Anthropology Chapter 11

Flores stone tools have been dated to

little hominins were apparently living on Flores for a very long time; recently discovered stone tools have been radiometrically dated to at least 1 mya

multiregional hypothesis (qd)

the hypothesis that modern humans originated through a process of simultaneous local transition from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens throughout the inhabited world

the amount of nucleotides

3 billion nucleotides each of us has in our nuclear genome

the near east

the near east In Israel, researchers found early modern H. sapiens fossils, including the remains of at least 10 individuals, in Skhūl Cave at Mt. Carmel. Also from Israel, the Qafzeh Cave has yielded the remains of at least 20 individuals. Although their overall configuration is definitely modern, some specimens show certain premodern features. Skhūl has been dated to between 130,000 and 100,000 ya (Grün et al., 2005), while Qafzeh has been dated to around 120,000-92,000 ya (Grün and Stringer, 1991).

Multiregional Model

(1) denying that the earliest modern H. sapiens populations originated exclusively in Africa and (2) asserting that significant levels of gene flow (migration) between various geographically dispersed premodern populations were extremely likely throughout the Pleistocene.

Grinding of sees importance

Grinding hard seeds or roots became important, and as humans grew more familiar with propagating plants, they began to domesticate both plants and animals. Human dependence on domestication became critical, and with it came permanent settlements, new technology, and more complex social organization.

Homo floresiensis

Homo floresiensis may derive from an early migration of early Homo to Southeast Asia (Jungers et al., 2009; Wong, 2009b). In other words, this highly unusual hominin might have evolved from ancestors that left Africa even before H. erectus did.

Mt. Carmel, Israel

studded with caves, was home to H. sapiens sapiens at skhūl (and to neandertals at tabun and Kebara)

Magdalenian

Pertaining to the final phase of the Upper Paleolithic stone tool industry in europe.

How long ago did modern Homo appear in Africa?

Sometime, probably close to 200,000 ya, the first modern Homo sapiens populations appeared in Africa. Within 150,000 years or so, their descendants had spread across most of the Old World, even expanding as far as Australia (and somewhat later to the Americas)

"assimilation" model

From his study of fossil remains, Fred Smith, of Illinois State University, has proposed an "assimilation" model that hypothesizes that more interbreeding did take place, at least in some regions (Smith, 2002). To test these hypotheses and answer all the fascinating questions, we will also need more whole-genome DNA from ancient remains, particularly from early modern human skeletons. This won't be an easy task. Remember, it took four years of intensive effort to decode and reassemble the Neandertal genome. However, there have been some recent successes (Fu et al., 2014

Partial Replacement Models (qd)

suggests that some interbreeding occurred between emigrating Africans and resident premodern humans. Assumes no speciation event occurred, and all hominins should be considered h.Sapians.

Flores Hominis vs. others

In any case, the morphology of the Flores hominins is different in several key respects from that of H. sapiens, including even those rare individuals who show pathological conditions. There is some possibility that DNA can be retrieved from the Flores bones and sequenced, although this has not yet been successful (Jungers, 2013). Although considered a long shot due to poor bone preservation, analysis of this DNA would certainly help solve the mystery.

downside of the multi and regional models

In light of emerging evidence over the last few years, advocates of the multiregional model generally aren't dogmatic about the degree of regional continuity. They recognize that a strong influence of modern humans evolving first in Africa has left an imprint on populations throughout the world that is still detectable today. Nevertheless, the most recent data suggest that multiregional models, as originally conceived, cannot account for the origins of modern humans. Further, these models provide little insight on the dispersal of modern H. sapiens

replacement model

Replacement models all emphasize that modern humans first evolved in Africa and only later dispersed to other parts of the world, where they replaced those hominins already living in these other regions. In recent years, two versions of such replacement models have been proposed, the first emphasizing complete replacement. The complete replacement model proposes that anatomically modern populations arose in Africa within the last 200,000 years and then migrated from Africa, completely replacing populations in Europe and Asia (Stringer and Andrews, 1988). It's important to note that this model doesn't account for a transition from premodern forms to modern H. sapiens anywhere in the world except Africa

