AP Art History Terms

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Mass

(in sculpture and architecture) matter that is "held" in space

maqsura

A maqsura is a screened area in front of the mihrab where the local ruler or other high official worshipped.

Allah

Arabic for "The God"

Theocracy

Byzantine emperors saw themselves as Christ's personal priests on earth, and because of this, they were the sole authorities in both the church and the government.

Northern Renaissance in France1

France was divided and embattled in the fifteenth-century, but it reorganized in the sixteenth century to become a into a formidable power. Under Francis I (1494-1547), France's cultural status was reasserted.

Bilingual vases

In the early days of red-figure painting, vases were painted with the same composition on both sides with one version in black-figure technique and the other in red-figure. These works were made famous by the Andokides Painter. They were only produced for a short time due to the popularity of the red-figure technique.

Miraj

Muhammad's ascension into heaven

Corinthian Capital

Not far from the theater, Polykleitos the Younger also built a tholos dedicated to the god Asklepius that functioned as an ancient healing center. Little of this structure remains, but it is known that inside the Doric colonnade were columns with Corinthian capitals. The third of the so-called classical orders of architecture, the Corinthian capital is the most ornate. First seen in the 5th century BCE, the Corinthian capital did not become widely used until Roman times. The Corinthian capital, attributed to the sculptor Kallimachos, consists of a double row of acanthus leaves with tendrils and flowers around a bell shaped echinus. The idea for this style of capital came to him after seeing an acanthus root growing out from underneath a heavy-laden basket. It became the preferred style of column capital since it was both ornate and symmetrical.

Santa Sabina (ca. 422-432) (Image 049)- exterior, interior, and plan

Old Saint Peter's was demolished during the Renaissance to build a more modern basilica on Vatican Hill that would assert the power and authority of the Catholic Church. We can still get an idea of what an Early Christian church looked like by visiting Santa Sabina (Image 049) in Rome, built about 100 years after Old Saint Peter's, allows us to still get an idea of what an Early Christian church looked like.

Chartres Cathedral, Chartres, France

Originally a Carolingian basilica, the original cathedral of Chartres was largely destroyed by a fire in 1020. Everything was destroyed except the crypt below the structure that housed the Tunic of the Virgin, a precious relic. The plan for the reconstucted cathedral included a modified westwork, a long nave with a transept covered by a wooden roof, and a large pilgrimage choir with 3 projecting radiating chapels. Unfortunately, another fire occurred in 1134 that seriously damaged western façade. A new entranceway raised immediately, with t wo great towers planned for either side of the western doors. The towers and their spires on the west facade (Image 060) are the most notable features of Chartres Cathedral because of great differences between the two. The north tower was started soon after the fire in 1134 and built up to base of present spire. The spire was much later added in the Flamboyant Gothic style (see Lesson 5.08). The foundations of south tower were laid in 1145, and its spire was completed by 1170. The south tower (without the spire) represents a culmination of Romanesque traditions.

City-states and their reign

Sumerians- Akkadians-Guti-Sumer-Babylonians-Assyrian- Babylonians-Persia

Great Altar of Zeus and Athena site plan (ca. 175 BCE) (Image 038)

The altar's frieze contains over 100 figures, some measuring well over seven feet in height. Their emotional depictions emit a sense of anything but the calm, serene harmony of the Classical period, giving them the very essence of Hellenistic art. Deep carving of the marble creates a play of light and shadow as well as a sense of excitement, wild movement, and emotion.

cloisonné

a popular method of decoration in the Early Middle Ages that uses metals strips (called cloisons) and glass paste.

Lapis Lazuli

a rich, azure-blue stone imported from Afghanistan

Registers

a series of superimposed rows in a pictorial narrative

taberna

a single room shop covered by a barrel vault

The dome of the Florence Cathedral

a testament to Brunelleschi's genius, but not an true indicator of his style. We will examine two of his other works in Florence to get a better sense of the architect. The first structure is Santo Spirito. Its interior space, which is created by repeating units of rounded arches, has a sense of harmonious rhythm and structural clarity. The building is proportional, with the height of the nave two times its width. The arcade is the same height as the clerestory. It is fully harmonious and rational, as is typical of the architect's style.

