ANTH 136 Final Exam

What were the Knossos magazines? How were they used?

West Magazines of Knossos. These are 19 oblong storerooms. In their floors we can see depressions, floor vats for holding liquids, which were lined with alabaster to make them watertight. In each storeroom can be seen two rows of large pithoi, used for storing dry materials such as grain. The capacity of the storerooms was about 80,000 litres and it is believed that they held about 400 pithoi, of which 150 remain today.

Why do we tend to see the emergence of early leaders correspond with the rise of agricultural communities?

more people and sedentary so people are living all together-and complex systems of farming

What kind of revolutions took place in metallurgy at this time? Think: multi-piece molds, lost-wax casting, forging. (Early Bronze Age)

multipiece molds-more elaborate: lur-many pieces saudered together, lost wax casting, sheet metal working-big sheets of metal hammer them together and heat to make a breast plate, etc. joined with rivets, and the golden hats

What is the Bell Beaker phenomenon? How do we "see" this phenomenon in the archaeological record? What is known about the origin of Bell Beaker culture (where did these people come from?)

Bell Beaker-transition b/ late neolithic and early BA: 2900-1700 BC-northern and western europe..migrants from the east?...diagnostic artifact: named after a bell shaped pot (beaker) used widely and distributed all around like everyone made this style for 1000 yrs & copper, daggers, round barrows, equestrian gear

What is a lur?

This musical instrument became an important component of ceremonies and processions in the late Bronze Age in Scandinavia, produced with lost-wax casting.

Describe the Minoan culture. When were they around? What were some of their main cultural achievements?

pALACES AND VILLAS for the peaceful Minoans, who were not concerned about fortifying their dwellings, unlike the more war-loving Mycenaeans, who seemed to be very wary of their neighbors and constructed large HILLTOP FORTRESSES or citadels to protect themselves from invaders. The correct answers are MINOANS on Crete and the MYKENEANS or MYCENAEANS on mainland Greece. The Cretan Minoan civilization flourished between 2000-1450 BC; the Grecian Mycenaeans rose to power around 1600 BC and remained in power until around 1100 BC. Minoans pioneered a new kind of writing known as Linear A, the meaning of which has been lost through time. However, the Mycenaean Linear B has been decoded and scholars now know that this was the progenitor of ancient Greek.

What is distinctive about a palace? What is a pithoi? How was it used by the Minoans? Why was their shape important?

pALACES AND VILLAS for the peaceful Minoans, who were not concerned about fortifying their dwellings, unlike the more war-loving Mycenaeans. The first palace at Knossos was erected around 2800 BC. A series of palaces were then built on top of one another, each larger and more elaborate, as the settlement and administrative structure grew. Knossos covers almost 25,000 m2 (an area the size of a large basketball arena), in a complex of buildings and construction that included the palace itself, several surrounding mansions, and many smaller houses, connected by roads. There are several palaces on the island, thought to have been the centers centers of independent Minoan states, laid out and built according to plan, with a large, rectangular central court surrounded by myriad rooms, numerous corridors, a maze of courtyards, grand staircases, private apartments, administrative chambers, enormous storerooms, baths, and even a sophisticated plumbing system (Fig. 5.4). The term palace may be misleading. Knossos, for example, was an intricate collection of more than 1,000 interlocking rooms. Functional space was carefully designed and separated according to residential, administrative, storage, religious, and manufacturing uses. The complex of rooms and buildings Long, narrow rooms held enormous storage jars, or pithoi, along the walls for oils, wine, and other liquids, and stone-lined pits in the floor were filled with wheat and other cereals. It is clear from this arrangement that the palace complex controlled at least some of the economic activities of the state. The palace did not control all the wealth in the town. Several grand houses have been excavated outside the palace, decorated with wall paintings and containing high-status prestige objects;. for example, a steatite bull's-head vase was found in one of these larger houses (Fig. 5.6b). Craft workshops and pottery kilns associated with these grand houses indicate that the palace did not exclusively command craft production. The palace was also designed to remove rainwater and provide fresh water to the inhabitants. To carry surface runoff and wastewater away, elaborate stone-lined drains, large enough to crawl through, were built. Flush toilets and a sewage system were installed as well. Frescoes and murals decorated the walls of the palace, depicting various aspects of Minoan life. Shrines are scattered throughout the palace as well, documenting the integration of church and state in the early Aegean civilizations. The palace played a preeminent economic role, with control over production, storage, and redistribution of agricultural staples and secondary products such as hides and wool.

What other lines of evidence can be used to tell us about what people were eating, where they were from, what time of year they kept their animals near their homes, and how they spiced their food?

poop and archaeological site-fossil remains-housing...storage-pots and, and i believe the found spices from the storage units inside houses

· How do we know... what's the evidence? Review the Akeret and Bickle articles on Blackboard.

poop-analyzed for pollen concentrations

Vinca Serbia

This tell site is about 35 feet tall and 25 acres wide. People here lived in free-standing rectangular homes. Unique finds from the site include ritual objects (clay fired figurines, decorated vessel lids, and incised tablets), personal ornaments (shaped semi-precious stone of various shape, probably worn as pendants), and exotic lithic materials (obsidian sourced from 220 mi to the north).

What sorts of metals were people working at that time?

copper, gold, tin, & silver

What makes the Minoan culture technically a civilization? What styles of writing were developed? Have these writing systems been decoded?

they had a language-linear a and b...b was decoded, but not a. Some appear to have been borrowed from Egypt. Around 1700 BC these glyphs blossomed into a written language known as Linear A, likely the first complete writing system in Europe. Linear A is still undeciphered. A second writing system, Linear B, has been decoded and is related to the archaic Greek language. Linear B may have developed on mainland Greece and later been introduced to Crete by the Mykeneans. they think linear b for recording and storing information regarding payment of taxes and movement of foods and goods around the state.

What does the spread of the lactase enzyme tell us about how humans were making a living?

this is the state of agriculture and possibly the domestication of dairy animals-sold milk?

Why is the Uluburun shipwreck so important to our understanding of trade, exchange, and maritime abilities during the Bronze Age?

