ANT2511 - UCF - Exam 2 Study

Identify which of the following statements correctly describe Diana monkey vocalizations.

- Alter their alarm calls based on the attack strategy of a predator. - Make different vocalizations for different predators - Listeners treat vocalizations associated with one type of predator the same way that they treat sounds from that predator. - Their calls are similar to human words, at least from the listener's perspective.

Identify the statements that are true regarding the main theory of primate social behavior.

- Influenced by evolution - Genes of individuals who engage in behaviors favored by natural selection are passed from one generation to the next.

Identify the reasons why primates are social.

- for access to mates - for group defense against predators - to promote longevity - to enhance survival

Chimpanzee tool use is not new; chimpanzee tools have been dated to _____________________ yBP

4,000 - 5,000

Which of the following is a function of bone? Check all of the correct answers. Protection and support for soft tissues Movement in conjunction with the muscles Anchors for muscles, tendons, and ligaments Production of blood cells

All of the above

Match the behavior with the category to which it belongs.

Altruistic: - anti-predator warning calls - Warning calls benefit everyone, whether a predator has actually been spotted or not. However, the individual making the calls puts himself/herself at risk by making the call rather than running for cover. - food sharing - Food sharing benefits the individuals who receive the food (extra calories) but costs the individual who is sharing his/her food (fewer calories). - grooming - Grooming is an altruistic behavior because an individual is investing time and effort in another individual. Nonaltruistic: -infanticide - Infanticide, which may enhance the reproductive fitness of a new male engaging in such a behavior, only benefits him; the mother and father gain no benefit from this behavior. - high-ranking individual having access to food first - Dominance behavior, such as accessing better or more food, benefits the individuals of higher rank, not those of lower rank. Therefore, this behavior is not altruistic.

Each bar in the graph below represents the body-size sexual dimorphism of a group of primates. Each group features one residence pattern. Drag each label to the appropriate location on the graph.

Bar 1 - monogamous pairs - Sexual dimorphism is directly related to competition among males for access to females. In social groups with monogamous pairs, there is minimal competition, resulting in minimal dimorphism in body size. (3 separate groups) Bar 2 - single-male group - When males compete for access to females, there is a strong selective pressure for traits that will enhance their competitive ability, such as a large body. In groups with a single male, there is a constant threat of male being overthrown by an outsider male. Since the single male needs to be highly competitive to maintain his position, sexual dimorphism is greatest in these social groups. (1 blue, multi red) Bar 3 - multimale group - In groups with multiple males, the males must compete with one another to gain sexual access to females. This results in sexual dimorphism in body size, as males that have larger bodies likely will have a competitive edge. However, dimorphism is not as extreme as in some groups, because more than one male can reproduce. (multi blue/red)

Drag and drop the residence pattern to the bars on the graph representing body-size sexual dimorphism. The females in each group are red and the males are blue. The numbers to the left of the graph represent the ratio of male body size to female.

Bar 1. Monogamous groups have the lowest degree of dimorphism because there is minimal competition among males for access to females. Bar 2. In single-male groups, the male regularly must engage in competition to protect his position. Having a substantially larger body enables him to be successful. Bar 3. Males in multimale groups compete with one another to gain access to females; however, several males will win and be reproductively successful. Therefore, although there is sexual dimorphism, it is not as extreme as in other types of residence patterns.

What are the functions of bone, and how does the structure of bone tissue support these functions?

Bone is designed to serve specific functions in your body, and these mechanical and physiological functions of bone as an organ are related to the gross (i.e., large scale) and morphoscopic (i.e., small scale) structure of bone tissue. Bones protect and support soft tissues. Bones anchor muscles, tendons, and ligaments. Bones act as the rigid levers that muscles operate to produce movement. Bones function as centers of production of blood cells. Bones are storage facilities for fats. Bones are reservoirs of important elements in the body, such as calcium.

Some primate taxa exhibit multiple types of material culture, while others exhibit only one (or even none at all). All of the primates listed below are known to use tools. Drag each primate to all of the tools that they have been observed engaging with. Remember, some of these primates may exhibit more than one type of material culture.

Capuchin Monkey: - stones used to dig for food - stones used for nut cracking Chimpanzee: -spears to kill bushbabies -stones used for nut cracking -probes to obtain insects Orangutan: -probes to obtain insects

What do you call the group of bones in the wrist, highlighted in green in the image above?

Carpals

Identify which of the following statements are true regarding observations of primate vocalizations.