Transept

another aisle perpendicularly intersected the basilica between the nave and the apse. This is where worshippers could see a display of the (alleged) relics1 of Saint Peter. In later periods, the transept is will be expanded so that the church plan of a Christian church would resemble the Cross of Christ.

Glazed brick

bricks painted and then fired to fuse the color with the baked clay

vellum

calfskin

circa

doges

collection of dukes

Columns

colonnade, 2nd section, both orders were drummed, fluted, and tapered towards the top, though the elevations were different.

Doric Columns

comprised of a shaft and a capital. The capital included a necking (the transition area between shaft and capital), a cushion-like echinus and an abacus which served as a support for the superstructure.

Rosetta Stone

contained a text written in Egyptian hieroglyphics, Egyptian demotic language, and Greek praising an Egyptian king. Using the Greek version of the inscription, scholars translated the hieroglyphics on the stone.

kiswa(h)

covered with a black curtain with calligraphic inscriptions in gold and silver thread

relief sculpture

created carving into a medium (wood, stone, etc) in order to project the design. In a relief work, the sculpture remains attached to the background material

Groin vaults

created from brick-faced concrete, enclosed huge spaces with light entering the interior through clerestory windows.

Meotopes

created in high relief and present images of the same themes seen on the Athena Parthenos- centauromachy, Amazonamachy, and gigantomachy- as well as scenes from the Trojan War. The imagery of the metopes are also all allegories for the Greek triumph over Persia in the early 5th century BCE.

Augustus of Prima Porta (Image 043)

created in the early 1st century CE. The work was found in his wife Livia's villa, and it shows him in one of his many roles as head of the empire. Here, Augustus is depicted as a youthful and heroic general addressing his troops. Stylistically, the work is similar to Polyklietos's Doryphoros in hairstyle, facial features, and pose (although Augustus's arm is fully extended in an orator pose instead of bent). The details of the statue carry a political message, which is also a trait of Augustan sculpture. Julius Caesar (Augustus's uncle) claimed he was a direct descendant of Venus, and after his death, Caesar was also deified and worshiped as a god as well. Augustus never claimed to be a god outright, but his divine lineage is clearly suggested in his official portraiture. In the Prima Porta work (Image 043), the presence of the god Cupid (the son of Venus) symbolizes his divine lineage and indicates that he has the right to rule Rome. To reinforce his power and authority, he is shown in an orator pose addressing his troops and his armor has a battle scene from one of his military victories.

Flamboyant style

e suggestion of thin flames. The overlapping features of the Flamboyant style seem flicker through overlapping features (such as pinnacles before rose windows), complex views, extreme ornamentation, and highly attenuated proportions. The masterpiece of the Flamboyant style is the church of Saint-Maclou.

a nave with six barrel-vaulted bays (Church of Sainte-Foy)

http://www.bluffton.edu/homepages/facstaff/sullivanm/france/conques/stefoy/0078.jpg

basilica plan with transept

https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/888/flashcards/191888/jpg/aafxpks01352173302652.jpg

The Tomb of the Triclinium (Image 032)

named after the formal dining room, or triclinium, present in the fresco scenes. The banqueters are lying on long klinai (couches) are being entertained by musicians and waited on by servants, which have been painted to look as though they are suspended from a ceiling. The setting includes stylized trees and birds, an elongated cat looking for morsels under the couches, and a ceiling covered with beautiful geometric forms. This scene also has the same sense of energy and gesticulation common to Etruscan human forms.

monochromatic

single color

Merode altarpiece- symbols in the central plan

small image of Christ with his cross coming in through window on a beam of light and headed to Mary's womb book - Bible (open to Isaiah 7:14) lilies - a symbol of Mary's purity smoking candle - the Incarnation (cf. Isaiah 42:3) copper basin and towel - washing away of sin (Christ as Savior)

The construction of the monumental entrance to the Acropolis, or Propylaia (Image 035)

started right after the completion of the Parthenon (437 BCE). The site is difficult due to its steep slope, so the architect, Mnesikles, disguised the change in the ground level by dividing the structure into two sections, one western (lower) and the other eastern (upper). The complete gateway structure resembled a Doric temple facade.