Homo sapiens idaltu

(Herto, Ethiopia) The word idaltu, from the Afar language, means "elder." The overall impression is that this individual is clearly Homo sapiens—as are the other fossils from the site. Following comprehensive statistical studies, Tim White and colleagues concluded that, though not identical to modern people, the Herto fossils are near-modern. That is, these fossils "sample a population that is on the verge of anatomical modernity but not yet fully modern" (White et al., 2003, p. 745). To distinguish these individuals from fully modern humans (H. sapiens sapiens), the researchers have placed them in a newly defined subspecies.

downside of the regional hypothesis

A critical deduction of the original Stringer and Andrews theory argued that anatomically modern humans appeared as the result of a biological speciation event. So in this view, migrating African modern H. sapiens could not have interbred with local non-African populations, because the African modern humans were a biologically different species. Under this model, all of the premodern populations outside Africa would be taxonomically classified as belonging to different species of Homo. For example, the Neandertals would be classified as H. neanderthalensis. This explanation of nonhybridizing speciation would fit nicely with, and in fact help explain, complete replacement; but Stringer has more recently stated that he isn't insistent on this issue. He does suggest that even though there may have been potential for interbreeding, apparently very little actually took place (Stewart and Stringer, 2012).

niah cave discovery

A second early fossil is a partial skull from Niah Cave, on the north coast of the Indonesian island of Borneo This is actually not a new find and was, in fact, first excavated more than 50 years ago. However, until recent more extensive analysis, it had been relegated to the paleoanthropological back shelf due to uncertainties regarding its archaeological context and dating. Now all this has changed with a better understanding of the geology of the site and new dates strongly sup- porting an age of more than 35,000 ya and most likely as old as 45,000-40,000 ya, making it perhaps older than Tianyuan (Barker et al., 2007). Like its Chinese counterparts, the Niah skull is modern in morphology. It's hypothesized that some population contemporaneous with Niah or somewhat earlier inhabitants of Indonesia was perhaps the first group to colonize Australia.

Mladeč, in the Czech Republic

Another early modern human site in central Europe is Mladeč, in the Czech Republic. Several individuals have been excavated here and are dated to approximately 31,000 ya. Although there's some variation among the crania, including some with big browridges, Fred Smith (1984) is confident that they're all best classified as modern H. sapiens. It's clear that by 28,000 ya, modern humans were widely dispersed in central and western Europe (Trinkaus, 2005). Also from the Czech Republic and dated at about 26,000 ya, Dolní Věstonice provides another example of a central European early modern human

Homofloresiensis

As we've seen, by 25,000 years ago, modern humans had dispersed to all major areas of the Old World, and they would soon journey to the New World as well. Yet, at about the same time, remnant populations of earlier hominins still survived in a few remote and isolated corners. Even more surprising, it seems that other populations possibly branched off from some of these early inhabitants of Indonesia and either intentionally or accidentally found their way to other, smaller islands to the east. There, under even more extreme isolation pressures, they evolved in an astonishing direction. In late 2004, the world awoke to the startling announcement that an extremely small-bodied, small-brained hominin had been discovered in Liang Bua Cave, on the island of Flores, east of Java. Dubbed the "Little Lady of Flores" or simply "Flo," the remains consist of an incomplete skeleton of an adult female (LB1) as well as additional pieces from approximately 13 other individuals, which the press has collectively nicknamed "hobbits." The female skeleton is remarkable in several ways (fig. 11-14), though in some ways similar to the Dmanisi hominins. First, she was barely 3 feet tall—as short as the smallest australopith and her brain, estimated at a mere 417 cm3 (Falk et al., 2005), was no larger than that of a chimpanzee (Brown et al., 2004). Possibly most startling of all, these extraordinary hominins were still living on Flores just 13,000 ya (Morwood et al., 2004, 2005; Wong, 2009b) In most respects, the cranium most resembles early Homo erectus from Java—which, after all, is very close

two sites in the Czech Republic,

At two sites in the Czech Republic, Dolní Věstonice and Předmostí (both dated at approximately 27,000-26,000 ya), small animal figures were fashioned from fired clay. This is the first documented use of ceramic technology anywhere; in fact, it precedes later pottery invention by more than 15,000 years