Chimpanzees can make variations of the same sound to reflect how much they want a specific type of food. Baboons can perceive acoustic differences in calls Campbell's monkeys can use affixation to clarify their vocalization

Identify which of the following statements are true regarding infanticide.

Describes Infanticide: - Infanticide leads to the cessation of lactation and the resumption of ovulation in the mother, making her sexually receptive. -infanticide occurs at the expense of the reproductive fitness of the original male

What were the first true primates called?

Euprimates - The euprimates are considered to be the first true primates because they shared some of the characteristics that are unique to primates today.

Why are Euprimates better candidates for the first true primates than Plesiadapiforms? Discuss anatomical features in your answer.

Euprimates - meaning "true pirmates" first appeared at the start of the Eocene, as early as 56 mya. Euprimates consisted of two closely related, highly successful groups: the adapids and the omomyids. Their fossils are found in the western United States, western Europe, Africa, and Asia and are the most common early primate fossils—accounting for about 40 percent of all species from the early Eocene, or about 200 species. Given the vast number of their fossils that have been collected—of the order 100,000—anthropologists have an excellent picture of their physical description and their adaptive circumstances. Were they primates? Almost certainly. Unlike the plesiadapiforms, adapids and omomyids had clear primate characteristics: the postorbital bar and convergent eye orbits, long digits with opposability for grasping, digits with nails (not claws), nonspecialized teeth, and a large brain relative to body size. These features indicate that vision was essential to their adaptation, they were agile and tree-dwelling, their diet was not as specialized as that of the plesiadapiforms, and they were smarter than the earlier animals. Their body sizes were small but highly varied. Plesiadapiforms - Paleocene organisms that may have been the first primates, originating from an adaptive radiation of mammals. The Paleocene candidate for the first primates is a highly diverse, highly successful group of primitive mammals, which lived in western North America, western Europe, Asia, and possibly Africa. These animals represent an adaptive radiation that flourished over a 10-million-year period, beginning at the start of the Paleocene. Despite their amazing diversity and geographic spread, by about 56 mya most of the plesiadapiforms had gone extinct. Were they primates? Probably not. The problem with attributing them to the Primate order is that they lack the key characteristics that define primates today. That is, in contrast to primates, the plesiadapiforms lacked a postorbital bar and convergent eye orbits, their digits were not especially well adapted for grasping tree branches (they lacked opposability), their digits lacked nails (they had claws), their teeth were highly specialized (some even had three cusps on their upper incisors, as opposed to the single cusp of most primates today), and their brain was tiny. Moreover, some plesiadapiforms lacked the auditory bulla, a part of the temporal bone that contains the middle-ear bones and is present in all primates. Because of their potential relationship with the first true primates, the American paleontologist Philip Gingerich has called them proprimates, a separate order from Primates.

Which of these is NOT a characteristic of the superfamily Hominoidea (do not consider humans in your response)?

External tails

True or False: For male primates, their position in the dominance hierarchy is conferred based upon the rank he has inherited from his father.

False

True or False: The euprimates of the Eocene epoch have been divided into two groups, the Adapids and the Omomyids. The Adapids may be ancestral to modern tarsiers, as evidenced by their very large eye orbits designed for noctural life.

False

Only primates in large groups vocalize.

False - All primates produce some vocalizations. While every primate species vocalizes, the type and function of the vocalizations varies.

Of all of the alternative hypotheses about how anthropoids first reached South America, scientists are most certain that the ancestors of New World primates rafted across the sea on islands of floating vegetation.

False - It seems unlikely that primates migrated from Africa to South America via the Atlantic, especially in view of the wide and prohibitive expanse of open sea separating the west coast of Africa from the east coast of South America. The bottom line is that we are still uncertain how the first platyrrhines reached South America. All of the four competing hypotheses still have room to be accepted or rejected once additional evidence becomes available.

The first primate fossil ever discovered was correctly identified as a primate.

False - The founder of the first fossil primate mistakenly thought it was an ungulate or artiodactyl (hoofed mammal).

Primates who live with nonrelatives will engage in altruistic behaviors more often than primates who live with relatives.

False - The most strongly altruistic behaviors tend to occur in primates that live with their relatives. The presence of such behavior is part of the kin selection hypothesis, which holds that altruistic acts increase the inclusive fitness of the related group. This animation further summarizes kin selection.

The site where the earliest unmistakable haplorhine fossils were found is called the ______________ Depression.

Fayum - The Fayum Depression in Egypt, North Africa, is an important site to remember when considering primate evolution. It was home to one of the most diverse primate communities ever documented.

Where do you find most of the primate fossils from the Oligocene epoch?

