ANT2000 FSU Midterm & Final (the final section is not finished)

Jablonski and Chaplin

- 2 m.y.a. to present: hominin migrations out of Africa begin...the last migration was Homo sapiens - Less than 40,000 years ago: modern Homo sapiens arrive at higher latitudes--> fair skin

"Lucy" (Australopithecus afarensis)

- 40% of skeleton - 1 meter tall - Short legs; longish arms - Pelvis and knees suggest bipedalism

Darwin's evidence included:

- Biogeography - Domesticated animals - Comparative anatomy - Comparative embryology - Vestigal organs - Fossils

Why are there so many hominin fossils but so few panin (chimpanzee) fossils?

- Conditions of preservation in the rainforest were not good (chimpanzees) - Humans are water dependent--> died near water sources--> better preservation conditions

Mutations in Genetics (DeVries)

- Consequences for individuals but not for populations - Cell- ex. Too many chromosomes in a gamete such as Down's Syndrome - Molecule- constant introduction of point mutations

Agriculture

- Control of nature - Irrigation = control of water - Terracing = control of topography - Domesticated animals = control of animals - Social stratification is extreme (different classes/ranks)

Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic Eras

570 m.y.a. to present

Neanderthal genome is ___ identical to moderns

95.5%

Karl Popper said...

"All conclusions are subject to continuing challenge...conclusions can be falsified"

Evolution

- A change in series - Biological application: an explanation for the origin of organisms

The Geological Time Scale

- Eons--> Eras--> Periods--> Epochs

Suborder Strepsirhini

- Grooming claw on the second digit of the foot - Slit-like nostrils directed laterally

"Ardi" (Ardipithecus ramidus)

- Middle Awash, Ethiopia - 4.4 m.y.a., woodland habitat - Long arms, large hands--> suspensory - Bipedalism - Opposable big toe--> could not walk for long distance

The Evolution of Evolution

- Pre Darwin - DARWIN - Post Darwin

Meiosis

- the production of gametes (mature sex cells) from immature sex cells 1 Double-stranded chromosomes line up as homologous pairs 2 Division 1: homologous pairs separate 3 Division 2: double-stranded chromosomes become single-stranded (gametes)

African homo EGASTER lifeways

-oldowan ->alcheulian tools - reliance on meat -mastery of fire

Anthropology has 4 subfields

1. Cultural Anthropology 2. Linguistic Anthropology 3. Archaeology 4. Biological Anthropology (physical anthropology)

Pre-Cambrain Eon

4.6 b.y.a to 570 m.y.a.

Homo erectus or Homo egaster?

Homo erectus = Asia + Africa Homo egaster = Africa only

Mendel

Organism

Transcription

Portion of the DNA unwinds and one strand is used to produce mRNA

Genetics

The study of genes - Gene = unit of inheritance - Genetics = the study of inheritance and levels of analysis 1. population 2. organism 3. cell 4. molecule - Conducted experiments on 29,000 Pisum savitum -Discrete inheritance

Homozygous vs. heterozygous

alleles of the same gene are identical vs. alleles of the same gene are different

Habitual

less common but which still occurs repeatedly

Customary

occurs in most or all members of one age or sex class

Phenotype vs. genotype

visible in the organism vs. present but nor observable

Franz Boas

- "Father of American Anthropology" - Critic of "evolutionism" of Tylor (and his diea that all cultures progress through similar stages) - Cultural relativism- cultures cannot be ranked as higher or lower... all humans see the world through the lens of their own culture - Created the four-field organization of American Anthropology

Charles Darwin

- "On the evolution of Species" there is evolution via natural selection - "The descent of man and selection in relation to sex" is sexual selection - "The expression of emotions in man and animals" is how behavior evolves

Margaret Mead wrote

- (Book) Coming of Age in Samoa -1928

Derek Freeman wrote

- (Book) The Fateful Hoaxing of Margaret Mead -1983

Origins of Science

- (Book)"The Origin of Science" by Louis Leibenberg - Human hunting is skill intensive. -They covered a very large spatial area - Ache men vs. Chimpanzee

WT-15000 (Nariokotome Boy)

- 1.6 m.y.a. - 90% complete skeleton - 1st evidence of dramatic brain size expansion and brain/body ratios that deviate from ape pattern - Modern body proportions (long legs, shorter arms, and narrow torso) - Short gut - Smaller birth canals suggests infants have an increased dependence of their caretakers - Bipedal running - Ancestor: Homo naledi

Researchers found ___ ___ ___ that would have affected proteins in which Neanderthals had the ancestral state and modern humans had a newer, derived state.