Art in the Upper Paleolithic

Besides cave art, there are many examples of small sculptures excavated from sites in western, central, and eastern Europe. Perhaps the most famous of these are the female figurines, popularly known as "Venuses," found at such sites as Brassempouy, in France, and Grimaldi, in Italy. Some of these figures were realistically carved, and the faces appear to be modeled after actual women. Other figurines may seem grotesque, with sexual characteristics exaggerated, perhaps to promote fertility or serve some other ritual purpose. Beyond these quite well-known figurines, there are numerous other examples of what's frequently called portable art, including elaborate engravings on tools and tool handles Such symbolism can be found in many parts of Europe and was already well established early in the Aurignacian, by 33,000 ya. Innovations in symbolic representations also benefited from, and probably further stimulated

Technology and art in upper Paleolithic of Europe (QD)

Bone, ivory tools, antler, in addition to sophisticated stone tools. Pressure flaking, punch flake technique for standardized blades, atlatl, artistically crafted stone tools, artistic decoration of tools, objects, cave art, "Venus" figurines. Art reaches climax during "Magdalenian."

Cave Art

Cave art is now known from more than 150 separate sites, the vast majority from southwestern France and northern Spain. Apparently, in other areas the rendering of such images did not take place in deep caves. People in central Europe, China, Africa, and elsewhere certainly may have painted or carved representations on rock faces in the open, but these images long since would have disappeared

Central europe

Central Europe has been a source of many fossil finds, including the earliest anatomically modern H. sapiens yet discovered anywhere in Europe. Dated to about 40,000- 35,000 ya, these early H. sapiens fossils come from discoveries in 2002 at Oase Cave in Romania. Here, cranial remains of three individuals were recovered, including a complete mandible and a partial skull. While quite robust, these individuals are similar to later modern specimens, as seen in the clear presence of both a chin and a canine fossa. DNA was recently analyzed from a modern human male from the site (Fu et al., 2015). Surprisingly, Neandertal DNA comprises approximately 6 to 9 percent of the total genome of this individual. What's more, the researchers estimate that he is only four to six generations (about 200 years) removed from a Neandertal ancestor! Despite these interesting findings, he does not appear to show a close affinity with later modern humans from Europe.

sequenced DNA

Certainly, most molecular data come from contemporary individuals, since ancient DNA is not usually preserved. Even so, exceptions do occur: for example, the Ice Man and two very recently sequenced 7,000-year-old Iberian hunter-gatherers (Sánchez-Quinto et al., 2012). These cases open another genetic window—one that can directly illuminate the past. As discussed in Chapter 10, mtDNA has been recovered from more than a dozen Neandertal fossils and most recently a 400,000-year- old hominin (possibly H. heidelbergensis) from the Sima de los Huesos site in Spain (Meyer et al., 201 In addition, researchers have sequenced the mtDNA of nine ancient fully mod- ern H. sapiens skeletons from sites in Italy, France, the Czech Republic, and Russia (Caramelli et al., 2003, 2006; Kulikov et al., 2004; Serre et al., 2004). MtDNA data, however, are somewhat limited because mtDNA is a fairly small segment of DNA; and because it is transmitted between generations without recombination with male DNA, it provides information only regarding the maternal lineage. Indeed, in just the last few years, comparisons of Neandertal and early modern mtDNA led to some significant misinterpretations. Clearly, data from the vastly larger nuclear genome are far more informative.