1300 BC: Recently, a Bronze Age shipwreck has been found at Salcombe along the south coast of England, one of the oldest ships known anywhere in Europe. This was a cargo ship 15 m (50 ft) long, found near the town of Uluburun in 50 m (165 ft) of These are known to be dangerous waters and the place of numerous wrecks. This one contained the largest and richest collection of late Bronze Age materials ever found in the Mediterranean. The sailing ship was plank-built from cedar timber, using a mortise and tendon technique to join the planks, and capable of carrying 20 tons of cargo. The Uluburun wreck sank around 1306 BC, according to the tree rings in the wood on board. The ship's intended route is uncertain, but from the cargo it can be surmised the vessel came from Cyprus and was possibly headed to Greece. The ship was carrying a remarkably varied range of materials from the eastern Mediterranean. The major part of the hold was filled with 500 copper ingots totaling some 10 tons, with another ton of tin ingots. Cyprus was a major source of smelted copper in the Bronze Age; the tin may have originated in eastern....The ship also carried a number of other rare and exotic items, some previously unknown—testimony to the extent of trade. This part of the manifest included ebony logs, elephant ivory and hippo tusks from tropical Africa, thousands of quartz and Baltic amber beads, lavender-and turquoise-colored glass ingots probably from Egypt, large turtle shells, and ostrich eggshells. Wooden writing boards (two thin pieces of wood with shallow recesses to hold wax to write on with a stylus) were held together by an ivory joint. The ship itself probably originated in the Near East, given the types of tools and personal objects found on board, including a razor and a few amulets. In addition, the stone anchors were made from a sandstone unknown in the Aegean and in all probability from Southwest Asia.

Borum Eshøj, Denmark: where the site is, what artifacts were found here, how and when it was dated, & why its significant

1350 BC: The Borum Eshøj graves are the largest single find of this kind from Denmark. This huge mound was built over three oak coffins, containing an older man and woman and a young man, who was likely their son. Two of these coffins have been dated by tree rings to around 1350 BC. The body of the older male, fifty to sixty years of age, was so well preserved that it had to be dismembered dismembered for transport to Copenhagen, what with the muscles still holding the skeleton together. His hair was intact; he had been blond. He was clean-shaven and had manicured hands and nails. Lying on a cow skin and was covered with a woolen blanket, he was dressed in a domed hat with a kidney-shaped cloak, a short kilt with a rope belt, and cloth wrapped around his feet. Female dress varied with position and age. A clear distinction was made when a woman reached adulthood or married. A sixteen-year-old girl in another coffin burial from Denmark wore a miniskirt of cords, whereas the older woman from Borum and adult women in other graves were dressed in long skirts. Elaborate hairstyles with a covering net or cap may also have been a marker of elite married women. showed how hair was used as identity and so was clothes.

Nebra, Germany: where the site is, what artifacts were found here, how and when it was dated, & why its significant

1600 BC: This discussion of Nebra is about a single artifact rather than an archaeological site. The object, however, is one of the most important finds in Europe in many years. They quickly dug into the earth and found an unusual bronze disk two bronze swords and axes, and several other objects. They had looted a prehistoric enclosure on top of the hill in a forest with hundreds of Bronze Age burial mounds. The prehistoric enclosure in which the disk was found appears to be astronomically oriented in line with a nearby peak to mark the solstice. Radiocarbon dating

Mycene, Greece: where the site is, what artifacts were found here, how and when it was dated, & why its significant

1600 BC: society. A new warrior class emerged during this period; weapons and armor were often the primary burial goods, and martial and hunting scenes dominated decorative art. A military presence is strongly visible in the Mykenean citadels of southern Greece, the "halls of the heroes." These places are the roots of the myths, so vividly imagined in The Iliad of Homer...These political units were centered on fortified palace towns, or citadels, with a population that included scribes, warriors, and craft and art specialists. The palace economy focused on taxes or tribute...Mykene were buried in shaft graves, straight-sided pits, cut 6-8 m (20-25 ft) deep into the soft rock of the hilltop settlement. Two such grave circles have been excavated at Mykene. Grave Circles A and B may have been in use for only a short period between ca. 1600 and 1500 BC. The bodies appear to have been wrapped with burial shrouds having hundreds of small gold foil leaves, flowers, butterflies, or stars sewn onto the cloth. Gold funeral masks were placed...The grave goods from Mykene are among the most spectacular finds from the Bronze Age and the richest finds ever made in the Aegean area. There are gold and bronze masks and drinking cups, necklaces, earrings, a crystal bowl carved in the shape of a goose, and swords and daggers with gold and lapis inlays. Amber from northern Europe, ivory from Africa, silver from Crete, glass from Egypt, and great amounts of gold were entombed along with these

What happened at Akrotiri to preserve this site so well? What can the remains left today tell us about life at this site in the past?

1626 BC: Very few people know of Akrotiri, a Minoan town on the island of Thera in the Aegean, buried deeply by volcanic ash around 1626 BC, or 1,700 years before Pompeii. The town of Akrotiri, on the southern coast of the island, was abandoned before the eruption buried it under 6 m (20 ft) of volcanic ash. Akrotiri was probably founded during the Neolithic, around 4500 BC and continuously occupied until its abandonment. The full extent of the town is unknown, but it may have covered as much as 20 ha (about 12 city blocks). The citizens clearly had time to evacuate the town. There are no bodies in the streets, and there was little left behind in the way of valuables or personal effects. buildings still stand three stories high. An elaborate drainage system runs beneath the streets, and some of the houses have indoor plumbing. At street level are the shops, workshops, and restaurants of the town, some with large ceramic storage jars and cooking areas. Above the shops are the apartments of the owners and inhabitants. A labyrinth of doorways, stairs, and passages connects rooms and buildings. The House of the Ladies was likely a wealthy private residence. The north section of the building held a suite of three rooms, the middle one with wall paintings dominated by depictions of women. One of these was the so-called miniature fresco, of which is a part showing ships traveling between two islands, perhaps Thera and Crete. maybe it is atlantis

Amesbury, England: where the site is, what artifacts were found here, how and when it was dated, & why its significant

2470 BC: Excavation of the larger of the two pits revealed the richest collection of Bell Beaker grave goods ever found from this period in Britain. Almost one hundred artifacts were there, including two gold hair bands. The radiocarbon date of 2470 BC from the grave confirms the Bell Beaker age and the oldest gold artifacts in Britain. also amesbury archer(prince of stonehenge)

