Anthropology- exam 1
What is the law of independent assortment?
Mendel's second law, which asserts that the inheritance of one trait does not affect the inheritance of other traits. ex: Pea color and pea shape genes, Imagine that we cross two pure-breeding pea plants: one with yellow, round seeds (YYRR) and one with green, wrinkled seeds (yyrr). Because each parent is homozygous, the law of segregation tells us that the gametes made by the wrinkled, green plant all are ry, and the gametes made by the round, yellow plant are all RY. That gives us \text F_1F1start text, F, end text, start subscript, 1, end subscript offspring that are all RrYy
What is cultural anthropology?
study of modern human society and culture through active participation and observation using cultural relativism and cross cultural comparison. Typically study present-day societies in non-western settings such as Africa, south america or Australia. Study how people who share common cultural system organize and shape physical and social world around them and in turn shaped by these ideas, behaviors, and physical environments, hallmark by the concept of culture itself. Technology is an important aspect of Cultural Anthropology. Anthropologists have studied the examples of material life established in different human civilizations. Some examples of these universal differences are in the shelter, attire, tools and methods for acquiring food and producing material goods.
List and describe at least four sub-disciplines of biological anthropology?
1. Paleoanthropology is the study of ancient humans (their anatomy, behaviour, ecology and chronology), particularly as evidenced in the fossil record over the last 4-5 million years. 2. Genetics, a branch of biology dealing with variability among organisms and the mechanisms for transmission of variable characteristics from parent to offspring, allows biological anthropologists to explain how evolutionary processes work. 3. Osteology is the study of skeletal material; human osteology focuses on the interpretation of the skeletal remains of past human populations, while paleoanthropologists use the same techniques to study ancient humans. Paleopathology is an important branch of osteology that studies abnormalities, or traces of disease, nutritional deficiencies, and injury in human skeletal remains. 4. Forensic anthropology is an applied anthropological approach dealing with legal questions. Forensic anthropologists are often asked to aid in the identification of human remains, and have recently been involved in such tragedies as the crash of a Swissair plane at Peggy's Cove, Nova Scotia, and the investigation of "disappeared persons" in Argentina.
What are the steps by which DNA can be used to ultimately create a protein? Or what are the steps from DNA to protein synthesis?
1. Transcription: The parental strand of DNA unzips, exposing two daughter strands of DNA. Free-floating RNA nucleotides match one exposed daughter strand of DNA. The strand of messenger RNA (mRNA) moves out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm. 2. Translation: The mRNA attaches to a ribosome in the cytoplasm. Triplets of transfer RNA (tRNA), with exposed bases and each carrying an amino acid specific to its set of three bases, recognize and bind with complementary base pairs of mRNA. The amino acids, linked by peptide bonds, form a chain called a polypeptide. The protein forms, either as a single polypeptide or as multiple polypeptides bound together.
What makes humans so different from other animals? What are the six steps to humanness? Know the dates associated with each step.
6 key attributes 1. bipedalism: 6 mya, a form of terrestrial locomotion where an organism moves by means of its two rear limbs or legs (walking on two feet) 2. nonhoning canine: 5.5 mya, process food in ways unique to humans, due to change in diet?, canine reduction and loss of honing function. 3. complex material culture/ tool use: 2.6 mya, complex human characteristics that facilitates our survival by enabling us to adapt to different settings. Material culture: material objects that humans use to manipulate environments Ex: hammers, nails, use to make cabinets, tables, etc. 4. speech: 2.5 mya, only humans can speak, shape of hyoid bone. 5. Hunting: 1 mya, social behavior group individuals organize themselves to pursue animals for food. (other species hunt alone) 6. Domesticated food: 11,000 years ago, humans control lifestyles of plants and animals and use them for food clothing, etc. raise animals and grow plants, fundamental part of bio evolution and influences our health and living conditions. We also got bigger brains that are larger then other primates and animals. Complex analytical skills Social learning: capacity to lean from other humans, enabling the accumulation of knowledge across many generations.