Minbar

stepped pulpit

sarcophagus

stone or clay coffin

canonical Greek temples

structures that follow a particular canon

linear perspective

system of drawing or painting in which the artist attempts to create the illusion of spatial depth on a two-dimensional surface. It works by following consistent geometric rules for rendering objects as they appear to the human eye. For instance, we see parallel lines as converging in the distance, although in reality they do not. Stated another way, the lines of buildings and other objects in a picture are slanted inward making them appear to extend back into space. If lengthened, these lines will meet at a point along an imaginary horizontal line representing the eye level. Each such imaginary line is called an orthogonal. The point at which such lines meet is called a vanishing point (from the Art Lexicon).

iman

teacher

Hajj

the annual pilgrimage to Mecca

encaustic

the encaustic technique involves painting with hot wax to which colors have been added

Gigantomachy

(the war of the gods of Olympus against the Giants). Just to the right of the center, the twin gods Apollo and Artemis pursue a giant while a lion at the center attacks another. The work was painted and ornamented with metal (for weaponry, etc.), much like the freestanding sculpture of the period which we have studied.

Necropolis

"city of the dead". was a major archeological find. The necropolis at Cerveteri consisted of a number of mound-shaped tombs called tumuli (singular, tumulus). The upper portion of a tumulus is constructed with masonry blocks, while the lower portion was cut into the soft tufa stone below ground. The entire tomb was covered with dirt once it was finished.

classical

(1) elements can be identified, such as the single groundline, well-proportioned figures, and divine personifications (the male in the lower left is Campus Martius, an historic section of Rome, and the female is Rome itself). The back side contained a dedicatory inscription to the deceased emperor. The most unusual aspect of this are the reliefs on its the sides depicting the decursio (the ritual of circling the emperor's funeral pyre). The figures in these images have short, squat proportions and do not share a common baseline, instead floating in space on individual patches of turf. This break with the classical tradition of depicting the human form and utilization of an abstract concept of space would soon become the norm.

Chartres Cathedral, Chartres, France the portals of the west facade (Image 060) http://www.oneonta.edu/faculty/farberas/arth/Images/arth212images/gothic/Chartres/royport.jpg

Francesco Borromini

Another giant of the Italian Baroque was architect Francesco Borromini (1599-1667), Bernini's greatest rival. Borromini is famous for taking Baroque architecture to new heights, amplifying its drama and dynamism and intensifying the sculptural qualities of architectural forms. Borromini's first major commission was San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane in Rome (Image 088), a true masterpiece of Baroque architecture. The church's facade that is full of motion and sculptural elements. The lower portion undulates with concave and convex features, while the upper story pulses with concave elements. The church has a second facade consisting of a narrow bay crowned with a small tower that follows the curve of the road, and the presence of this structure further illustrates the variety of the Baroque. Borromini took this building further than nearly any other of his contemporaries in emphasizing its structural qualities. The façade is set in motion with a dynamic alternation of concave and convex elements on two levels. The enhanced the three-dimensional effect with deep recessions, making the building provide a pulsating, moving interaction between interior and exterior spaces. The fact that San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane has two facades, not just one, emphasizes the relation of the building to its environment. Not surprisingly, the interior (Image 088) is also "in motion." The design somewhat resembles a central-plan structure, but Borromini's version is characteristically fluid, elastic and pulsating. The building's plan (Image 088) is a hybrid of a Greek cross (a cross with four arms equal in length) and an oval, with a long axis between the entrance and the apse. The plan demonstrates the Baroque aesthetic because of its innovative spatial geometry. The oblong (or "pinched") oval feature deviates from the traditional Classical geometry of the High Renaissance. Instead of a rounded dome, Borromini stretched the church's dome to an oval shape to heighten the tension. The interior decoration also emphasized this tension through the exaggerated perspective of the coffers. Hidden windows are fitted into the base of the dome to illuminate the interior. What is most notable about San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane is that Borromini created a Baroque style, rather than copied one. Both the floor plan and the exterior were emulated in northern Italy and northern Europe, as well as European colonies. Another remarkable work by Borromini is the Chapel of Saint Ivo, which was commissioned by the the College of Sapienza in Rome. The architect again incorporates a concave lower story, but this time it supports a convex six-lobed drum. Sculptural elements, especially in the lantern that seems to spiral up into the heavens, both decorate the structure and create a sense of motion. The interior has whitewashed undulating walls that pulse with energy. Borromini's dome at Sant Ivo is not a separate unit, but rather a seamless continuation of the lower level, unlike domed structures in the Renaissance. Stucco appliques of angels and and six-pointed stars (symbols of wisdom) decorate the dome's interior. The building is more like a unified piece of sculpture.