Knossos, Crete: where the site is, what artifacts were found here, how and when it was dated, & why its significant

3000 BC:

Newgrange, Ireland: where the site is, what artifacts were found here, how and when it was dated, & why its significant

3100 BC: passage grave in the bend of the boyne river. The mound is 85 m (280 ft) in diameter and 11 m (36 ft) high. The overall impression is of a large, circular, two-story building. The monument was built between 3100 & 2900 BC. A stone-lined opening above the entrance to the tomb allows the rising sun at the midwinter solstice to shine down the passage and fill the inner chamber with light on the shortest day of the year. Unfortunately, the tomb was first opened in 1699 and little is known of its original contents. Scattered finds were encountered, including seven stone "marbles," four pendants, two beads, a used flint flake, a bone chisel, and several fragments of bone pins and points. Fragmentary human and animal bone and some cremated human remains were also recovered in the excavations....many decorated stones: This is by far the largest number of any location in Neolithic Europe. These designs are largely nonrepresentational and geometric forms; circles, spirals, and lozenges were the most common motifs. A huge stone, 3.5 m (almost 12 ft) long, lying on its side in front of the entrance to Newgrange, has a remarkable series of engraved spirals covering the front side of the stone (Fig. 4.75). This rock has been described as "one of the most famous stones in the entire repertory of megalithic art." probably dated using radiocarbon. Whatever the story on the construction phases, these tombs remain one of the more remarkable places in Neolithic Europe. Their size suggests that these early Irish farmers were both well to do and well organized.

Stonehenge, England: where the site is, what artifacts were found here, how and when it was dated, & why its significant

3100 BC: the most impressive prehistoric monument in England, perhaps in all of Europe. It is not the largest or the richest, but Stonehenge holds an enormous fascination, as much for the mysterious aura that surrounds it as for the impressive feat of its construction. In 2008 Darvill and Wainwright made a small excavation within Stonehenge, digging into the outer bluestone setting. Their view is of Stonehenge as a place of healing. radiocarbon dated...Built in 4 phases, constructed over 1500 yrs: 3000-1500 B.C. (Neolithic-Bronze Age), 159 stones total, Largest = 30-45 tons....Phase I, circular ditch and 56 Aubrey holes • Phase II: Woodhenge? Early version of avenue, Cremations later buried in holes, Phase III = Horseshoe of Bluestones from SW Wales (150 miles away) -- 80, 1 ton stones, Phase IV = Sarsen Circle: Wiltshire sandstone (20 miles away) -- 50 tons (moved on rollers?)....Previously thought that little skill involved, however

Skara Brae, Orkney Islands, Scotland: where the site is, what artifacts were found here, how and when it was dated, & why its significant

3200 BC: Hidden beneath the sands was a warren of finely built, circular stone structures These buildings were the homes and ceremonial places of early Neolithic farmers, Skara Brae was occupied from approximately 3180 to 2500 BC. It is often described as Europe's most complete Neolithic village. The houses are remarkably well-built stone structures, constructed with dry wall by stacking thin sandstone slabs that peel away from bedrock in the area. A drainage system was part of the village plan, with a simple form of toilet in each structure...radiocarbon dated

Arbon Bleiche 3, Switzerland: where the site is, what artifacts were found here, how and when it was dated, & why its significant

3384 BC and significant for preservation!!: part of the famous swiss lake dwellings-built along the shore-but the oldest. houses built with long wooden posts-use tree ring dating-dendrochronology. mud provides excellent preservation in the mud-organic materials have been found: fruits, seeds, leaves, wood, and dried apples. others are animal bones, stone tools, ceramics. used for only a short time-quickly grew in 5 years to a community of 50 house and perhaps 300 ppl... but it burned down in june of 3369 BC-following a flood and then was abandoned forever. This project produced one of the most detailed records of lake dwellings available anywhere. Some evidence suggests that the house floors were raised slightly above ground level. Attic space may have been used for sleeping and storage. Clay ovens and fireplaces were inside the houses. Some houses were divided into two rooms, one large room with a fireplace and a smaller one. The house was the probably home for a large family of several generations. agriculture-diet-cereals, wheats and barley, flax and poppy-poppies for narcotics? hazelnuts-berries-dairy evidence-pot sherds and milk residue in several vessels

Avebury, England: where the site is, what artifacts were found here, how and when it was dated, & why its significant

3500 BC: Avebury, archaeological site in Kennet district, administrative and historic county of Wiltshire, England, some 18.5 miles (30 km) north of Stonehenge. It is one of the largest and best-known prehistoric sites in Europe, encompassing 28.5 acres (11.5 hectares)-3 circles total-2 smaller ones inside a larger one significant due to its pagan religious ties-ditch 6 ppl deep

Hal Salfieni, Malta: where the site is, what artifacts were found here, how and when it was dated, & why its significant

3600 BC: There are at least forty of these structures on the two main islands. Significant b/c They are claimed to be the oldest stone buildings in the world, built 1,000 years before the pyramids and 500 years before the start of Stonehenge. The remains of 6,000 to 7,000 human bodies were discovered. The complex had been used as a burial place and sanctuary; in this way the practice was not greatly different from the megalithic tombs of western Europe, although the size and scale of the hypogeum is much, much larger. Many amulets and figurines were recovered from this level, including the most the so-called Sleeping Lady, a reclining figurine, perhaps meant as a representation of eternal sleep. probs radiocarbon dating

Maiden Castle, England and Old Oswestry: where the site is, what artifacts were found here, how and when it was dated, & why its significant