Fayum Depression (Egypt)

Which of the following is NOT a feature of standard anatomical position?

Feet pointing away from the midline

What would you call a primate that eats primarily leaves?

Folivore

Since males and females have different reproductive strategies, they also establish their rank in the dominance hierarchy differently. How do males and females become high-ranking in their societies?

For males, the alpha or most dominant male has successfully defeated all other males in a series of aggressive encounters. The second- rank male is in second rank because he has defeated all but the dominant male, and so on down the line to the least- dominant male, who has defeated no other male in an aggressive encounter. For females, hierarchical ranks usually pass from mother to daughter, and younger sisters usually rank higher than older sisters. The younger sister is protected more by the mother than is the older sister, therefore giving the younger sister a higher rank. The mother maintains her rank above all of them, except when the juvenile offspring become adults. In general, though, the higher the rank in primate societies, the greater the ability to acquire important resources, such as food. Higher- ranked females also tend to have more offspring, such as in gelada baboons in East Africa. In some primates, higher- ranked females have a greater number of offspring because they begin mating and producing offspring months before lower- ranked females. For example, dominant yellow baboons in Kenya start reproducing some 200 days before lower- ranked ones.

What is the general term for an opening through a bone, such as the large hole in the base of your cranium where the spinal cord meets the brain (highlighted by the red arrow in the image above)?

Foramen

_______________ are the remains of once living organisms that have been wholly or partially turned to rock through chemical replacement.

Fossils

What would you call a primate that eats primarily fruit?

Frugivore

In which ways do primates cooperate with one another, and what purposes do primate social groups serve?

Generally, primates that cooperate in social groups are better able to protect themselves from predators. The larger the group, the better the protection. Living in social groups provides access to mates and enhances reproductive success. In one female, multimale the males often cooperate with the females in parenting activities.

Although Cuvier did not correctly identify Adapis, which of the following did he accomplish?

He meticulously described Adapis - Cuvier set the bar very high for anatomical descriptions of fossils. This is why he is often referred to as the father of paleontology. He planted the seeds for asking key questions about primate evolution - Cuvier's thorough description allowed later scientists to recognize the key characteristics that make primates unique. He influenced how later scientists classified fossils - Because Cuvier was so thorough in his description of Adapis, later scientists had to consider a broad suite of physical traits in their classification of fossil primates. He helped document the process of pirmate evolution - By the end of the 19th century, Cuvier's discovery had been placed into the timeline of primate evolution. Even though he did not know it, he did help document the story of the order Primates.

Which of these tooth forms is designed to nip or bite food into manageable pieces?

Incisors

What are the four types of teeth, and what function do they serve?

Incisors - serve to nip or bite food into manageable pieces. These are your front teeth. Canines - serve to grasp and capture prey. In humans, canines no longer serve this purpose. You may have noticed that we aren't doing a lot of hunting with our mouths anymore! Instead, canines primarily function as an extension of the incisors. They just retain a more conical shape than incisors. Premolars - serve to chop or crush pieces of food further before they are swallowed. Premolars are called bicuspids by dentists, because they have two cusps. Molars - serve to chop or crush pieces of food further before they are swallowed. Molars are the largest teeth. Their extensive chewing surfaces emphasize crushing and grinding.

When you visit the zoo, you see a Gorilla exhibit. While they are on the ground, you notice that they use a special form of quadrupedal locomotion. Instead of supporting their upper body weight on their palms, like most quadrupedal primates, these gorillas lock their wrists and elbows, flex the tips of their fingers, and support themselves on the middle phalanges. What would you call this form of locomotion?

Knuckle-walking

Which of the following methods is a form of relative dating? Select all correct answers. Law of Superposition Radiocarbon Dating Stratigraphic Correlation Dendrochronology

Law of Superposition Stratigraphic Correlation

Match each hypothesis about the evolution of unique primate traits to the scientist(s) who proposed it

Matt Carmill - visual predation hypothesis - American anthropologist Cartmill proposed this theory in the 1970s, challenging the arboreal hypothesis. He pointed out that many mammals are arboreal but did not evolve the unique characteristics of primates. Sir Grafton Elliot Smith and Frederic Wood Jones - arboreal hypothesis - British anatomists Smith and Jones proposed this theory in the early 1900s. Robert Sussman - angiosperm radiation hypothesis - Sussman suggested that gathering fruit, a new food source in the early Cenozoic, was the reason for the evolution of visual adaptations in early primates.

How did primates make it to the New World? List the four current theories, discussing the pros and cons of each.