a twelve and a half-foot tall bronze column that stands inside Saint Michael's

Another work important work is a twelve and a half-foot tall bronze column that stands inside Saint Michael's. The piece displays the episodes from the life of Jesus in twenty-four continuous, spiraling scenes (read from the bottom up). This work was most likely inspired by the Column of Trajan in Rome (Lesson 3.20).

Carolingian Architecture

Architecture experienced a revival of the Roman past in Carolingian period as well. Charlemagne's Palatine Chapel in his capital of Aachen, Germany (ca. 800) is one of the best examples of this resurgence of some classical influences. The Palatine Chapel was the first vaulted structure of the Middle Ages in the West. The Aachen chapel plan is similar to San Vitale (Image 051) in Ravenna (cf. Lesson 4.07), where Charlemagne visited several times during his reign. Charlemagne's chapel is simpler in design has a simple uses of interior space than San Vitale. Another different element were the two towers placed at either side of the entrance exterior. This is a characteristic we will see repeated many times in the architecture of the Romanesque and Gothic periods in the next module.

The Shahnama

As mentioned, secular histories and manuscripts were also produced in Islamic culture. The Shahnama is a Persian national epic poem that tells the history of Iran from creation through the Muslim conquest that is often chosen as subject matter for secular texts. It is sometimes referred to as "The Book of Kings."

archivolt http://www.pitt.edu/~medart/menuglossary/archivolt.htm

Bands or mouldings (moldings, Am.) surrounding an arched opening.

High Gothic Architecture in France

Cathedral Nave Height (in feet) Laon 80 Paris 107 Chartres 118 Amiens 140 As we can see from the chart above, pushing the structural limits in order to obtain greater and greater heights was a common feature among Gothic architects. The combination of soaring height with a vast array of windows gave Gothic cathedrals a luminous, delicate, elegant feel when compared to the dark, heavy, coarse structures of the Romanesque period.

Atrium

Congregants entered Old St. Peter's via a large peristyle court, or atrium (similar to the open section of the Roman home plan)

sfumato

Da Vinci's unique use of a smoky chiaoscuro

Valley temples

Each pyramid had a temple in front of it that was connected by a causeway (raised path) to a second temple near the Nile River, or a valley temples. Surrounding each pyramid were smaller pyramids for the queens and other members of the royal family. There were also multiple mastabas for court officials who desired to be near their king in the afterlife and serve him for eternity.

El Greco3

El Greco's masterpiece depicts the Burial of Count Orgaz (1586-1588). Reportedly, the Count was so pious that Saint Stephen (holding the deceased Count's feet in the painting) and Saint Augustine (at the Count's shoulders) descended from Heaven at his burial in 1312 to lay him in his tomb. It was customary for nobility to assist with the burial of a high-born person, so the renditions of the bystanders are all portraits, but there is unfortunately no record of the sitters' identities. The painting is very clearly divided into two zones, the heavenly and the terrestrial, but together they create a unified whole. The upper and lower zones are brought together compositionally by elements such as the standing figures, their varied participation in the earthly and heavenly events, the torches, and the cross. The point of equilibrium is the outstretched hand poised in the void between the two saint as the mortal body descends into the grave. An angel takes the count's soul up to heaven, and the soul's form is that of a transparent and naked child as seen in the Medieval period.