43 BC: England, Maiden Castle dominated its Iron Age landscape and was probably the largest hillfort in all of Europe (Fig. 6.38). The massive ramparts enclose an area of 18 ha (90 acres), the equivalent of fifty soccer fields. The hilltop was first used around 3700 BC as a Neolithic camp; an enormous barrow was erected here during the same period, overlooking the adjacent valley. Maiden Castle was the center of an elaborate landscape of henge monuments, timber settings, and causewayed camps. In the Iron Age, around 500 BC, fortifications were first constructed around a growing market center on the hilltop. The first fort at Maiden Castle was univallate (having one wall) and enclosed some 6 hectares. Large hillforts such as Maiden Castle appear to have had administrative, religious, economic, and residential functions in a proto-urban context. shrine or temple was uncovered on the most prominent part of the hilltop. This structure was later replaced by a Roman temple, documenting the continuity of religious significance and focus. The hilltop served as a residence as well as a fortified storehouse for the agricultural surplus from the rich farmlands. Residential structures dot the hilltop; evidence of dense occupation suggests that as many as 2,000-4,000 people lived there. Large pits were dug into the chalk, up to 3 m (10 ft) deep, used for storage, water reservoirs, and other purposes. Excavations also revealed the parallel ruts of wagon wheels crossing the defended interior; the standard....By 50 BC, shortly before the first Roman invasion of Britain, the fortifications were expanded and the enclosed area inside the hillfort tripled in size (Fig. 6.39). The final set of fortifications consisted of a set of three enormous concentric banks and two ditches; a fourth bank was built at the south end...Maiden Castle fell to the Roman legions and their siege artillery in AD 43. One dramatic find near the entrance to the fortifications was an iron spear head from the Roman war machines, lodged in the backbone of a defender

Spiennes, Belgium: where the site is, what artifacts were found here, how and when it was dated, & why its significant

4400 BC: The Neolithic flint mines at Spiennes, covering more than 100 ha (250 acres)-are the earliest and largest concentration of ancient flint mines in Europe. They were actively used from 4400 to 2000 years BC. The extraction was carried out in both open quarries and in pits. A nearby, fortified Neolithic village was home to the miners and craft persons who dug out the flint and turned it into finished products. quantity of pottery as well as animal remains have been found in the mines, likely the meals of the miners. Ancient humans are also present, some the remains of those who died in mining accidents. dated probably using radiocarbon dating

Varna, Bulgaria: where the site is, what artifacts were found here, how and when it was dated, & why its significant

4500 BC: Bulgaria uncovered several graves containing unusual metal objects. Thinking the metal was copper, they called in the local archaeologist, Ivan Ivanov, who then excavated the cemetery from 1973 to 1991...they had uncovered 7,500 m2, 310 graves, 3,000 gold artifacts weighing more than 6 kg (13 lb), 160 copper artifacts, and 1,100 Spondylus and 12,200 Dentalium shell pieces....significant b/c The gold found at Varna is the earliest worked gold in graves anywhere in the world. Radiocarbon methods date the site from approximately 4560 to 4450 BC, contemporary with the Vinča culture. The graveyard at Varna covers a large area, the size of a soccer field....Grave 4 contained 320 gold objects, weighing 1,500 g (3.3 lb; Fig. 4.24). The list of items in the grave is remarkable. There were several ceramic vessels near the head of the individual in the grave, and at his right shoulder was a stone axe on the end of a gold-covered wooden shaft; also found were several copper axes and chisels, another stone axe, an enormous flint blade more than 40 cm long, two breastplates of gold and a massive convex gold disk, arm rings, earrings, beads and necklaces all of gold, a gold cup, and perhaps a penis sheath, More than forty small gold disks were found around the grave, which may have been sewn into a shroud or clothing. Finally a mass of beads of shell and semiprecious stone were scattered throughout the grave. The graves at Varna provide spectacular evidence for status differentiation in the Neolithic of southeastern Europe.

Vix, France: where the site is, what artifacts were found here, how and when it was dated, & why its significant

480 BC: elite celtic burial. The hillfort is known as Mont Lassois, located about 200 km (120 mi) southeast of Paris, along the headwaters of the Seine River in northern France. A woman was buried there beneath an earthen mound in 480 BC; she is often referred to as the Princess of Vix. Analysis of the skeletal remains of this woman have revealed valuable information. Her age was thought to have been between thirty-five and forty. Her stature was estimated to have been only around 160 cm (5'3") tall, according to the length of her femur. Substantial problems with her hip joints and an asymmetric head shape suggest that she would have had a waddling gait, and her head would have been held tilted to the right and her face somewhat twisted. These traits may be a consequence of either congenital conditions or childhood...The style of ornamentation suggests connections with Greek and Scythian traditions. The other personal equipment was more typical of elite female graves in the Early Iron Age, but there were more and more highly decorated objects in the Vix tomb. Three bracelets of schist and one of thin bronze were...A huge bronze krater, a vessel for mixing and storing wine, more than 1.5 m (5 ft) high, weighing 208 kg (450 lb), with a volume of more than 1,000 liters (1,500 bottles of wine), was set in one corner of the grave. The origins of the materials found in the princess burial at Vix indicate the extensive trade taking place in Europe at that time and emphasize the importance of the major rivers as transportation routes. The Rhône, the largest river in Europe that joins the Mediterranean, served as a major corridor from the south into temperate Europe.

Rudna Glava, Serbia: where the site is, what artifacts were found here, how and when it was dated, & why its significant

5000 BC: this was the earliest known smelting of copper anywhere in the world, revealed more than twenty prehistoric mine shafts that followed veins of copper ore in the mountain, Pottery from the Vinča culture was found in the mineshafts...probably radiocarbon dating

Hochdorf, Germany: where the site is, what artifacts were found here, how and when it was dated, & why its significant

530 BC: the first part of the Iron Age, the Hallstatt period. These places were heavily fortified hilltop towns, centers of political, economic, and military power under the rule of a powerful chief. These were the first urban settlements, true towns, in Europe north of the Alps, called oppida by the Romans. Large earthen mounds cover the tombs of the elite from these towns in the early Iron Age. There are some forty known rich, elaborate tombs from the hallstatt period. An exception was found near the village of Hochdorf, not far from Stuttgart in southwestern Germany. The tomb at Hochdorf, remarkably, had not been plundered. One reason may be that not much was left of the earthen mound after 2,500 years of agricultural activity. Plowing over the centuries had reduced the mound....was decorated with three small bronze lions around the mouth of the vessel. The style of these ornaments and the cauldron itself point to its manufacture in mainland Greece. The walls and floor of the chamber were covered in rich fabrics, fragments of which have survived. These pieces were held together with iron clasps and bronze brooches, one of which furnished a date for the tomb of 530 BC. Textile specialists have identified bright...chief burial showing how trading was a huge thing during the iron age radiocarbon dating from linens ^