- 78 sequence differences - Due to new alleles that emerged after the evolutionary spirit

Homo neanderthalensis

- 80+ sites in Europe, Israel & West Asia - Circa 400k-40 kya (fossils)...most are 130-40 kya - Homogenous population with identifiable traits, lmited span and limited geographic distribution - Large cranial capacity(>15000cc) but cranium is different from modern humans 1. long, low cranium 2. midline prognathism 3. occipital bun 4. browridges 5. retromolar space 6. large front teeth w excessive wear Post cranial skeleton: -short, stocky - very muscular, very strong - hands have a powerful grip

Culture is...

- A behavior -. Cumulative --> Cultural evolution - Shared by a group - Inter-generational: Transmitted from one generation to the next - Mental infrastructure - Shared meaning that guide perception and action

The Scientific Revolution

- A dramatic change in understanding the world. - BOOK: Intellectual Curiosity and the Scientific Revolution - Toby E. Huff - 1543: Nicolaus Copernius (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) - 1687: Isaac Newton (Principia- laws of motion, gravitation)

Sir Edward Burnett Tylor

- A founder of social anthropology - "Anthropology: An introduction to the study of man and civilization" first anthropology textbook - First professor of anthropology at Oxford University

The Human Genome Projec

- A multi-year effort to find all the genes that code for all the traits found in humans - A genome is an organism's complete set of DNA

Science is...

- A procedure for arriving at conclusions. - An established accumulation derived from the above procedure.

Symbolism (Sally McBearty and Alison Brooks)

- A representation that can only be understood through a social convention or rule created by people - First appearance of symbolic representation in Europe = amHs (40-45 kya) - Earlier evidence in Africa --> Blombiois Cave, South Africa - Block of ochre w/ incised marks at 71,000 years old - Pinnacle Point, South Africa: 1. Systematically harvesting shellfish from the coast 2. Presence of ochre 3. Small blade tools

Anthropology is...

- A science - A social Science - A humanity - Holistic and Comparative

Pre Darwin: Progress in Biological Science

- Anatomy (Andreas Vesalius) 1514-1564 - Taxonomy (Carolus Linnaeus) 1707-1778 - Natural History (Comte de Buffon) 1707-1788 - Paleontology (Georges Cuvier) 1769-1832 - Transmutation (Jean Baptiste Lamarck) 1744-1829

Neanderthal Genome Project

- BOOK: "A Draft Sequence of the Neanderthal Genome" Richard E. Green- 60% of a male Neanderthal's genome - BOOK: "The Complete Genome Sequence of a Neanderthal from the Altai Mountains" Prufer- 2010 discovery of a toe bone of female Neanderthal provided the complete genome

DNA is a long series of nucleotides (made of base, sugar, phosphate; constituent units of DNA)

- Bases form the rings of a "ladder". - Sugar/phosphate molecules form the "rails". - Molecules replicate and continuously produce new DNA. - The code for producing all the proteins of an organism can be found in the DNA of that organism.

General A.L.H.F. Pitt-Rivers

- Believed museums would teach people that "evolution, not revolution, was nature's way" - Donated artifacts to Oxford University--> displayed collection by function/form/type (not age or origin)

3.3 Million year old tools (Kenya)

- Bigger and heavier than Oldowan tools - Fossil animal bones with cutmarks found at Dikkika are 3.4 million years old - Supports the idea that an early hominin used stone tools for cutting before the appearance of Homo

Selam "Little Lucy"

- Discovered by Zeresenay Alemseged in Ethiopia - Found the oldest and most complete fossil child (3.31-3.35 m.y.a.) - Long, gorilla-like arms--> climbing and suspension - Knee articulations suggests bipedalism - Afarensis was both terrestrial and arboreal

On the Origin of Species (1859)

- Evolution explains the origin of species... - Natural selection drives evolutionary change across generations - Natural law... a natural process is responsible for the origin and diversity of organisms

Post Darwin

- Evolution in an age of genetic information - Darwin was interested in inheritance but had no knowledge of it --> Gregor Mendel's model of inheritance (1866) explained one source of variation - Mendelism and modern genetic showed how inheritance worked and how variation was continuously generated - Neo-Darwinism (a.k.a. the synthetic theory of evolution) 1. BOOK: Evolution: the Modern Synthesis- J. Huxley (theoretical biology) 2. E Mayr- systematics 3 GG Simpson- paleontology 4 L. Stebbins- botany

Anthropoid

- Eyes close together in a complete bony socket - Fused frontal bone (forehead) and fused mandible - Humans ARE anthropoids

Sahelanthropus tchadensis (found by Michael Brunet in TM-266 site)

- Flat (non-projecting) face - Massive brow ridge (male?) - Smaller canines and no canine-cutting complex - Back of skull and muscle-attachment areas look ape-like - Central foramen magnum suggests bipedalism

What is a hominoid?

