for women, but not for men. -Fore women were biologically more prone to neurological disorders than men. -The wild pig population had increased in the area, so women were eating more pork than they had in the past.

Men received preferential access to the best sources of protein.

Consumption Microcultures

Microcultures have distinct entitlement patterns, related levels of health and welfare, and identity associated with consumption. Depending on the cultural context, social inequality may play an important role and have major effects on human welfare.

Five modes of Livelihood

POVERTY:is the lack of access to tangible or intangible resources that contribute to life and the well-being of a person, group, country, or region. SUBJECTIVE WELL BEING: how people experience the quality of their lives based on their perception of what is a good life. FORAGING is a mode of livelihood based on resources that are available in nature through gathering, fishing, or hunting. The oldest way of making a living, foraging is a strategy that humans share with our nonhuman primate relatives. In danger of extinction Depending on the environment, foragers' food sources include nuts, berries, and other fruits, as well as surface-growing vegetables such as melons, roots, honey, insects, and eggs. Foragers trap and hunt a wide variety of birds, fish, and animals. Successful foraging requires sophisticated knowledge of the natural environment and seasonal changes in it. Most critical is knowledge about the location of water sources and of various foods, how to follow animal tracks, how to judge the weather, and how to avoid predators extensive strategy, a mode of livelihood requiring access to large areas of land and unrestricted population movement. -Cultural anthropologists distinguish two major varieties of foraging that are related to different environmental contexts: temperate-climate foraging and circumpolar foraging DIVISION OF LABOR, assigning particular tasks to particular individuals or groups, is shaped by factors of gender and age. Use rights : a system of property relations in which a person or group has socially recognized priority in access to particular resources as gathering, hunting, and fishing areas, and water holes

Pastoralism

Pastoralism is a mode of livelihood based on domesticated animal herds and the use of their products, such as meat and milk, for at least half of the diet. -Sheep, goats, horses, and cattle became prominent after the Spanish conquest. -Many pastoralists keep dogs for protection and for help with herding -Like foraging and horticulture, pastoralism is an extensive strategy. A common problem for all pastoralists is the continued need for fresh pasture and water for their animals. Herds must move or else the grazing area will become depleted.

Which statement accurately describes the terms subsistence and poverty as they are defined in the text? -Subsistence describes a situation in which no excess resources or luxury items exist; poverty describes a situation in which basic needs are not sufficiently met. -Poverty applies to conditions in which basic needs are met but luxuries are unavailable; subsistence applies to economic systems that do not provide excess resources or luxury items. -Subsistence and poverty both describe a situation in which basic needs are unmet, but poverty has replaced subsistence as the preferred term. -Poverty and subsistence both describe a lack of excess resources or luxury items, but poverty is a less preferable term because it has negative connotations.

Subsistence describes a situation in which no excess resources or luxury items exist; poverty describes a situation in which basic needs are not sufficiently met.

Why did the Canadian government disapprove of potlatches? -The government worried that hosts of the potlatch did not share enough food or goods with nearby groups in need. -The government thought potlatching was an "un-Christian" practice. -The government saw a connection between potlatches and intertribal disputes that often led to warfare. -The government thought potlatching was wasteful and out of line with its goals for the "economic progress" of the native groups.

The government thought potlatching was wasteful and out of line with its goals for the "economic progress" of the native groups.

What is one way that industrial agriculture affects the societies that practice it? -The labor demand is seasonal in industrial agriculture, which creates an ebb and flow in employment opportunities for workers. -The jobs in industrialized agriculture are so attractive that they are luring workers away from service occupations, requiring companies to look abroad for employees. -Industrialized agriculture only produces a small selection of crops in one region, so societies that practice it must establish trade connections with horticulturalists and pastoralists to bolster their diets. -Industrialized agriculture typically improves people's diets.

The labor demand is seasonal in industrial agriculture, which creates an ebb and flow in employment opportunities for workers.

Property Relations

The most important forms of property among pastoralists are, by far, animals, followed by housing (such as tents or yurts) and domestic goods (rugs and cookware).

Which of the following is always true of exploitation? -The exploited party receives nothing in the exchange. -Overt coercion is used to maintain the relationship. -The relationship can be considered an extreme form of unbalanced exchange. -The relationship is opportunistic, and is not sustained over a long period of time.

The relationship can be considered an extreme form of unbalanced exchange.

Why do some people argue that parental care of children is not truly a pure gift? -They argue that parents and children exchange goods with each other according to a system of generalized reciprocity. -They argue that parents calculate the expenses of having children with the expectation that their children will repay them in the future. -They argue that parents care for children based on biological necessity, not altruism. -They argue that parents have expectations that their children will make them proud and care for them in their old age.

They argue that parents have expectations that their children will make them proud and care for them in their old age.