Australia

During glacial times, the Indonesian islands were joined to the Asian mainland, but Australia wasn't. It's likely that by 50,000 ya, modern humans inhabited Sahul—the area including New Guinea and Australia. Bamboo rafts may have been used to cross the ocean between islands, though this would certainly have been dangerous and difficult. It's not known just where the ancestral Australians came from, but as noted, Indonesia has been suggested. Human occupation of Australia appears to have occurred quite early, with some archaeological sites dating to 55,000 ya. There's some controversy about the dating of the earliest Australian human remains, which are all modern H. sapiens. The earliest finds so far discovered have come from Lake Mungo, in south- eastern Australia. In agreement with archaeological context and radiocarbon dates, the hominins from this site have been dated at approximately 30,000-25,000 ya. Fossils from a site called Kow Swamp suggest that the people who lived there between about 14,000 and 9,000 ya were different from the more gracile early Australian forms from Lake Mungo. The Kow Swamp fossils display certain archaic cranial traits—such as receding foreheads, heavy supraorbital tori, and thick bones—that are difficult to explain, since these features contrast with the postcranial anatomy, which matches that of living indigenous Australians. Regardless of the different morphology of these later Australians, new genetic evidence indicates that all native Australians are descendants of a single migration dating back to about 50,000 ya (Hudjashou et al., 2007). Even more recent research using the whole-genome analysis of an Aboriginal Australian male (mentioned earlier) suggests that the divergence of native Australian populations occurred sometime between 75,000 and 62,000 ya (Rasmussen et al., 20

African Rock Art

Early accomplishments in rock art, possibly as early as in Europe, are seen in southern Africa (Namibia) at the Apollo 11 rock-shelter site, where painted slabs have been identified as dating to between 28,000 and 26,000 ya (Freundlich et al., 1980; Vogel- sang, 1998). At Blombos Cave, farther to the south, remarkable bone tools, beads, and decorated ocher fragments are all dated to 73,000 ya (Henshilwood et al., 2004; Jacobs et al., 2006). The most recent and highly notable discovery from South Africa comes from another cave located at Pinnacle Point, not far from Blombos (K. Brown et al., 2012). At Pinnacle Point, ocher has been found (perhaps used for personal adornment) as well as clear evidence of systematic exploitation of shellfish and use of very small stone blades (microliths). What is both important and surprising is that the earliest dates for the site are approximately 165,000 ya, providing the earliest evidence from anywhere of these behaviors thought by many as characteristic of modern humans (Marean et al., 2007). The microliths, dated to about 71,000 ya, also show evidence that the stone had been carefully heated, making it easier to modify into such small tools (K. Brown et al., 2009, 2012; Marean, 2010). Other recent finds from Sibudu, another cave site in South Africa dated to around 70,000 ya, show what archaeologist Lyn Wadley and colleagues think are traces of adhesives used to haft stone tools to handles as well as indirect evidence of the possible use of snares and traps to catch small animals (Wadley et al., 2009). Wadley concludes that such traces of behavior show evidence of what she terms "complex cognition." Recent work at Border Cave, South Africa, has also found evidence of a suite of complex behaviors, including use of notched bones, wooden digging sticks, bone awls, bone points, and organic residue likely used for hafting, as well as possible evidence of a wooden poison applicator. These well-preserved organic materials suggest that modern hunter-gatherer adaptations were well developed by 44,000 ya (d'Errico et al., 2012).

C. Loring Brace, of the University of Michigan interpretation

Emphasizing a biocultural interpretation, C. Loring Brace, of the University of Michigan, has suggested that with more effective tools as well as the use of fire allowing for more efficient food processing, anatomically modern H. sapiens wouldn't have required the large teeth and facial skeletons seen in earlier populations.

who is associated with the Partial Replacement Models

For a number of years, several paleoanthropologists, such as Günter Bräuer, of the University of Hamburg, suggested that very little interbreeding occurred—a view supported more recently by John Relethford (2001) in what he described as "mostly out of Africa."

Discovery of 4yo child as evidence of assimilation

For those paleoanthropologists (e.g., Trinkaus, 2005) who hypothesize that significant admixture (assimilation) occurred in western Europe as well as elsewhere, a recently discovered child's skeleton from Portugal provides some of the best skeletal evidence of possible interbreeding between Neandertals and anatomically modern H. sapiens. This important discovery from the Abrigo do Lagar Velho site was excavated in late 1998 and is dated to 24,500 ya— that's at least 5,000 years more recent than the last clearly identifiable Neandertal fossil. Associated with an Upper Paleolithic industry and buried with red ocher and pierced shell is a fairly complete skeleton of a 4-year-old child (Duarte et al., 1999). In studying the remains, Cidália Duarte, Erik Trinkaus, and colleagues found a highly mixed set of anatomical features. From this evidence they concluded that the young child was the result of interbreeding between Neandertals and modern humans and thus supports a partial replacement model of human origins.