Chartres Cathedral, Chartres, France Tunic of the Virgin http://www.travelgumbo.com/fileSendAction/fcType/0/fcOid/426750525224591766/filePointer/426750525224701728/fodoid/426750525224701665/imageType/MEDIUM/inlineImage/true/Chartres-2013-044%2520%2520The%2520Veil%2520of%2520the%2520Virgin.JPG

Everything was destroyed except the crypt below the structure that housed the Tunic of the Virgin, a precious relic.

Flemish Art

Flanders was an artistically rich area of Northern Europe in the fifteenth century that was situated in the area of modern Belguim. Works with religious themes dominated Flemish art, and large-scale public altarpieces were masterfully produced objects of civic pride. The majority of altarpieces were polyptychs (hinged, multipaneled paintings) that decorated on both sides.

Florence Campanile (mid 14th century)

Giotto designed the Florence campanile in 1334. Typical of Italian bell towers, this campanile was separated from the cathedral while in Northern churches, bell towers were attached to the structures. Giotto's campanile is divided into clearly defined, well-ordered sections that create a unified whole, and the clear, logical plan of his design had a tremendous impact on Renaissance architects.

vanishing point

If lengthened these lines will meet at a point along an imaginary horizontal line representing the eye level. Each such imaginary line is called an orthogonal. The point at which such lines meet is called a vanishing point(from the Art Lexicon).

Christ sits enthroned in Majesty surrounded by his star-filled mandorla http://www.bluffton.edu/homepages/facstaff/sullivanm/france/conques/stefoy/0053.jpg

In the center, an elongated figure of Christ sits enthroned in Majesty surrounded by his star-filled mandorla and flanked by angels.

Islams influence

Islam spread rapidly in the seventh and eight centuries, taking hold in the Middle East, North Africa, Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, the majority of Spain, and into the Indus River area. With the exception of Spain, Islam remains the dominant cultural force in these areas today.

France- Jean Fouquet

Jean Fouquet (ca. 1420-1481) was the greatest fifteenth-century French artist. His knowledge of Flemish and Italian art and his skills as a draftsman are apparent. His work Etienne Chevalier and Saint Stephen was once part of a diptych, and it is typical of the artist's style. The patron Etienne Chevalier, who was the treasurer of France, is shown in a pious pose alongside his patron saint, Stephen. The saint is pictured with a stone as his attribute since he was martyred by stoning (cf. Acts 7:54-60).

sedes sapientiae

Mary is frontal and seated on a throne as the Queen of Heaven holding the Christ child (sedes sapientiae pose) in the central panel of the window. She is dress in a bright, luminous blue robe and has a nimbus bordered with pearls as well as a crown. Overhead, there is an image of the dove of the Holy Spirit, and surrounding them are images of angels, Christ's passion, and the Wedding at Cana in individual panels.

the Gospels of Otto III(ca. 1000 CE)

One of the most famous illuminated manuscripts from the Ottonian period are the Gospels of Otto III(ca. 1000 CE). Otto III sits enthroned like a Roman emperor, with his feet resting on a raised stool. He bears an orb with a cross on it, signifying dominon over the Christian world. Personifications of the regions Otto controlled- Roma (Italy), Gallia (France, Belgium), Germania (Germany), and Sclavinia (Slavic Lands, Balkans)- approach him to pay homage. Stylistically, this work has elements of Roman illusionistic depth and architectural framing, while the linear drapery, expressions, and the overlapping of figures find their origin in the Early Christian tradition.