- Forearms are adapted for suspension and have a versatile range of motion - Rotator shoulder joint allows for 360 rotation of arm - Fully extendable elbow - Broad, flat, short torso, and no external tail - 5 cusps of the lower molar form a Y-shaped pattern = Y-5 molar - adapted for suspension/suspensory locomotion (derived trait)

New Behaviors

- Games with rules, dances, and chants - Language to discuss events of the past - Magical thinking - A sense of how humans "ought" to behave--> knowing right from wrong - Humans can synchronize behavior in group performance

What is a tarsier

- Haplorrhine - Bony eye socket - Dry nose with simple nostrils

Slash and Burn Cultivation (mostly practiced in the tropics)

- High temperate and high rainfall = soils are not fertile - Burn land = ashes add minerals to the soil, but only for a few years. Cultivation site must be rotated - Crops are intermixed

Homo naledi

- Homo features: tool-using thumbs, long legs with knees together, arched feet - Australopithecine features: climbing, outward flared pelvis, curved finger bones

Village Life

- Horticulture = growing plant food (yams) using labor-intensive techniques that require everyone to work - Food production (cultivation) using a digging stick, hoe, and other hand tools - Surplus can be accumulated--> social stratification begins - Agriculture = food production with high-yield technology such as irrigation and animal-assisted plowing - Permanent shelters--> villages (sedentary) - Leaders

Mendel's "Laws" (confirm unit of inheritance is discrete and stable)

- Law of Segregation: paired hereditary units segregate during production of gametes - Law of Independent Assortment: paired units for distinctive traits assort independent of each other

Anatomically modern Homo sapiens (amHs)

- Left Africa as recently as 60,000 years ago - Only hominin alive today... replacement of all resident hominins by amHs

Evolution of Human Skin Coloration

- Light (australopiths)--> Darl (Homo sapiens) - 6 m.y.a.: After the split from chimpanzees, early hominin ancestors retained the long hair and fair skins we see in modern chimpanzees - 4.5-2 m.y.a.: hominins move onto the savannah - Deal with heat through evaporative cooling (sweat glands increase, hair is not protective) - Excessive sun on hairless skin--> dark skin color to prevent folate photolysis

Ape field research

- Loius Leakey obtained research funding from the National Geographic Society for Jane Goodall - Leakey was interested in using information from wild apes to reconstruct the behavior of human ancestors - Two distantly-related descendants sharing one behavior = behavior present in Last Common Ancestor (LCA) - 39 behaviors of chimpanzees are cultural behaviors - Tai forest shows greater variety of cultural behavior than any other study site

Australopithecus afarensis is a hominin species with many fossils and decades of analysis

- Major sites are Hadar (Ethiopia) and Laetoli (Tanzania) - Extreme sexual dimorphism - Physical traits: 1. Bipedalism 2. Smallish brain (a primitive trait) 3. Smallish canines; thick enamle... hominin traits

Laetoli

- Mary Leaky discovered footprints in ground - Volcanic ash + rain = preserved footprints - Footprints indicate modern bipedalism - Differences: 1 Toes are longer than normal 2 Slightly divergent big toe

While Neanderthals hunted big game in Europe...

- Mega droughts in Africa reduced the population of modern humans to a very small number - "genetic bottleneck"- all contemporary modern humans are 99.9% similar

TM-266 site (Toros Menalla, Djurab Desert) aka Sahelanthropus

- Michael Brunet - Ahounta Djimdourmalbaye (2001) - Discovery of hominin cranium, jaw fragments, teeth

Trobriand Islanders (think of cultural behavior, culture change, cultural evolution)

- New kinds of behavior appear in human groups - Prestige leaders - Synthesizing old and new - Culture change--> cultural evolution ("ratchet effect") - Human cultures are possible because of ultrasociality (enhanced flow of information)

Science is a "Procedure"

- Observation, data collection via explicit techniques. - Generalization, tentative explanation. - Testing - Rejecting or tentatively accepting the hypothesis

Catarrhine (Old World Monkey) vs. Platyrrhini (New World Monkey)

- Old World monkeys and hominoids both have a catarrhine nose - Old World Monkeys teeth = 2.1.2.3. (2 premolars) - New World Monkeys teeth = 2.1.3.3. (3 premolars)

African Homo ERECTUS life ways

- Oldowan (2 1/2 MYA)-> Acheulian tools (1.4 MYA) Incresead specialization and standardization. - Reliance on meat -butchering larger animals -controversy about hunting vs. scavenging -abnormal tissue on tibia of ER-1808 (1.6 MYA) suggests high carnivory

Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania)

- Oldowan tools: earliest stone tool tradition -1.8 m.y.a. at Olduvai but 2.5 m.y.a. elsewhere - Stone in not native to Olduvai = carried into the gorge - Oldowan--> Acheulian tools (Homo erectus ergaster)--> reliance on meat - Acheulian tools are found in Africa, Europe, and the Middle East but not NOT east Asia - BOOK: "Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human" Richard Wrangham--> Mastery of fire

Major events in the history of life

- Origin of the universe (13.75 b.y.a.) - Origin of the solar system (5 b.y.a.) - Origin of the earth (4.6 b.y.a)

Major Epochs

- Paleocene - Eocene - Miocene - Pliocene - Pleistocene - Holocene

Epochs of the Cenozic

- Paleocene: Plesiadapiformes do not have primate adaptations of the eyes and hands (but do have flexible wrists and ankles)

What is a primate?