New World primates live in North and South America. -First, platyrrhines evolved from a North American anthropoid, then migrated to South America in the late Oligocene. -Second, platyrrhines evolved from an African anthropoid and migrated across the Atlantic to South America. -Third, platyrrhines evolved from an anthropoid in Africa that migrated south (mainly) on land to Antarctica and then to Patagonia, at the southern tip of South America. -Fourth, Old World and New World anthropoids evolved independently from different lineages in Africa and South America, respectively. No evidence supports the first hypothesis—there were no anthropoids in North America during the Eocene or Oligocene. There were various euprimates, but none resembled the platyrrhines in South America during the late Oligocene. Evidence supports the second hypothesis. There were early anthropoids in Africa (Fayum) beginning in the late Eocene, and they predated platyrrhines but looked remarkably similar to the earliest platyrrhines in South America (for example, they had three premolars). This resemblance indicates that platyrrhines originated in Africa before their appearance in South America. In addition, fossils indicate other similarities between animals in Africa and in South America. The strong similarities between Old World and New World higher primates also support the third hypothesis. Migration across Antarctica would be impossible today, of course. However, migration over this major landmass would have been possible through much of the Eocene, when the climate there was much warmer and drier. Given the strong anatomical resemblance between African higher primates and South American higher primates, it is highly unlikely that anthropoids evolved independently in Africa and South America. DNA evidence that shows a strong relationship between Old World and New World higher primates is even stronger proof against the fourth hypothesis. In other words, these two groups did not evolve independently: they both originated in Africa. On the face of it, it seems unlikely that primates migrated from Africa to South America via the Atlantic, especially in view of the wide and prohibitive expanse of open sea separating the west coast of Africa from the east coast of South America.

Which of these is NOT one of the primary tendencies of the order Primates?

Nocturnality

When did the first monkeys reach South America?

Oligocene - The earliest New World monkey fossils are from the genus Perupithecus and come from Santa Rosa, Peru. Isn't it amazing that it took the first primates, who evolved in the Eocene, an entire epoch to reach South America? Review this video about how it happened.

Place the following groups of early anthropoid primates in chronological order.

Oligopithecids - The oligopithecids were the earliest, dating to about 35 mya. Parapithecids - The parapithecids thrived after the oligopithecids but before the propliopithecids. Proliopithecids - The propliopithecids dated to between 32 and 29 mya. The Oligocene was a very busy time for anthropoid evolution.

Which of the following characteristics did the plesiadapiforms share with primates, and which did they share with other, nonprimate mammals? Drag and drop each characteristic to the column where it belongs.

Other Mammals: - no opposable thumbs and big toes for grasping claws: Plesiadapiforms did not have arboreal adaptations in their digits. - no postoribtal bar: The postorbital bar is a primate visual adaptation. - tiny brains: Generally, primates have larger brains than other mammals. - highly specialized teeth: Some plesiadapiforms even had three cusps on their upper incisors, as opposed to the single cusp of most of today's primates. - nonconverging eye orbits: Convergent eye orbits are a primate adaptation. - claws: In contrast, primates have nails.After close consideration, scientists concluded that, except for Carpolestes, the plesiadapiforms did not have the unique characteristics that define primates.

Match the name of the epoch to the primates that first appeared during this time.

Paleocene-Eocene - prosimians - The first prosimians either appeared during the Paleocene (66-56 mya) or the Eocene (56-34 mya). Oligocene - New World monkeys - The New World monkeys radiated ~35 mya, during the late Oligocene. early Miocene - Old World monkeys - The earliest common ancestor of the catarrhines appeared 30-25 mya, during the early Miocene. Pleistocene - humans - Humans started to appear over 1 mya, during the Pleistocene mid-Miocene - apes - The great apes radiated 14-10 mya, during the mid Miocene.

Drag each term to its appropriate illustration in the image below. The females in each group are red and the males are blue.

Pic 1. Polygynous: Polygyny refers to one male that has access to more than one female. Pic 2. Polyandrous: Polyandrous groups involve a single reproductively active female with several adult males. Pic 5. Monogamous: Monogamous groups are also referred to as pair-bonded groups in which an adult male, an adult female, and their immature offspring form a group.

Which of the residence patterns shown below is the rarest among primates? Red designates female, and blue designates male.

Pic. 2 One-female, multimale - Groups with a single reproductively active female and several adult males are relatively rare in primate societies. It has been observed in some New World monkey, but they do not always practice this system.

Strepsirhines have more "primitive traits" than Haplorhines. One of these features is a condition in which the eye orbits are not fully enclosed in bone. Instead, the zygomatic and frontal bones meet behind the eyes without converging with the sphenoid bone. What would you call this feature?