What is one reason that wealth inequality has persisted and worsened in the United States? -The United States has slowly changed into a minimalist society, which helps keep the social classes deeply divided. -Wealth and property are transferred across generations, so the children of wealthy parents are more likely to be wealthy than the children of poor parents. -Wealthy communities have actively tried to keep poor communities poor to ensure a ready supply of cheap labor. -The exchange system used extensively in the United States makes it difficult for poor people to make enough profit to grow their wealth.

Wealth and property are transferred across generations, so the children of wealthy parents are more likely to be wealthy than the children of poor parents

Foraging as a sustainable system

When untouched by outside influences and with abundant land available, foraging systems are sustainable, which means that crucial resources are regenerated over time in balance with the demand that the population makes on them. One reason for the sustainability of foraging is that foragers' needs are modest. Anthropologists have typified the foraging lifestyle as the original affluent society because needs are satisfied with minimal labor efforts. This term is used metaphorically to remind people living in contemporary consumer cultures that foraging is not a miserable, inadequate way to make a living, contrary to most ethnocentric thinking. Because foragers' needs for goods are limited, minimal labor efforts are required to satisfy them.

Minimalism

a mode of consumption characterized by few and finite consumer demands and an adequate and sustainable means to achieve them. It is most characteristic of free-ranging foragers but is also found to some degree among horticulturalists and pastoralists.

Potlatch

a feast in which the host lavishes the guests with abundant quantities of the best food and many gifts (Suttles 1991). -The most honorable foods are fish oil, high-bush cranberries, and seal meat, and they will be served in ceremonial wooden bowls. -Potlatches are related to food supply; they are opportunities for consumption, and involve exchange, the topics of this section. -The potlatch system helped to smooth out these variations: Groups with a surplus would sponsor a potlatch and those experiencing a leaner year were guests. - In this way, potlatching established a social safety net across a wide area of the Northwest.

extensive Strategy

a mode of livelihood requiring access to large areas of land and unrestricted population movement.

Market exchange

a prominent form of unbalanced exchange, is the buying and selling of commodities under competitive conditions in which the forces of supply and demand determine value and the seller seeks to make a profit. -Debt, in industrial/digital societies, differs from balanced exchange in terms of the lack of a personal connection between the parties involved and the possibility that a debt may become so large that it may never be repaid

Unbalanced exchange

a system of transfers in which one party attempts to make a profit.

Balanced exchange

a system of transfers in which the goal is either immediate or eventual balance in value.

What is the Slow Food Movement? -a social movement that advocates for gender and racial employment equality in the food industry -a political movement that advocates introducing Western foods to indigenous peoples gradually -an economic movement that emphasizes depersonalized consumption in the food industry -an alternative food movement that emphasizes local agricultural traditions

an alternative food movement that emphasizes local agricultural traditions

Division of Labor

assigning particular tasks to particular individuals or groups, is shaped by factors of gender and age.

A man gave an acquaintance an item and will receive an item of approximately equal value from the acquaintance within a set time frame. This exchange best illustrates __________. -expected reciprocity -generalized reciprocity -unbalanced exchange -market exchange

expected reciprocity

Two types of agriculture

family and industrial agriculture

Which of the following functions of the potlatch has less importance in the modern practice of the tradition compared to its earlier forms? -naming children -raising totem poles -mourning the dead -food sharing

food-sharing

Family Farming

formerly termed peasant farming) is a form of agriculture in which production is geared to support the family and to produce goods for sale. -Activities in family farming include plowing, planting seeds and cuttings, weeding, caring for irrigation systems and terracing, harvesting crops, and processing and storing crops.

Children have been found to do more work in horticultural societies compared with the other modes of livelihood, likely because __________. -horticulture is frequently associated with a strong cultural belief in the importance of work -in this mode of livelihood, adults have a wide range of tasks and are frequently unavailable -children's light weight and small size make them effective at certain tasks -the shorter lifespans of horticulturalists lead to maturity being defined at younger ages compared with other societies

in this mode of livelihood, adults have a wide range of tasks and are frequently unavailable

One trend that has characterized the development of modes of livelihood from foraging to industrial/digital is __________. -increasing sustainability -increasing production for use -increasing stratified and private property relations -decreasing class-based division of labor

increasing stratified and private property relations

Consumerism is a distinguishing feature of which mode of livelihood? -agriculture -pastoralism -horticulture -industrialism

industrialism

Redistribution

is a form of exchange in which one person collects goods or money from many members of a group and provides a social return at a later time.

An anthropologist is conducting research among Tibetan pastoralists. Her primary question concerns how food production changes with the seasons. This project best illustrates research into a culture's __________. -mode of livelihood -mode of exchange -mode of consumption -mode of economics

mode of livelihood

mode of exchange

the dominant pattern, in a culture, of transferring goods, services, and other items between and among people and groups.

Mode Of livelihood

the dominant way of making a living in a culture. Ethnographic examples illustrate each of the five major modes of livelihood.