Donatello- David1

Perhaps Donatello's masterwork, and one of the greatest sculptures of the early Renaissance, was his bronze statue of David (Image 069). The work shows the return of nude sculpture. It was the first such work of its kind in such a long time that it is one of the most important pieces in the history of western art. David was commissioned by Cosimo de'Medici for the Palazzo Medici, but it's not certain when during the mid-fifteenth century Donatello cast it. It was originally on top of a pedestal in the middle of the courtyard, so the viewers had to look up at it from below.

Raphael: School of Athens

Pope Julius II commissioned Raphael to fresco the papal apartments ("stanze" in Italian) in the Apostolic Palace in Vatican City between 1510 and 1511 at the same time Michelangelo was painting the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel for the pope. In the Stanza della Segnatura (papal library), the artist painted a different subject on each of the four walls: Theology (Disputa), Law (Justice), Poetry (Parnassus), and Philosophy (School of Athens (Image 076)). In these frescoes, Raphael painted a complete summary of Western learning, thought and civilization in true Renaissance spirit. The overall theme, knowledge, is integrated through Raphael's four frescos around the room, but School of Athens (Image 076), which was the second fresco completed in the room, is considered the best of the four. Presenting Raphael's interpretation of philosophy as branches of knowledge, he shows a gathering of Greek philosophers engaged in various activities. The School of Athens frescois dedicated to philosophy as a path to knowledge, related especially to understanding the drive of knowledge. The philosophers depicted in the fresco traditionally sought knowledge through an understanding of root causes, linking back to the title and the concept of the fresco. School of Athens includes 21 specific figures shown against a background of the school. A collection of the great thinkers and philosophers of the classical world are engaged in various levels of discourse and thought, amongst the grisaille figures of Apollo, the god of the arts, and Athena, the goddess of wisdom in the niches. Not surprising, all of the figures are male and are presumed to represent significant Greek philosophers. The central figures are Plato and Aristotle. Depicted at the central focal point of the architecture, Plato is shown as an older, wise, gray-haired man holding a bound copy of Timaeus in his left hand and giving an upward gesture with his right hand that signifies his concern with higher, spiritual matters. His student Aristotle is shown as a younger, handsome man looking to his teacher. Aristotle carries a bound copy of Nicomachean Ethics in his left hand and walks slightly ahead of Plato, giving an outward gesture with his right hand that is symbolic of his interest in worldly, ethical issues. The other figures shown in the fresco represent other important Greek philosophers that are not as positively identifiable. Raphael used iconography to represent those philosophers with no known visual image such as Epicurus. While Plato and Aristotle serve as the central figures of the fresco, the other philosophers depicted lived at various times and were not necessarily their contemporaries. In the left foreground, Pythagoras is writing in a book and Heraclitus is deep in thought leaning on a podium. The figure of Heraclitus is also a portrait of Michelangelo, whom Raphael depicts as sulking because the two did not always get along. Towards the right, Diogenes is sprawled about the steps, and Euclid, the father of Euclidean geometry, is drawing with a compass. In the extreme right foreground, the next to the last face is a self-portrait of Raphael himself wearing a black cap. Here, Raphael not only shows himself to be a learned man, but also a master of figural composition.The compilation of famous Greek philosophers followed the intended concept of knowledge and the frescos show that through philosophy and history. School of Athens shows the depth of Raphael's artistic talent, including the ability to integrate four different frescos to a common theme- knowledge. Whether the fresco is considered an artist's representation of philosophy or deeper meaning is associated to the various gestures and details, School of Athens provides a beautiful view into High Renaissance art.

Romanesque architects

Romanesque architects made many changes to Early Christian church plans in order to accommodate the large numbers of congregants and help ensure the building's longevity. The use of extended naves, double side aisles, ambulatories, radiating chapels ,and tribunes allowed for large numbers of pilgrims to worship, and barrel vaulted ceilings and compound piers meant the structure would be both sturdy and fireproof.