Post-orbital bar

The occipital bone is which direction relative to the frontal bone?

Posterior

Which of these is not an example of primate material culture that has been observed in the wild?

Producing stone tools for processing meat

Plesiadapiforms are attributed to of the order ____________________

Proprimates - Because of their potential relationship with the first true primates, the American paleontologis Philip Gingerich has called the plesiadapiforms Proprimates, a separate order from Primates.

The graph below shows the birthrates of differently ranked female gelada baboons. Each bar represents females of a specific rank. Which bar represents the birthrate of the lowest-ranked females?

Red Bar: The lowest-ranked females tend to have the lowest birthrate because of less access to important resources that allow them to support their offspring.

Strepsirhines have more "primitive traits" than Haplorhines. One of these features is a condition in which the area around the nose is wet. This wet nose allows particles contained in scents to be more easily absorbed into the nostrils, revealing that Strepsirhines still possess a heightened sense of smell compared to other primates. What would you call this feature?

Rhinarium

Although most primates live in groups with some form of social interaction, there are a few solitary species of primates, such as orangutans and some strepsirhines. Identify the behaviors and characteristics of solitary primates.

Sexual dimorphism is high. interaction between adult males and adult females occurs only for sexual activity

Which residence pattern has the highest degree of competition between males?

Single-male groups have the highest degree of competition among the various residence patterns. The male in this group is under continual threat from outside males who want to overthrow him and take over the group. To prevent this, the male must engage in competition regularly to maintain his position and his access to females.

What are the forms of locomotion that we see in primates, and what are the biological characteristics associated with each (arm to leg length ratio, body size, etc.)?

Suspensory locomotion - when all four limbs are used to grasp on to branches and help move the body from one tree or branch to another, may have a prehensile tail. Suspensory locomotion/brachiation, where you've got very long forelimbs (i.e., arms) in relation to the hindlimbs (i.e., legs). Brachiation - arm-swinging. Skeletal features of brachiation include: long forelimbs compared to hind limbs; long, curved fingers and toes; flexible shoulder; and short, stable lumbar region. Terrestrial quadrupedalism - walking on four limbs on the ground. Skeletal features associated with terrestrial quadrupedalism include: same length limbs; and long and flexible lumbar region. Knuckle-walking - strong arms used to support upper body weight; larger body size.

When you visit the zoo, you see an exhibit on New World Monkeys. The spider monkey you're watching is using all four limbs to grasp on to the branches and move from one branch to another. On occasion, it will hang from just its tail, so its hands and feet are free to grab the food the handlers have hidden. How would you characterize the locomotion of this spider monkey?

Suspensory locomotion, with a prehensile tail

You are excavating a site in the western United States, and you find layers of volcanic ash whose chemical signature match the volcanoes in Yellowstone National Park. You have records of three major volcanic eruptions in Yellowstone: the first 2.1 million years ago (layer C in the image below), the second 1.2 million years ago (layer B), and the third 640 thousand years ago (layer A). If you find a fossil above layer C but below layer B, what can you infer about the date of this fossil using stratigraphic correlation? Layer A - 3rd eruption Layer B - 2nd eruption Layer C - 1st eruption Skull placed just below layer B

The fossil can be dated between 2.1 and 1.2 million years ago.

How do male and female primate reproductive strategies differ, and how do these differences relate to sexual dimorphism?

Through field and laboratory studies, anthropologists have observed that in terms of body size, many living primate species are highly dimorphic sexually: males are considerably larger than females. This difference has come about because the larger the male, the more equipped it will be to outcompete other males for sexual access to females. Through natural selection, then, males in many primate species have maintained relatively large bodies. Some authorities argue that early hominins were highly dimorphic, in which case competing males were likely not involved in caring for their offspring. However, if early hominins were not especially dimorphic, then male competition for mates probably was not part of early hominin social behavior. The American anthropologist Philip Reno and his associates have studied early hominin bones to determine relative sizes of females and of males. Their analysis shows relatively little sexual dimorphism in body size, especially in comparison with apes. Such reduced sexual dimorphism suggests that males were cooperative, not competitive. This cooperative behavior could have included pair-bonding—one male paired with one female—a behavior pattern necessary for the kind of provisioning required in Lovejoy's hypothesis.

What do you call the medial bone in the lower leg, highlighted in yellow in the image above?

Tibia

True or False: For female primates, their position in the dominance hierarchy is conferred based upon the rank she has inherited from her mother.