Homo sapiens had a major advantage:

Homo sapiens had a major advantage: the elaboration of increasingly sophisticated tech- nology and probably other components of culture as well.

Würm in Eurasia.

Humans and other animals in most of Eurasia had to cope with shifts in climate conditions, some of them quite rapid. For example, at 20,000 ya, another climatic "pulse" caused the weather to become noticeably colder in Europe and Asia as the continental glaciations reached their maximum extent for this entire glacial period, which is called the Würm in Eurasia.

Africa

In Africa, several early (around 200,000-100,000 ya) fossils have been interpreted as fully anatomically modern forms. The earliest of these specimens comes from Omo Kibish, in southernmost Ethiopia. Using radiometric techniques, redating of a fragmentary skull (Omo 1) demonstrates that, coming from 195,000 ya, this is the earliest modern human yet found in Africa—or, for that matter, anywhere (McDougall et al., 2005; Brown et al., 2012). An interesting aspect of fossils from this site concerns the variation shown between two individuals. Omo 1 is essentially modern in most respects (note the presence of a chin, where a variety of modern human cranial characteristics are shown). But another ostensibly contemporary cranium (Omo 2) is much more robust and less modern in morphology. Somewhat later modern human fossils come from the Klasies River Mouth site on the south coast of Africa and Border Cave, just slightly to the north. Using a variety of dating techniques, paleo- anthropologists have dated both sites to about 120,000-80,000 ya. The original geological context at Border Cave is uncertain, and the fossils are likely younger than those at Klasies River Mouth (Bird et al., 2003). Although recent reevaluation of the Omo site has provided much more dependable dating, there are still questions remaining about some of the other early African modern fossils. Nevertheless, it now seems very likely that early modern humans appeared in East Africa by shortly after 200,000 ya and had migrated to southern Africa by approximately 100,000 ya. More recently discovered fossils are helping confirm this view.

Lascaux Cave, France

In Lascaux Cave, for example, immense wild bulls dominate what's called the Great Hall of Bulls; and horses, deer, and other animals drawn with remarkable skill adorn the walls in black, red, and yellow. Equally impressive, at Altamira the walls and ceiling of an immense cave are filled with superb portrayals of bison in red and black. The artist even took advantage of bulges in the walls to create a sense of relief in the paintings. The cave is a treasure of beautiful art whose meaning has never been satisfactorily explained. It could have been religious or magical, a form of visual communication, or simply art for the sake of beauty.

proof of the replacement theory

In addition, some researchers (Tiemel et al., 1994) have suggested that the Jinniushan skeleton discussed in Chapter 10 hints at modern features in China as early as 200,000 ya. If this date—as early as that proposed for direct antecedents of modern H. sapiens in Africa—should prove accurate, it would cast doubt on replacement models. This position, however, is a minority view and is not supported by more recent and more detailed analyses.

Katanda area

In central Africa, there was also considerable use of bone and antler, some of it possibly quite early. Excavations in the Katanda area of the eastern portion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (fig. 11-20) have shown remarkable development of bone craftwork. Dating of the site is quite early. Initial results using ESR and TL dating indicate an age as early as 80,000 ya (Feathers and Migliorini, 2001). Preliminary reports have demonstrated that these technological achievements rival those of the more renowned European Upper Paleolithic (Yellen et al., 1995

Grotte Chauvet, France

Inside the cave called Grotte Chauvet, preserved unseen for thousands of years, are a multitude of images, including dots, stenciled human handprints, and, most dramatically, hundreds of animal representations. Radiocarbon dating has placed the paintings during the Aurignacian, likely more than 35,000 ya, making Grotte Chauvet considerably earlier than the Magdalenian sites of Lascaux and Altamira (Balter, 2006).