How is it that mutations in DNA can create alleles with phenotypic variation?
Although allelic differences cause phenotypic differences such as pigmented and albino, this does not mean that only one gene affects skin color. It is known that there are several. However, the difference between pigmented, of whatever shade, and albino is caused by the difference at one gene; the state of all the other pigment genes is irrelevant.
What is blending inheritance?
An outdated, refuted theory that the phenotype of an offspring was a uniform blend of the parents' phenotypes.
How did the theory of evolution come to be?
Before, influenced by religious doctrine. The theory of evolution by natural selection, first formulated in Darwin's book "On the Origin of Species" in 1859, is the process by which organisms change over time as a result of changes in heritable physical or behavioral traits. The theory of evolution is based on the idea that all species are related and gradually change over time. Darwin defined evolution as "descent with modification," the idea that species change over time, give rise to new species, and share a common ancestor. He drew on geology, paleontology, taxonomy and systematics, demography, and what is now called evolutionary biology. Scientists works in these disciplines had shown that: Earth is old and has changed over time,fossils rep. remains of once-living, often extinct organisms and thus provided a record of the history of life, life evolves over time, groups of related species help clarify evolutionary history, the number of adults in a population tends to remain the same over time.
Who was Mendel and why was he important for modern biology?
By experimenting with pea plant breeding, Mendel developed three principles of inheritance that described the transmission of genetic traits, before anyone knew genes existed. Mendel's insight greatly expanded the understanding of genetic inheritance, and led to the development of new experimental methods.
What is the most basic structure and characteristics of DNA?
DNA is made up of molecules called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a phosphate group, a sugar group and a nitrogen base. The four types of nitrogen bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C). The order of these bases is what determines DNA's instructions, or genetic code.
Which scientific disciplines were of use to Darwin for the development of his theory of natural selection. Be sure to understand why each was useful.
Geology: study of Earth (composition, activity, history), demonstrated great age of our planet and development of landscape. Paleontology: study of extinct life-forms through the analysis of fossils, detailed life forms- many now extinct. Taxonomy and systematics: classification of organisms into a system that reflects degrees of relatedness, classification of past and living life-forms, laid foundation for systematics (study of biological relationships over time) classification of living organisms to determine their evolutionary relationships with one another. Demorgraphy: Study of populations features and vital stats (birthrate, death rate, pop. size, pop. density) Evolutionary biology: Specialty within the field of biology; study of the process of change in organisms.
Who was Franz Boas and why is he important in the history of anthropology?
He was an American anthropology pioneer. He trained influential anthropologists such as Margaret mead and Ruth Benedict. He emphasized the importance of scientific method and evidence-based thinking. doesn't matter how you feel.
Differentiate homozygous, heterozygous, and co-dominance in terms of genotypes and phenotypes?
Homozygous means that both copies of a gene or locus match while heterozygous means that the copies do not match. Two dominant alleles (AA) or two recessive alleles (aa) are homozygous. One dominant allele and one recessive allele (Aa) is heterozygous. Codominance is when both alleles in the genotype are seen in the phenotype, like a flower that is half blue and half red.
What was Darwin's contribution to the theory of evolution?
Hutton's and Lyell's uniformiariunism led Darwin to recognize that the accumulation of catastrophes over a long period of time explains (part) of the apperence of present-day landscape. It then laid the groundwork of Darwins's view of evolution. For example, he saw fossils in south America means evidence that strongly suggest that an earlier species had transformed into the modern species most likely through a succession of species overtime. Darwin's key contribution was the principle of natural selection. Three principles allowed him to deduce that natural selection is the primary driver of evolution: the number of adults in a population tends to remain the same over time even though, for most organisms, parents tend to produce multiple and sometimes many offspring variation exists among members of populations individuals having variation that boosts survival and reproduction increase in relative frequency over time
What is a scientific theory?