Nea Nikomedeia, Greece: where the site is, what artifacts were found here, how and when it was dated, & why its significant

6200 BC: also significant for preservation! Early neolithic farmers here build houses out of mud...once houses collapsed and abandoned created excellent conditions for preservation...new houses were erected on old ones, and gradually mounds of earth and refuse would accumulate-so much material on top(tell) famous because: most of the upper layers were removed by local road builders for highway fill before archaeologists recognized the importance of the place. The absence of the upper layers of the original mound meant that a large area of Early Neolithic deposits was open and accessible. dated using radiocarbon dating! Although not the earliest Neolithic site in Europe, this one is interesting because the remains of a village were found consisting of a series of rectangular houses built with oak posts and mud walls. One of the structures, somewhat larger than the rest, was located roughly in the center of the village and many ritual-like objects were found within, suggesting it may have been a community shrine. included a number of female figurines and fragments, large greenstone axes, hundreds of unused large flint blades, "shoe-shaped" pottery vessels, and several hundred clay disks found in one corner & Unusual artifacts of marble and serpentine took the form of large nails or studs. The excavator suggests that the nails may have been decorations for the hair and that

Biskupin, Poland: where the site is, what artifacts were found here, how and when it was dated, & why its significant

738 BC: The fortified Iron Age settlement of Biskupin is one of the most famous archaeological sites in Central Europe. Its size and location and the preservation of the buildings are truly remarkable. this archaeological site has today been reconstructed and visitors can walk around it in an open-air museum in central Poland. The settlement was constructed original during the Hallstatt period and was appropriated and excavated according to the Nazi agenda from 1940-1942. A two-story tower and fortified gate dominated the entrance. Inside the gate was a town square surrounded by thirteen rows of 105 timber houses, uniformly arranged along eleven wooden corduroy streets. dated using radiocarbon dating and dendrochronology. The radiocarbon determinations indicated an initial settlement at the site around 720 BC and a later occupation at 560 BC. The earlier radiocarbon age corresponds well with the tree ring dates. The primary settlement at Biskupin belongs to the Hallstatt period of the early Iron Age. One of the major concerns at Biskupin, of course, is preservation. Because of its waterlogged conditions, the wood was very well preserved. Preservation meant recovery of exceptional information, but it also created problems of conservation, primarily for the structural timbers.

Hallstatt, Austria: where the site is, what artifacts were found here, how and when it was dated, & why its significant

800 BC: Hall = salt 21 levels within the salt mine, 700 feet deep Named for the large cemetery between town and mine, >1000 burials, likely far more, Cremations richest burials...which included weapons and objects of personal adornment, surrounded by pottery and other offerings. More recent excavations have demonstrated that the cemetery was in fact much larger, containing perhaps 5,000 or more graves, and many of the new burials lack the metal objects and are supplied only with pottery vessels as grave gifts. probs radiocarbon dating

What is a krater, what was it used for, and where did this object originate from?

A LARGE BRONZE VESSEL FOR MIXING/STORING WINE. This form of vessel spread into central, western, and northern Europe from Ancient Greece, where they were first used to dilute wine with water because #hangoverssuck! J/k, but it is true that lightly fermented drinks were often preferred libations in prehistory due to a lack of reliably clean water sources, especially in more heavily populated towns and cities.

What is a hoard and why is it significant?

A hoard or "wealth deposit" is an archaeological term for a collection of valuable objects or artifacts, sometimes purposely buried in the ground, in which case it is sometimes also known as a cache. ... Hoards can also be considered an indicator of the relative degree of unrest in ancient societies.

What is the process of iron extraction and production?

Bog iron collected from natural deposits, Burned to remove impurities, Broken in to small pieces, Transported to furnace. clay shaft furnace loaded with fuel, charcoal, and bog iron, Fired to temps c. 1536C, Iron ore melts into bloom iron, slag impurities fall to bottom. also can be mined out of ground

Bronze replaces copper as the metal of choice during this time. Why? What are the advantages of using bronze? How is it procured, worked, and used?

Bronze retains a sharp edge longer than copper and generally is comprised of 88% copper and 12% tin/arsenic. weapons jewelry and tools. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin or arsenic. Initially it was made from copper and arsenic to form arsenic bronze. Some copper ores naturally contain a good bit of arsenic, and smelting these ores may have accidentally created an early form of bronze. mined from Salzburg in Austria, with tunnels up to 100 m (330 m) in length, may have produced as much as 18,000 tons of copper. Bronze production in Europe began in the Aegean region with the rise of early civilizations on Crete and mainland Greece. Tin bronze became the primary form of the metal only later in the third millennium BC. Bronze is typically around eighty-eight percent copper and twelve percent tin. Tin bronze was superior because alloying and casting were easier and the finished product was stronger.

How were these giant stone constructions built?

Different traditions of pottery and house construction were associated with these monuments; apparently different groups of people built the same kinds of monumental tombs....took 100's of yeas sometimes to build took many people to construct these things-slaves? they were complex

How are researchers able to determine between domesticated & wild plant species?

Domesticated Plants: larger seeds, grain ear stays in tact, loss of natural seed dispersal mechanisms, tough connect holding seed pods to the stem, more brittle husks, higher yield per unit of area animals: smaller, more timid, social tendencies, other traits selected by humans-wooly coats in sheep-meat storage on the hoof we can tell this in the archaeological record: changes in DNA, changes in bone size, shape, proportions of bones in a site, isotopes from human bone

Agriculture

Domesticated animals (herding) and plants (cultivation)

Agriculture (domestication of plants and animals) is a subsistence strategy that was accompanied by other important social, technological, and organizational aspects. Which of the following choices was NOT part of this so-called "Neolithic Package"?

Emergence of chiefs to organize people and resources

Where and when do we first see the emergence of metallurgy?