True

True or False: Scientists cannot directly investigate temperature in the fossil record. Instead, they must rely on indirect methods to understand climate in the past, such as evaluating the ratio of oxygen isotopes in the shells of foraminifera.

True

True or false: The superfamily Hominoidea have very long forelimbs compared with their hind limbs. They also have long fingers and toes for grasping trees and branches. These characteristics are adaptations for brachiation.

True

True or false: the humerus is proximal to the radius and ulna.

True

Scientists do not agree about exactly how early the first primates appeared on Earth.

True - The paleontologists who study primate evolution agree on the era in which the first primates appeared on Earth. However, they disagree on how early they appeared during that era.

When you visit the zoo, you see an exhibit on lemurs. While you're watching, the lemurs are shockingly active! You notice that these lemurs have very long hind limbs, which provide a powerful forward spring when they move. They also have large hands, allowing them to grab onto branches after launching themselves from one tree to the next. What would you call the form of locomotion that these lemurs are using?

Vertical clinging and leaping

Match the following hypotheses about the evolution of unique primate traits to their predictions.

angiosperm radiation hypothesis - The grasping hands, grasping feet, and visual acuity of primates were mostly adaptations for eating fruit and other foods made available by modern groups of flowering plants. The angiosperm radiation hypothesis suggests that the original primate adaptation was for getting fruit and not for preying on insects. Low-light environments required visual adaptations for seeing small fruits, and grasping toes helped the animals cling to tree branches while they picked and ate fruit. arboreal hypothesis - Primates' defining characteristics were adaptations to life in the trees. This hypothesis suggests that the shift from life on the ground to life in the trees put into motion a series of selective pressures—including the pressures to grasp branches and understand three-dimensional space—that resulted in the ancestral primate. visual predation hypothesis - Unique primate traits arose as adaptations for preying on insects and other small animals.The visual predation hypothesis suggests that the need to catch small prey selected for highly specialized vision and grasping digits. The differences between these hypotheses reflect how scientific thoughts differ regarding what was likely the most important factor that drove primate evolution.

Identify the hypotheses that are related to the evolution of unique primate traits.

angiosperm radiation hypothesis - This hypothesis suggests that since forest lighting is dim, early primates developed visual adaptations for seeing small objects such as fruit. arboreal hypothesis - The arboreal hypothesis was the earliest hypothesis on primate evolution. This hypothesis suggested that primates' defining characteristics were adaptations to life in the trees. visual predation hypothesis - The visual predation hypothesis suggests that catching small prey was key to primate evolution. Elements referred to in all three hypotheses may have provided the evolutionary opportunities that resulted in primate origins. Indeed, primates' most special feature is their adaptive versatility, especially in an arboreal setting. Primates have evolved strategies and anatomical features that enhance their ability to adapt to new circumstances. That evolution constitutes primates' story of origin.

There are three prominent tendencies in the order Primates: arboreal adaptation, dietary plasticity, and parental investment. Describe the biological and/or social characteristics associated with each tendency.

arboreal adaptation - monkeys, like humans, are members of the order Primates and that one key unifying feature of all primates is forward-facing eyes. This feature is part of the generalized and arboreal adaptation that unites this amazing and diverse group of animals and indicates their common ancestry. dietary plasticity - An organism's ability to adapt its diet to a wide range of foods. Primates eat a wide variety of food. parental investment - Primate parents provide prolonged care for fewer but smarter, more socially complex and longer-lived offspring. Because a female primate generally expends so much energy in rearing each of her offspring, she generally will have few offspring.

Place the following hypotheses in the chronological order in which they were proposed (oldest to most recent)

arboreal hypothesis - British anatomists Sir Grafton Elliot Smith and Frederic Wood Jones proposed their arboreal hypothesis in the early 1900s. This was the first step in understanding why primates are the way they are. visual predation hypothesis - It was not until the early 1970s that American anthropologist Matt Cartmill challenged the arboreal hypothesis by proposing the visual predation hypothesis. angiosperm radiation hypothesis - After the visual predation hypothesis was presented, Robert Sussman questioned whether primate characteristics were more greatly shaped by their consumption of fruit.The development of a working theory does not happen in a single step. Instead, scientists build on the hypotheses of their predecessors.