In science, the word theory applies to a well-tested explanation that unifies a broad range of observations and hypotheses and that enables scientists to make accurate predictions about new situations.
What is biocultural anthropology?
It is the scientific exploration of the relationships between human biology and culture. attempts to understand how culture affects our biological capacities and limitations.
What is the law of segregation?
Mendel's first law, which asserts that the two alleles for any given gene (or trait) are inherited, one from each parent; during gamete production, only one of the two alleles will be present in each ovum or sperm. . For example, a person with blood type AB will pass on either an A or a B allele to a child but not both. The other allele will come from the other parent. This discovery was revolutionary because it explained how new variation arises in reproduction.
How is mitosis different from meiosis?
Mitosis involves the division of body cells, while meiosis involves the division of sex cells. The division of a cell occurs once in mitosis but twice in meiosis. Two daughter cells are produced after mitosis and cytoplasmic division, while four daughter cells are produced after meiosis.
What is the difference between polygenic and pleiotropic traits?
Pleiotropy - refers to one gene influencing many traits. Example: If one gene determined two traits that were different from one another. Polygenic Inheritance - refers to many genes (2 or more) affecting one trait. Example: Eye colour.
What is anthropology?
Study of humankind, viewed from perspective of all people and all times through order primates, past and current.
What is uniformitarianism and why was it important for Darwin?
The theory that natural processes that occurred in the geologic past are still at work today. led him to recognize that the accumulation of such catastrophes over a long period of time explains, at least in part, the appearance of the present-day landscape. This understanding of Earth's remarkably dynamic geologic history laid the groundwork for Darwin's view of evolution as a long, gradual process.
What are the characteristics of an eukaryote?
a eukaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes. eukaryotic cells have: a membrane-bound nucleus. numerous membrane-bound organelles (including the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, chloroplasts, and mitochondria). All protists, fungi, plants and animals are examples of eukaryotes.
What is a karyotype and what information can be known from it?
a photograph of the chromosomes that exist within a cell. A doctor may order a karyotype during pregnancy to screen for common congenital defects. looks at the size, shape, and number of your chromosomes.
What is a chromosome?
a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.
Why can it be correctly stated that DNA replication is semi-conservative?
because of this process of replication, where the resulting double helix is composed of both an old strand and a new strand. it makes sure that you have copies of the DNA that are identical to each other. Otherwise you wouldn't be able to make an exact copy of the DNA. This type of replication works thanks to DNA base pairing.
Why is the study of primates part of biological anthropology?
by learning about species similar to us, we can learn about ourselves. Studying the behavior, anatomy, social structure, and genetic code of primates can reveal key differences and similarities between other primates and humans. From this, we can learn what it means to be human as opposed to being a primate and further as opposed to other mammals or animals in general. we can determine how closely other species are related to each other as well as to us. By determining these relationships, we are able to gain a sense of our own evolutionary history, learning about shared common ancestors and how humans as a species developed and evolved over time. We can see what traits are shared between all of the primates, what traits some primates have lost, and new traits which primates developed in order to survive in different environments. Additionally we can begin to understand which traits were favorable, allowing some primates to thrive while others struggled to survive.
How do biological anthropologists know what they know?
carefully and systematically observe and ask question about natural world. Through scientific method: observations, develop questions, answering questions, formulate and test hypothesis that hope to lead to theories about natural world.
What makes a good hypothesis?
defines the variables in easy-to-measure terms, like who the participants are, what changes during the testing, and what the effect of the changes will be. For example someone performing experiments on plant growth might report this hypothesis: "If I give a plant an unlimited amount of sunlight, then the plant will grow to its largest possible size."
Describe the differences between meiosis and mitosis.
mitosis a type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus, typical of ordinary tissue growth. the simple duplication of a cell and all of its parts. It duplicates its DNA and the two new cells (daughter cells) have the same pieces and genetic code. Two identical copies come from one original. Meiosis a type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes and plant spores. he form of cell division that creates gametes, or sex cells (eggs or sperm) is called meiosis. This idea makes sense, as meiosis creates cells with half the chromosomes than the original. These cells are specifically for reproduction, and then take additional genetic material from the other parent cell.