Europe: Copper: Balkans-5000 BC SE Europe and THE REMAINS OF DEEP MINE SHAFTS HAVE BEEN FOUND, at important sites like Rudna Glava, Serbia, where 20 prehistoric mine shafts were discovered and gold 4100-4400 BC @ varna

Hunter-gatherers utilized the landscape in an intensive manner - meaning that they only used a small portion of their surroundings, manipulating the environment to suit their subsistence needs. Early farmers, by contrast, used the landscape in an extensive manner - meaning that they traveled frequently to make good use of many of the resources available in the environment.

False

The first people to inhabit the island of Cyprus were early farmers.

False

Where did agriculture develop?

Fertile Crescent (SW Asia)-elevated zone, cooler and wetter

Where was iron first developed, and how did it make its way into Europe? What are the pros and cons of iron over bronze or copper?

First developed in Turkey c. 2300 BC, introduced c. 1000 BC to Europe. Required new techniques of smelting, higher furnace temps (to 1536C/2797F at least). Produces sharper, more durable implementsWrought iron (not yet cast iron temps not high enough). Raw materials more readily available (iron found in variety of forms, even in bogs

What are the main components of the Neolithic Package?

Food production constitutes >50% of diet, polished ground stone tools for plant processing-telling, hoeing, developed pottery traditions for cooking and storage, sedentary village lifestyle, stay near ur fields & surplus, villages w/ residential & public building, & formalized religious activities

Be familiar with the two overlapping Iron Age cultures in Europe north of the Alps (Halstatt and La Téne). What distinguishes the two cultures? How do these cultures connect to the people described by the Romans as Celts, Gauls, and Germans?

Halstatt: Earlier part of Iron Age, c. 900- 450 BC, Centered in Austria, southern Germany, Czech Republic, Arose due to rich iron and salt mines, Some elaborate graves here...Hallstatt gained archaeological fame not because of the salt mines but because of a major cemetery of wealthy graves found near the town.His careful excavations over many years yielded a total of 1,045 burials, many of which were carefully recorded in a series of remarkable painted illustrations (Fig. 6.22). Most of the burials in the prehistoric cemetery are dated between 800 and 450 BC. The style and decoration of the grave goods found in the cemetery are distinctive and directly linked to the Hallstatt culture. Weapons at Hallstatt are of bronze and iron; among them are long and short swords found with both male and female burials. The cremation graves were the richest of all. The wealth of the graves suggested that only the upper level of society was buried here. More recent excavations have demonstrated that the cemetery was in fact much larger, containing perhaps 5,000 or more graves, and many of the new burials lack the metal objects and are supplied only with pottery vessels as grave gifts.

Whats important about the Nebra Disk and the Golden hats?

Hats & nebra disk important b/c not functional & images on the golden hats mean -they're capturing lunar movement-tracking the moon like the nebra disk-callibration device-predict what will happen shows the celestial intelligence

Domestication

Human control over reproduction of plants & animals. Selective breeding particular plants and animals-w/ traits that are beneficial. Led to changes in organization of society...sedimentary way of life.

LA tene:

La Tène from 450 BC until the arrival of the Romans in the second half of the first century BC...Specific period of time, distinct material culture (often conflated with Celts) C. 500 BC until Roman conquest, Characterized by hilltop fortresses, Defined by distinctive artistic motifs and pottery styles, Spread widely, sacked Rome. The largest concentration of sites from this time is found in eastern France, Switzerland, southern Germany, and the Czech Republic. By the early La Tène. period, Celtic groups had expanded to the British Isles, Iberia, and across parts of the Balkan Peninsula to Anatolia. Elaborate burials also reveal a wide network of trade. Exports from La Tène to the Mediterranean cultures included salt, tin and copper, amber, wool, leather, furs, and gold.

What do Halstatt pottery styles, hillforts, and burials tell us about life at that time?

La Tène is often treated as synonymous with Celtic, although La Tène is a specific period of time with a distinctive material culture. Hallstatt, the earlier part of the Iron Age, dates from approximately 900 to 450 BC and was centered in Austria, southern Germany, and the Czech Republic (Fig. 6.3). During the early Iron Age, salt and iron mines in these regions led to economic boom times. Hallstatt settlements were sometimes fortified and situated on hilltops, and they often housed workshops for bronze-, silver-, and goldsmiths. In the central Hallstatt region toward the end of the period, rich graves of high-status individuals under large tumuli (earthen mounds) are found near the fortified hilltop settlements.

How and in what directions did agriculture spread in Europe?

Neolithic package in Greece by 7,000BC-then spread outwards 2 ways-sea and land-faster by sea-whole process 3,000 yrs. rapid leaps & long periods of stability, colonization or local transformations or both...southeast europe: colonization, central and western mediterranean- role of native communities substantial spread of agriculture and social transformation place of change slow, central and western europe: colonization likely 5500 BC, communities pioneered farming communities temperate woodlands established networks of hamlets and small villages

What sorts of interactions did foragers and farmers likely have during this period of encounter? (NEOLITHIC)

No pottery yet, but sedentism-trade and exchange, ritual behavior. no seasonal moving-using more permanent materials. emergence of unequal social status, emergence of villages and leaders,

Why are Cardial pottery and Linearbandkeramik (LBK) pottery important signs of agricultural spread? What do these pottery styles represent?

They were widespread, but there was regional styles that would then be developed into distinctly local traditions. mediterrannean neolithic: cardial culture, central european neolithic lbk

What was the significance of salt during this period?(iron age)

Salt was a valuable resource for preserving meat and fish in the Iron Age; it furnished the economic wealth for this town(hallstat) and its inhabitants. The mines are still active today.

Where and how was amber used? What characteristics made amber a desirable commodity?

Scandinavia because no metal was found there-fossilized tress resin-converted by pressure & high temps to solid-found on beaches of baltic sea-sea floor.-90% from baltic...translucent sometimes contains insects, floats in saltwater, burned as incense, used in perfumes, believed to have healing properties, static electricity when rubbed against wool

Why do we sometime refer to the Copper Age as Chalcolithic?

The Chalcolithic period, or Copper Age, was an era of transition between the stone tool-using farmers of the Neolithic and the metal-obsessed civilizations of the Bronze Age. The Copper Age was really a phenomenon of the eastern Mediterranean regions, and occurred from roughly 3500 to 2300 BCE.