human culture during the Paleolithic time period

It was a time of relative abundance, and ultimately Upper Paleolithic people spread out over Eurasia, living in caves and open-air camps and building large shelters. We should recall that many of the cultural innovations seen in the Upper Paleolithic had begun with Neandertals. Nevertheless, when looking at the entire Upper Paleolithic, there are notable differences. For example, far more elaborate burials are found, most spectacularly at the 24,000-year-old Sungir site near Moscow, where grave goods included a bed of red ocher, thousands of ivory beads, long spears made of straightened mammoth tusks, ivory engravings, and jewelry (Formicola and Buzhilova, 2004). During this period, either western Europe or perhaps portions of Africa achieved the highest population density in human history up to that time.

animals of the upper Paleolithic period

Large herds of reindeer roamed the tundra and steppes, along with mammoths, bison, horses, and a host of smaller animals that served as a bountiful source of food. In addition, humans exploited fish and fowl systematically for the first time.

what does the evidence argue

Most of the genetic evidence, as well as the newest fossil evidence from Africa, argues against continuous local evolution producing modern groups directly from any Eurasian premodern population (in Europe, these would be Neandertals). Still, for some researchers, the issue isn't completely settled. With all the latest evidence, there's no longer much debate that a large genetic contribution from migrating early modern Africans influenced other groups throughout the Old World. debated is just how much admixture might have occurred between these migrating Africans and the resident premodern groups.

Homo floresiensis traits

Other than short stature, what did the Flores hominins look like? In their cranial shape, thickness of cranial bone, and dentition, they most resemble H. erectus, and specifically those from Dmanisi. Still, they have some derived features that also set them apart from all other hominins. For that reason, many researchers have placed them in a separate species, Homo floresiensis

Aurignacian

Pertaining to an Upper Paleolithic stone tool industry in europe beginning at about 40,000 ya.

replacement Models(qd)

Phylogenetic models that suggest that modern humans evolved in one location and then spread geographically, replacing other earlier hominin populations without or with little admixture.

Solutrean tools

Solutrean tools are good examples of Upper Paleolithic skill and likely aesthetic appreciation as well In this lithic (stone) tradition, skill in modifying rock (called "knapping") developed to the finest degree ever known. Using specialized flaking techniques, these artisans made beautiful parallel-flaked lance heads, expertly flaked on both surfaces. The lance points are so delicate that they can be considered works of art that quite possibly never served, nor were they intended to serve, a utilitarian purpose.

Immediately following the first publication of the Flores remains, intense controversy arose regarding their interpretation (Jacob et al., 2006; Martin et al., 2006)

Some researchers have argued that the small-brained hominin (LB1) is actually a pathological modern H. sapiens individual afflicted with a severe disorder (microcephaly has been proposed). The researchers who did most of the initial work reject this conclusion and provide some further details to support their original interpretation (for example, Dean Falk and colleagues' further analysis of microcephalic endo- casts; Falk et al., 2009). Recent analyses of the cranial and postcranial morphology (including bones from the wrist) further support the hypothesis that LB1 represents a separate species (H. floresiensis) rather than a pathological individual (Baab et al., 2013; Orr et al., 2013; Westaway et al., 2015) this theory is though to be highly unlikely.

A recent chronometric calibration for the Tabun Cave suggests a date as early as 120,000 ya.

Such early dates for modern specimens pose some problems for those advocating the influence of local evolution, as proposed by the multiregional model. How early do the premodern populations—that is, Neandertals—appear in the Near East? A recent chronometric calibration for the Tabun Cave suggests a date as early as 120,000 ya. This dating for these sites, all located very close to each other, suggests that there's considerable chronological overlap in the occupation of the Near East by Neandertals and modern humans. This chronological overlap in such a small area is the reason anthropologists have suggested this region as a likely place where Neandertals and modern humans might well have interbred.