What are the three hypotheses for the origin of primates? Be able to list the pros and cons of each.

arboreal hypothesis - The proposition that primates' unique human populations through the analysis of material remains. Pros: adaptations to life in the trees: grapsing hands and grapsing feet were crucial for holding on to tree brances, binocular vision allowed much greater depth percetion for judging distance in the movement from place to place in the trees, smell was no longer necessary for finding food, and greater intellignece was important for understanding three-dimensional space in the trees. Cons: Lots of mammals are arboreal, but except for primates none have evolved the entire set of characteristics that define the order Primates. visual predation hypothesis - The proposition that unique primate traits arose as adaptations to preying on insects and on small animals. Pros: accounts for primate origins. The first primate specialized in preying on insects and other small creatures, hunting them in tree branches or in forest undergrowth. The shift to life in the trees was not the most important factor in explaining primate origins. Rather, the catching of small prey—using both a highly specialized visual apparatus and the fine motor skills of grasping digits—set primate evolution in motion. Cons: Explains the visual adaptations, intelligence, and grasping abilities of primates, it leaves an important question unanswered: What role do the primate characteristics play in the acquisition and consumption of fruit, which many primates eat? angiosperm radiation hypothesis - The proposition that certain primate traits, such as visual acuity, occurred in response to the availability of fruit and flowers after the spread of angiosperms. Pros: Grounded in the acquisition of a new food source available in the early Cenozoic: fruit. The American anthropologist Robert Sussman has hypothesized that the visual acuity, grasping hands, and grasping feet of primates were mostly adaptations for eating fruit and other foods made available with the radiation of modern groups of flowering plants called angiosperms. In other words, the original primate adaptation was about getting fruit and not about preying on insects. Sussman reasoned that because there was little light in the forest, early primates required visual adaptations for seeing small objects. Moreover, their grasping toes helped the animals cling to tree branches while they picked and ate fruit, rather than having to go back to more secure and larger branches, as squirrels do when they eat nuts. In reality, elements of all three hypotheses may have provided the evolutionary opportunities that resulted in primate origins. Indeed, primates' most special feature is their adaptive versatility, especially in an arboreal setting. Primates have evolved strategies and anatomical features that enhance their ability to adapt to new and novel circumstances. That evolution constitutes primates' story of origin.

A group of primates called ___________________ has been found in Asia and Africa, and these fossils possess characteristics we would expect to see in the earliest anthropoids (i.e., higher order primates). One genus from this group, _________________ , may be the first true anthropoid, based on its earlier date (42 mya) and its tarsal bones with a similar structure to New World monkeys.

basal anthropoids Eosimias

Cercopithecoids are one superfamily of Catarrhines. The two subfamilies (Cercopithecines and Colobines) can be distinguished by dietary pattern. One of these subfamilies, __________ , has thick enamel and low, rounded cusps on their molars, features designed for a __________ diet.

cercopithecines ; frugivore

Cercopithecoids are one superfamily of Catarrhines. The two subfamilies (Cercopithecines and Colobines) can be distinguished by dietary pattern. One of these subfamilies, __________ , have thin enamel, shearing crests on their molars, and a specialized stomach, all features designed for a __________ diet.

colobines, folivore

How can we use oxygen isotopes in foraminifera to reconstruct past temperature? How can we use carbon isotopes in bones and soil to reconstruct past diet and habitat?

foraminifera - Marine protozoans that have variably shaped shells with small holes. The chemical composition of these microorganisms found in sediments on the ocean floor provides information on past climates. These microorganisms' tiny shells are preserved in sediments on the ocean floor worldwide, and their chemical compositions tell important stories about temperature change over time. While the icroorganisms are alive, they ingest two of the three stable isotopes of oxygen, 18O and 16O, from the ocean water. Atmospheric temperature directly affects the water's temperature, which in turn affects the amount of 18O in the water. When temperature declines, the amount of 18O in the water, and therefore in the microorganism, increases. When temperature increases, the amount of 18O decreases. Geologists have taken core samples of sediments from the ocean floor and have tracked the 18O content in the microorganisms within those sediments, producing a record of global temperature change

Male and female primates have different reproductive strategies. The primary strategy of __________ is to physically compete for access to reproductively mature partners. One possible strategy this sex might use is _____________ , the killing of a juvenile.

males infanticide

_____________________ have little dietary value for most primates because they are difficult to digest.

mature leaves - The cellulose and dietary fiber in mature leaves and mature grasses make them very difficult to digest for most primates. However, leaf-eating monkeys are adapted to this food source and have evolved teeth and stomachs that enable them to acquire the leaves' hard-to-access nutrition.