What are the four forces (or causes) of evolution? and why is it important for evolution?
mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection. Mutation is a random heritable change in a gene or chromosome, resulting from additions, deletions, or substitutions of nitrogen bases in the DNA sequence. Mutations may create advantageous, deleterious, or neutral traits for the organism. important because it's the ultimate source of all genetic variation is mutation. Mutation is important as the first step of evolution because it creates a new DNA sequence for a particular gene, creating a new allele. Gene flow is the exchange of genetic material between two populations. , gene flow works to decrease the variation between the two populations. Gene flow is important because even low levels of gene flow can have a large impact, counteracting the other evolutionary forces. Genetic drift is the random change in allele frequency from one generation to the next. Genetic drift has much more effect in small populations, which may have an allele drift to fixation, in which all members have that allele. Natural selection and genetic drift both result in a change in the frequency of alleles in a population, so both are mechanisms of evolution Natural selection is the process by which some organisms have a greater chance of surviving and reproducing than others due to features that are better adapted to the environment. As a result, those advantageous features are passed on at a higher frequency than less advantageous traits.
What are the components of the scientific method?
observation (evidence gathered to help answer questions, solve problems, fill gaps in scientific knowledge), hypothesis (testable statements that potentially explain specific phenomena observed in the natural world) , prediction, test, hyp supported or not supported (new or revised hyp)
What are the characteristics of gametes?
reproductive cells or sex cells that unite during sexual reproduction to form a new cell called a zygote. Male gametes are called sperm and female gametes are ova (eggs). Sperm are motile and have a long, tail-like projection called a flagellum.
What is the difference between species and variety?
species is the basic unit of classification and it defines an individual organism. Species share similar traits and produce similar offspring. Whereas, variety is a taxonomic rank lower than species. Varieties often occur in nature and most varieties are true to their species type.
What is biological anthropology?
study of evolution origin through order primates, variation, and adaptation of humans and their past and present relatives (order primates). Bio. Anthropologist travel throughout the US and world to investigate populations. Biological anthropologists often look at the biology of human remains, including past diets and the prevalence of ancient diseases. Fossils, bones, and other remains provide enormous clues regarding the lives of ancient peoples and how they interacted with their environments.
What is linguistic anthropology?
study of the construction, use, and form of language which is a set of written or spoken symbols that refer to things (people, places, concepts, etc.) in human populations. Make possible the transfer of knowledge from one person to the next and from one generation to the next. Basically how language influences social life.
What is an adaptive radiation?
the diversification of an ancestral group of organisms into new forms that are adapted to specific environmental niches. generally occurs when an organism enters a new area and different traits affect its survival. An example of adaptive radiation is the development of mammals after the extinction of dinosaurs. Because adaptive radiations produce diversification through ecological specialization, they are essential for understanding how ecological forces can drive evolutionary diversification and shape the way species interact with their environments.
What is binomial classification and what is it used for?
the formal naming system for living things that all scientists use. It gives every species a two-part scientific name. For example, a ladybug found in the United States goes by the fancy name of Harmonia axyridis. a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin grammatical forms, although they can be based on words from other languages.
What is a common ancestor?
the most recent ancestral form or species from which two different species evolved. Ever since researchers sequenced the chimp genome in 2005, they have known that humans share about 99% of our DNA with chimpanzees, making them our closest living relatives
Describe the concept of the Most Recent Common Ancestor.
the most recent individual from which all organisms in the group are directly descended. The MRCA of a set of individuals can sometimes be determined by referring to an established pedigree.
What is natural selection?
the process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring, thereby increasing the frequency of those features in the population. One example of recent natural selection in humans involves the ability to tolerate the sugar, lactose, in milk.