Upper Paleolithic Period

The cultural period known as the Upper Paleolithic began in western Europe approximately 40,000 ya. Upper Paleolithic cultures are usually divided into five different industries, based on stone tool technologies: Chatelperronian, Aurignacian, Gravettian, Solutrean, and Magdalenian. Major environmental shifts were also apparent during this period. During the last glacial period, about 30,000 ya, a warming trend lasting several thousand years partially melted the glacial ice

"insular dwarfing"

The evolutionary mechanism (called "insular dwarfing") thought to explain such extreme body size reduction in both the elephants and the hominins is an adaptation to reduced resources, with natural selection favoring smaller body size (Schauber and Falk, 2008).

Most spectacular cave art sites

The most spectacular and most famous of the cave art sites are Lascaux and Grotte Chauvet (in France) and Altamira (in Spain

who is associated with the regional Continuity Model: Multiregional evolution

The regional continuity model is most closely associated with paleoanthropologist Milford Wolpoff, of the University of Michigan, and his associates (Wolpoff et al., 1994, 2001). They suggest that local populations—not all, of course—in Europe, Asia, and Africa continued their indigenous evolutionary development from premodern Middle Pleistocene forms to anatomically modern humans.

tools of the Magdalenian

The spear-thrower, or atlatl, was a wooden or bone hooked rod that extended the hunter's arm, enhancing the force and distance of a spear throw. For catching salmon and other fish, the barbed harpoon is a good example of skillful craftsmanship. There's also evidence that bows and arrows may have been used for the first time during this period. The introduction of much more efficient manufacturing methods, such as the punch blade technique , provided an abundance of standardized stone blades.

Ust'-Ishim discovery

The third early Asian find was discovered in 2008 and includes a human femur dated to approximately 45,000 from the central Asian site of Ust'-Ishim, located in western Siberia. Complete sequencing of the nuclear genome from this individual indicates genetic admixture with Neandertals at about 2.3 percent, similar to modern non-African populations (Fu et al., 2014). Further, it demonstrated that the individual was male. These findings are important because they provide the earliest genetic information about early modern Homo sapiens and show evidence of interbreeding with Neandertal populations. However, it's important to note that the Ust'-Ishim individual does not appear to show a strong affinity to any modern human population, suggesting he may have been part of a lineage that went extinct.

Asia

There are seven early anatomically modern human localities in China, the most significant of which are Upper Cave at Zhoukoudian, Tianyuan Cave (very near Zhoukoudian), and Ordos, in Mongolia. The fossils from these Chinese sites are all fully modern, and all are considered to be from the Late Pleistocene, with dates probably less than 40,000 ya. Upper Cave at Zhoukoudian has been dated to 27,000 ya, and the fossils consist of three skulls found with cultural remains in a cave site that humans clearly regularly inhabited. Considerable antiquity has also been pro- posed for the Mongolian Ordos skull, but this dating is not very secure and has therefore been questioned (Trinkaus, 2005).

according to the multi-regional model:

Through gene flow and natural selection, according to the multiregional hypothesis, local populations would not have evolved totally independently from one another, and such mixing would have "prevented speciation between the regional lineages and thus maintained human beings as a single, although obviously polytypic, species throughout the Pleistocene" (Smith et al., 1989, p. 39). Thus, under a multiregional model, there are no taxonomic distinctions between modern and premodern hominins. That is, all hominins following H. erectus are classified as a single species: H. sapiens

Herto

Tim White, of the University of California, Berkeley, and his colleagues have been working for three decades in the Middle Awash area of Ethiopia. They've discovered a remarkable array of early fossil hominins (Ardipithecus and Australopithecus) as well as somewhat later forms (H. erectus). From this same area in the Middle Awash, highly significant new discoveries came to light in 1997. For simplicity, these new hominins are referred to as the Herto remains.