Match each communication trait listed below with the group to which it belongs.

nonhuman primates - restricted to a preprogrammed set of calls, both - sign language, patterns to vocalizations, sound variation to convey difference in meaning humans - spoken language, invent new vocalizations,

_________________________ are bone cells responsible for synthesizing and depositing bone material, and ______________________ are bone cells responsible for the resorption of bone tissue.

osteoblasts osteoclasts

Match each taxonomic group of early haplorhine primates to its description.

parapithecids - This is a relatively diverse group of fossil primates, the largest of which were the size of a guenon (African forest monkey); the smallest were the size of a marmoset. They had a 2.1.3.3/2.1.3.3 dental formula and unspecialized, primitive teeth. Parapithecus is the namesake genus of this group of higher primates. propliopithecids - This is a somewhat diverse group of fossil primates. Although they were larger in body size, they still showed signs of arboreal quadrupedalism. They had a 2.1.2.3/2.1.2.3 dental formula and ate mainly fruit. The most common genera in this group are Propliopithecus and Aegyptopithecus, both dating to between 32 and 29 mya. oligopithecids - The earliest anthropoid ancestors in the Oligocene, dating to around 35 mya. These primates share many primitive features with the Eocene strepsirhines. However, they also share some derived features with contemporary haplorhines. Only some members of this group have a 2.1.2.3/2.1.2.3 dental formula. Members of this group may have ranged beyond the Fayum into North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula.

These two primate residence patterns can be considered opposites. In _____________________ , one reproductive-age female lives with two or more males and their offspring. Since males are unsure of the parentage in this residence pattern, they invest time into raising the offspring along with the females. In _______________________, however, one reproductive-age male lives with two or more females and their immature offspring. Since there is only one reproductive-age male, sexual dimorphism tends to be pronounced to enable competition for mates.

polyandry polygyny

Aegyptopithecus was one of the most common __________________

propliopithecids - Because Aegyptopithecus was larger and more catarrhine-like than the other parapithecids, it is a likely contender for the common ancestor of all later catarrhines. This makes it the best-known Fayum primate.

Describe the difference between relative and absolute forms of dating. Be able to discuss examples of each.

relative dating - states the relative age of one event (such as the formation of a geologic stratum) or object (such as a fossil or an artifact) with respect to another. absolute dating - the process of determining an age on a specified chronology in archaeology and geology. Scientists must consider various factors when choosing an absolute dating method, among them the material involved and the time range in which the fossilized organism likely lived. Some methods date the fossil, some date the context of the fossil, and others date either the fossil or the context. Radiocarbon, for example, can be used to date either the remains of the once-living organism or an associated organic substance, such as wood. To determine the age of a human skeleton, the bones can be dated directly. If, however, it can be proved that the deceased was buried at the same time a fire was lit nearby, the fire pit can be dated. Relative and absolute dating have brought about a far greater understanding of the evolutionary record than was imagined when fossils were first being discovered centuries ago. Placing fossils in order creates a detailed picture of the past—of the evolutionary sequence of events for specific organisms and for groups of organisms.

Primate males engage in competition for access to females. This reproductive strategy has led to larger body size and canine size in males because of ________________

sexual selection - Sexual selection is a special type of natural selection in which trains that are highly attractive to the opposite sex become more frequent.

In the past, biological anthropologists classified primates based upon complexity (Prosimians vs. Anthropoids). Recently, this system has been replaced by an evolutionary scheme based upon ancestral-descendant relationships (Strepsirhines vs. Haplorhines). The one primate whose classification changed when we switched taxonomic systems is the __________________________.

tarsier

While you're examining a strepsirhine skull during your biological anthropology lab, you can't help but notice its teeth! You see that the incisors and canines are horizontally oriented, rather than vertically, and they jut anteriorly out of the mouth. You remember that this feature is called a ____________________________, and it can be used for grooming or for scraping tree bark to get sap.

tooth comb

What was the climate of the Fayum Depression like during the Oligocene?

warm, wet and somewhat seasonal - The warm and wet climate of the Fayum is what made it so hospitable for a diversity of species to live and prosper there. Although the climate was also somewhat seasonal, it was not seasonal enough to drastically restrict resources for the species that lived there.

Plesiadapiforms most likely _________________ the first primates.

were not - The plesiadapiforms were probably not the first primates. The problem with attributing them to the primate order is that they lack the key characteristics that define primates today.

Identify the epoch or epochs in which scientists believe the first primates may have evolved. There may be more than one correct answer.

~66 mya in Paleocene - Plesiadapiforms lived in the Paleocene, flourishing for 10 million years before going extinct. These potential primate ancestors were very diverse and lived in North America, Europe, Asia, and possibly Africa. Owing to their lack of key primate characteristics, their connection to true primates is unclear. ~56 mya in Eocene - uprimates appeared at the start of the Eocene and consisted of two groups, the adapids and the omomyids. These are the first true primates.