- Primates are an order of mammals - Eye-hand coordination - Eyes face forward (emphasis on vision, NOT smell) - Stereoscopic vision/color vision - Grasping hands and feel with touch receptors - Nails instead of claws - Large brains

Primitive vs. Derived Traits

- Primitive = same as ancestor - Derived = different from ancestor (ex. Having nails and not claws)

Charles Lyell (1797-1875)

- Principles pf Geology (1830) - "Uniformitarianism" - Implies: a constantly changing earth and an ancient earth

Humans

- Striding bipedalism, which emerged earlier than the other traits unique to humans and frees the hands - Versatility of hands - Brain size/power (3x bigger than primates, 6-7 times bigger than other mammals) - In rhesus monkeys, the big toe has the most motor cortex control of any digit. Humans use the thumb - Humans DO NOT have a canine-cutting complex. Most non-human primates do. - Humans and chimpanzees had a common ancestor according to molecular evidence.

Denisovans (Siberia)

- Variant in the EPAS1 gene allows Tibetans to thrive in the oxygen this air on the Himalayan plain...a variant derived from Denisovans

Darwin (1809-1882)

- Was a naturalist - Voyage on Beagle (1831-1836) - Charles Lyell (1797-1875) Principles of Geology (1830)- "uniformitarianism" - Galapagos Islands - "transmutation of species" (evolution) - 1838 read Malthus "Essay"-inspired Darwin to conceive that competition for limited resources exists for all species-didn't publish his idea until 1859 - BOOK: On the Origins of Species (1859) - Natural law: a natural process is responsible for the "good-fit" seen between an organism and its environment - Comparative anatomy - BOOK: The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871)- sexual selection - BOOK: The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals (1872)- behavior evolves

Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913)

- Wrote essay "On the tendency of varieties to depart indefinitely from the original type" - Letter to Darwin (1858) -1858 Linnaean society meeting (joint paper presented)

Allele

- more than one form of a gene - Dominant allele vs. recessive allele (an allele is not always expressed yet continues to exist) - Observable traits are produced by invisible "hereditary factors" that are paired in organisms but which segregate during the production of gametes

Mousterian tools

- quick to make from a prepared core -Chemical analysis of bone suggest dependence on meat, (big game hunters)

Pairing

- restored when sperm and egg fuse to form a fertilized egg - Organisms carry 2 alleles for each trait; gametes carry 1 allele

Neanderhal DNA

-1977 Svante Paabo: mtDNA from arm bone in feldhofer cave -mtDNA of Neanderthal is 4x the distance from modern Homo sapiens as Europeans from New Guineans -2006 Svante Paabo: 38K fossil nuclear DNA from Vindija (Croatia) - Y chromosome (nDna) -2006 Edward Rubin: no hybridization

Cathcing fire: how cooking made us human by Richard Wrangham (2009)

-Raw to cooked increased the nutrition that could be extracted from food and allowed a shorter gut and bigger brain

Sutton

Cell

Individuals with advantageous variants get to reproduce and pass those traits to the next generation.

Darwin

Individuals with disadvantageous variants do not pass traits to the next generation (they die w/o reproducing)

Darwin

End of midterm material

End of midterm material

What is a mammal?

Homeothermy (fur) - Reproduction (internal gestation, lactation, extended parental care) - Mastication (chewing) - Heterodonty (4 different types of teeth: incisors, canines, pre-molars, molars

Linguistic Anthropology

Language unique to humans

Walter Sutton (1902, 1903)

Mendel's genes reside on the chromosomes found in the nucleus of the cell

Watson and Crick

Molecule

Translation

Ribosomes translate info on mRNA into a chain of amino acids

Karyotype

a visual image of all the chromosomes in a cell of that organism

3.3 million year old tools

found in Lomekwi 3 site, Kenya (West turkana) -Bigger and heavier than Oldowan tools -Fossil animals bones with cutmarks found at Dikkika(2009) are 3.4 million years old, which supports the idea that an early hominin used stone tools for cutting before the appearance of Homo.

"Central dogma"

gene --> protein --> trait

The more similar the amino acid sequence of a protein the more ___ two species shared a common ancestor

recently

Neanderthals had ___ hair and ___ skin (MRC1 gene for melanocortin)

red hair and fair skin

A hominin is a member of the ___ ___

Tribe Hominini