Summary of Main Topics

Two main hypotheses have been used to explain the origin and dispersal of modern humans. - The regional continuity model suggests that different groups of modern people evolved from local populations of premodern humans. - Various replacement models, especially those emphasizing partial replacement, suggest that modern humans originated in Africa and migrated to other parts of the world. However, when they came into contact with premodern human groups, they did not completely replace them, but interbred with them to some extent. • Recent DNA evidence from ancient Neandertals as well as from modern people demonstrate that a low level of interbreeding did take place, probably between 80,000 and 50,000 ya. These findings support a partial replacement model. • Archaeological finds and some fossil evidence (although the latter is not as well established) also support the view that intermixing occurred between modern H. sapiens and Neandertals. • The earliest finds of modern H. sapiens come from East Africa (Ethiopia), with the oldest dating to about 200,000 ya. The second find from Herto is very well dated (160,000 ya) and is the best evidence of an early modern human from anywhere at this time. • Modern humans are found in South Africa beginning around 100,000 ya, and the first anatomical modern H. sapiens individuals are found in the Middle East dating to perhaps more than 100,000 ya. • The Upper Paleolithic is a cultural period showing many innovations in technology, development of more sophisticated (cave) art, and very elaborate burials rich in grave goods. Similar cultural developments occurred in both Eurasia and Africa. • The discovery of Homofloresiensis in Indonesia shocked the paleoanthropology community. This is most likely a separate species from modern humans that lived well into the Late Pleistocene.

The Cro-Magnon from Western Europe

Western Europe has yielded many anatomically modern human fossils, but by far the best-known sample of western European H. sapiens is from the Cro-Magnon site, a rock-shelter in southern France. At this site, the remains of eight individuals were discovered in 1868. The Cro-Magnon materials are associated with an Aurignacian tool assemblage, an Upper Paleolithic industry. Dated at about 28,000 ya, these individuals represent the earliest of France's anatomically modern humans. The so-called Old Man (Cro- Magnon 1) became the original model for what was once termed the Cro-Magnon, or Upper Paleolithic, "race" of Europe. Actually, of course, there's no such valid biological category, and Cro-Magnon 1 is not typical of Upper Paleolithic western Europeans—and not even all that similar to the other two male skulls found at the site.

These Herto fossils include

a mostly complete adult cranium, an incomplete adult cranium, a fairly complete (but heavily reconstructed) child's cranium, and a few other cranial fragments. Following lengthy reconstruction and detailed comparative studies, White and colleagues were prepared to announce their findings in 2003.

burins

small, chisel-like tools with a pointed end; thought to have been used to engrave bone, antler, ivory, or wood. for working wood, bone, and antler; borers for drilling holes in skins, bones, and shells; and knives with serrated or notched edges for scraping wooden shafts into a variety of tools.

the recent whole-genome

the recent whole-genome sequencing using the hair from an Australian Aboriginal man who lived 100 years ago shows that he had Denisovan genes and that Aboriginal populations diverged from other groups 75,000-62,000 ya. The second migration occurred considerably later (38,000-25,000 ya) and led to the peopling of eastern Asia (Rasmussen et al., 2011). 2015). We also need to be aware that DNA thousands of years old can be obtained from hominin remains found in environments that have been persistently cold (or at least cool). In tropical areas, DNA degrades rapidly; so it seems a long shot that any usable DNA can be obtained from hominins that lived in many extremely large and significant regions (for example, Africa and Southeast Asia). Nevertheless, a very useful approach to partly answer our questions uses the genetic patterning still visible in contemporary humans. From such studies we know that there was more interbreeding and eventual gene flow of Denisovan genes in Asia (and the Pacific) than there was in Europe.

results of melted glacier in the upper Paleolithic period

. The result was that much of Eurasia was covered by tundra and steppe, a vast area of treeless country dotted with lakes and marshes. In many areas in the north, perma- frost prevented the growth of trees but permitted the growth, in the short summers, of flowering plants, mosses, and other kinds of vegetation. This vegetation served as an enormous pasture for herbivorous animals, large and small, and carnivorous animals fed off the herbivores. It was a hunter's paradise, with millions of animals dispersed across expanses of tundra and grassland, from Spain through Europe and into the Russian steppes.

Regional Continuity Model (qd)

The hypothesis that evolution from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens occurred gradually throughout the traditional range of H. erectus.

Europeans of the Upper Paleolithic are even better known for their symbolic representation (what we today recognize as art).

well documented from Siberia, North Africa, South Africa, and Australia. Given a 25,000-year time depth of what we call Paleolithic art, along with its nearly worldwide distribution, we can indeed observe marked variability in expression