This elevated area is located in Southwest Asia and is characterized by cooler and wetter temperatures than its surrounding territory. Here is where researchers believe some of the earliest experiments with agriculture took places.

The Fertile Crescent

When did the Iron Age, and Prehistory, effectively end in Europe? Who/what brought about this so-called end?

The Roman conquest effectively ended prehistory in southern Europe and Britain; the spread of Christianity marked the beginning of the historic period in much of Europe north of the Alps.

Who was the Amesbury Archer? Why was he buried with so much wealth and where did he come from? · Review article by Fitzpatrick.

a 35-40 yr old man buried in the stonehenge area w/ copious amounts of beautifully crafted grave goods-including gold and copper goods, as well as wealth of flint tipped arrows-also buried in close range with another man, who is thought to be related to the archer due to a distinction on their feet. researches believe the 2 men are members of an elite family because of the wealth of the grave goods-maybe a king but cannot be confirmed.

What is a tell?

a large mound comprised of construction materials and human refuse that builds up over many successive generations. It is commonly found in the archaeological record of Southeast Europe.

Who was instrumental in this decoding? What was the subject of these early systems of writing?

alice kober...they think linear b for recording and storing information regarding payment of taxes and movement of foods and goods around the state.

What does this reflect about society in the Neolithic? · Review the article by Mike Parker Pearson and the film Stonehenge Empire/Ghosts of Stonehenge.

ancestor worship? a place of healing, summer solstice-determined for farming purposes-partying large feasts here for that reason-pig bones, This article reviews recent interpretations of Stonehenge in terms of contrasting uses of stone and timber in the mid-3rd millennium BC. It explores the relationship of this enigmatic monument with circles of wood at nearby Durrington Walls and Woodhenge, establishing how these various monuments might have been integrated into a single scheme in which these remarkable structures were linked by artificial avenues and the natural feature of the River Avon. It also investigates the ways in which substances other than wood and stone - turf, earth, chalk and wood ash - may also have had significance for ideas and practices of transformation involving the living and the dead.

What are hereditary elites?

ascribed status(status assigned at birth)-social differentiation and social inequality.

What is a barrow or tumuli?

barrows (earthen mounds) or tumuli (rich graves of high-status individuals under large tumuli (earthen mounds) are found near the fortified hilltop settlements.

What kind of burials were common during this era? (BRONZE AGE)

barrows (earthen mounds) or tumuli (rich graves of high-status individuals under large tumuli (earthen mounds) are found near the fortified hilltop settlements. The tombs often contain wagons and horses as well) elites-many grave goods...flag graves for commoners

How were people manipulating the wider environment throughout Europe?

before neolithic transition, europe covered in a dense forest-w/ transition slow clearing of islands in the forest-thus many domesticated animals originally grazed in forests-goats/sheep caused drastic changes

What are the benefits of adopting a farming lifestyle?

eating better, do not have to move around-more surplus-pop. increases-complex societies

What is the milk revolution?

expansion of crop cultivation and diary farming during the neolithic period-dairying practices spread from middle east to europe as part of neolithic transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture

How did people's relationship to the environment change with adoption of agriculture?

farmers used the land in an intensive manner- meaning that they only used a small portion of their surroundings, manipulating the environment to suit their subsistence needs.

Why was flint such a hot commodity in the Neolithic?

for polished flint axes...they were used to fell large trees-forest clearance better than stone tools

How did Neolithic homes differ from Mesolithic homes? Think about permeance as well as form.

had religious buildings, had their animals live inside-had pens close to homes, long houses, one story-could store stuff in the rafters-had hearths inside of them-more elaborate-like stone

What special tools and knowledge were required to shape and metal into tools and other implements?

heating and cooling to break up ore....Stone mauls and antler picks were used to follow vertical veins of copper ore into the hillside. A method of alternate heating and cooling helped to break up the ore and facilitate quarrying. Fires were lit along the face of the vein, and then water was thrown on the hot rock to cause fissures and fractures. cold hammering: requires pure copper ore-can result in cracking, weakening of copper

Describe a few of the important features of the Palace at Knossos, such as the king's megaron, the queen's megaron, the grand staircase, the throne room, and the 'Toreador' fresco.

https://lawrencerodrigues.com/tag/kings-megaron/

What are some of hypothesis describing the cause of this development?

in the fertile crescent there are many useful wild plants & animals they lived in the hilly flanks area and were heavily utilized during the upper paleolithic. There was also the Younger Dryas-drought, short ice age in Europe-rather than move, hunter gatherers had to figure out how to cultivate the wild plants they had become reliant on in dryer areas after the drought-climate ameliorated-perfect for farming

How is the late Bronze Age different form the Early Bronze Age? · Why is it oftentimes referred to as the Urnfield Period? What are some of the hallmarks of this period? Why do we know so little about this period?

it is called urnfield b/c people all of a sudden got a memo to bury their dead by cremation in large ceramic urns. Urnfield groups expanded west and south in the later Bronze Age and are often suggested to have influenced the development of Etruscan society. pyres. Less information is obviously available from such finds because of cremations. Such information provides a biased, though spectacular, view of a small, wealthy, and powerful segment of Bronze Age society. Also, because wealth was probably qualified by pastoralism

How were LBK homes different from those in southeast Europe?

long houses, permanent The distribution of LBK settlement across Central Europe, however, is not continuous but patchy, clustered in areas of well-watered, loess soils. Loess is a windblown sediment that was deposited across much of Central Europe. Settlements were usually small, dispersed farmsteads and hamlets, consisting of a few massive timber longhouses, separated by some distance. Settlements typically occur in clusters of as many as forty farmsteads and hamlets, often within a single stream valley. There are also a number of larger, more permanent settlements with dozens of longhouses, lanes for movement, water wells, and other types of features. most distinctive feature of LBK settlement is the longhouse, varying in length from around 10 m to 30 m (33 to 100 ft) or more long and about 7 m (23 ft) wide—perhaps the largest free-standing timber buildings in the world at the time.

Be familiar with the different types of megaliths and their distributions across Europe. (Hint: menhir, dolmen, gallery grave, passage grave, henges)

mehir: Large standing stones. May occur singly or in multiples. dolmen: A small stone tomb usually consisting of five main blocks of stone: four blocks outline the sides of the building and one massive stone serves as the roof. gallery grave: A megalithic tomb that consists just of the tunnel; there is no designated entrance or inner room. passage grave: A type of megalithic tomb consisting of a central room accessed by a long, narrow tunnel. henge: Circular stone monuments, generally consisting of an earthen ditch-and-bank system, and found mostly in Britain.

What are bog bodies? How are they preserved? Be familiar with some of the more famous examples of bog bodies. What does their preservation tell us about their lives and deaths? What do they tell us about society at that time? Where they likely the bodies of murdered kings, or not?

preserved due to tannic acid of peat bog and anaerobic (water -logged) conditions, Soft tissue allows for more detailed paleopathology, Neolithic -Iron Age Europe (roughly 2000 yrs ago), Evidence for violence (strangulation, stabbing, bludgeoning) = murdered as part of ritual belief, Bronze, iron and gold item. the one in ireland may show that he was a king that was failing and so they killed him by offering him to the gods

Where was flint found and where was it traded?

scattered across neolithic europe-they were mined at locations like the spiennes in beligium-traded across large distances-denmark and southern sweden substantial numbers around the oslo fjord...Flint mines from the Neolithic period have been found in England, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Iberia, Hungary, Poland, and elsewhere. In fact, flint is available in many parts of Europe, though it is not ubiquitous

Apart from the daily grind, what other kinds of activities might people have participated in? (BRONZE AGE)

sheet metalworking, making jewelry, wine making, transportation, music playing the lur...Cottage industries developed in metals, textiles, wine, and other materials of wealth and status.

People were highly mobile during this period. What recent findings support this statement? Think: Amesbury Archer and Boy with Amber Necklace

so horse usage, chariot...the boy with the amber necklace was found to be Mediterranean origin but found at stonehenge-90 beads from the baltic region

What are some of the drawbacks or consequences, for society and for individuals?

teeth worse in farmers (hyperplasia), higher infant mortality rate, life expectancy decreases, decreased free time, people tethered to a particular location, disease, related physical disorders from work

What general trends occur in social organization? (BRONZE AGE)

the Aegean area witnessed the emergence of more complex societies on Crete and the Greek mainland. The Minoan palaces and Mykenean (also known as Mycenaean) citadels were urban centers of these civilizations and the focal points of industry, commerce, religion, military power, and central accumulation. North of the Alps, there was much less political integration; societies operated on a smaller scale. this power structure was based on social networks rather than on permanently established institutions. Society was organized into small and medium-sized chiefdoms that were typically involved in ongoing struggles for dominance between various powerful families...Specifically, status differentiation and social inequality became pronounced in the Bronze Age. Status differentiation was also expressed in individual appearance. For the first time, items of personal use such as razors, tweezers, earwax scoops,

What was the overall goal of early archaeologists such as Sir Arthur Evans and Heinrich Schliemann? What did they intend to do by excavating in Greece, Crete, and Turkey?

their goal was to popularize these sites turn them into tourist attractions...A century ago the field of archaeology was unknown to most people. During the first decades of the twentieth century, spectacular new sites were revealed as archaeologists visited distant lands in search of the origins of civilization. Archaeology gained an interested public. Those years also were a time of large-scale public works projects in Europe; excavations produced mountains of artifacts and information, revealing the richness of the archaeological record. The years from 1900 to the Second World War were a classic stage of exploration and investigation of culture history. Culture history focused on the questions of when and where major changes and innovations happened, and on the origins of those changes. Primary sources for change were thought to be either innovation or diffusion. New artifacts and ideas were either local inventions or borrowed from elsewhere. Archaeology is also a product of its times in the sense that current issues and concerns influence the development of the discipline.

How much work went into extraction, production, and exchange of such objects?

to mine and craft an ax was considerable: (1) selecting raw material, (2) shaping a rough square form by flaking with a hammerstone, (3) finer shaping by flaking with antler tools, (4) shaping the blade and edges with indirect flaking, and (5) polishing, which includes grinding, polishing, and sharpening. Time requirements vary substantially in each stage. Mining for the raw material may take many hours, depending on the availability of the flint. almost 30 hrs to finish and sharpen

Know the other important cultures of the Bronze Age North of the Alps: Unetice, Wessex, and Urnfield.

unetice early BA:2300-1600 BC-torqs, bracelets, pins, etc. central europe... wessex: amesbury archer: early BA 2000-1400 BC-elaborated stonehenge, urnfield: later BA: 1300-750 BC, dead cremated, buried-middle upper class.

Why are the Hochdorf and Vix burials so important?

vix burials: Late Hallstatt, early La Tène, Associated with a hill- fort of Mont Lassois sand, several burial mounds Another cart burial, Vix grave dates c. 500 BC, Female burial! 35 yrs ,unusual appearance à seer? Shaman? The structure has been described by some as the "Palace" of the Princess of Vix. hochdorf: There are some forty known rich, elaborate tombs from the halstatt period. most important: The builders of the grave had constructed a remarkably strong and resistant chamber, probably in anticipation of looting, to house the deceased and his food, equipment, and valuables in the afterlife. and protected the prince of Hochdorf over the centuries. This was the first princely grave in Germany that had not been looted. The archaeologists were ecstatic. The skeleton of the chief was found on the west side of the inner chamber, dressed in finery. The man was about forty years old and 1.83 m (6 ft) in height, 20 cm (8 in) taller than the average male in the Hallstatt period. The remaining pieces of material indicated that his clothing was made from richly patterned cloth, embroidered with Chinese silk. Pieces of gold jewelry adorned his remains, including a gold torq, or neck ring, a hallmark of high status in Celtic society. A conical birchbark hat was near his head; a leather bag held a wooden comb, nail clippers, a razor, and a few fishhooks. A leather quiver with bronze and iron tipped arrows had been hung on the wall behind the couch. Nine large drinking horns with gold bands, one made of iron and eight from the horns of aurochs—huge wild cattle—hung on the south wall of the chamber.

What kind of status would these people have had?

wealth-better burials, better clothes, flint, and gold, copper objects, more expensive linens-wool and linen

What sort of motifs were common? (BRONZE AGE)

weapons and war-warfare increased