Augustus

Rome's first emperor. e was also known as princeps ("first citizen"), imperator ("commander-in-chief"), and pontifex maximus ("chief priest"). These titles indicate that he had control of the civil government, the military, and the official state religion. Under the consolidated power of Augustus, Rome enjoyed an era of order and peace known as the Pax Augusta ("Augustan Peace"). After the rule of Augustus, this period of peace and prosperity lasted over the next two hundred years. This was known as the Pax Romana ("Roman Peace"), and during this time, the Romans built an unprecedented number of public works and infrastructure both in Rome and its conquered lands, such as forums, temples, basilicas, baths, amphitheaters, roads, bridges, and aqueducts, etc. These works glorified the power and authority of both the Roman empire and its emperors.

Andrei Rublyev - Three Angels icon (ca. early 1411 or 1425-1427) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_%28Andrei_Rublev%29#/media/File%3aAngelsatmamre-trinity-rublev-1410.jpg

Russian paintings were patterned and extremely linear, using sharp, contrasting colors to make the works more "readable." This icon showing the three angels who appeared before Abraham (cf. Genesis 18: 1-15) was created by the master Andrei Rublyev. The linear nature can be easily seen in the drapery on the central angel.

Nave (Saint-Etienne in Caen, France) https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/733/flashcards/765733/jpg/nave__st_etienne__caen1336165222956.jpg

Saint-Etienne's nave utilizes sexpartite ("sex" is Latin for "six") vaulting. In this form, branching ribs split the vault into six sections, all supported by alternating compound piers in the nave. Sexpartite vaulting also allows for the insertion of clerestory windows, thus creating a three-story nave elevation.

Rottgen Pieta (ca.1320-1325) (Image 062)

Small-scale sculpture was also being produced during this Gothic period, and like the large-scale architectural sculpture of the jambs, it was infused with more individuality and naturalism. The Rottgen Pieta (Image 062)from the early 14th century Germany is a painted wooden sculpture of a grieving Mary holding the distorted body of a dead Chris. This work confronts the viewer with an image of Mary actively mourning. Her mouth is open in anguish, and her crying is almost audible. Christ's body is twisted and distorted. It is an image of his past suffering, but it also connects the viewer to the intensity of his sacrifice. It is also a mirror of the widespread difficulties in Germany during the 14th century. Viewers could connect their suffering to that of Christ and Mary as well as find comfort in the concept of ultimate salvation after huge sacrifice.

Platforms

Stylobates, 1st section, same for both Ionic and Doric

The Egyptians believed that a person had a life force that continued on after the living body passed away

Gothic Period

The Gothic period experienced both great turmoil and great prosperity. Periods of great upheaval included the Hundred Years' War between England and France, the Great Plague, and the Great Schism, but there were also periods great development. Urban growth, intellectual development, and an economic boom also characterize the Gothic era. Aggressive building projects were common across Europe, but particularly in France, which was the most prosperous.

Proto-Renaissance

The affects of these disruptions on the established order in Italy revealed itself in the world of art as well. Fourteenth-century Italian art broke dramatically from Medieval forms, paving the way the Renaissance, which is generally considered the Golden Age of Western art. It is for this reason that many scholars refer to 14th century in Italy as the Proto-Renaissance.

Plaque of the Ergastines (Image 035)

The cavalcade includes figures of chariots, musicians, animals for sacrifice, etc. The Ergastines were the young women in charge of weaving the peplos garment to be offered to the cult image of Athena. On the east end, the procession culminates with figures of gods, goddesses, and their invited guests observing the Athenians play homage to their patron goddess.

Lindau Gospels

The cover of the Lindau Gospel (ca. late 9C) is an example of a lavish luxury item from the Carolingian period. Created in gold using the repousse technique, the cover features a youthful crucified Christ in the center with figures of angels along with a prostrate image of Saint John and the Virgin Mary. The other areas of the cover are bedecked with precious jewels and pearls. The smaller secondary figures have the same sense of energy as the rendition of St. Matthew from the Ebbo Gospels.

Bas-relief

The degree of the relief is designated as high, low sunken (hollow) or intaglio

An Equestrian Portrait

The equestrian portrait of Charlemagne (9th century) is a work that is clearly influenced by the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius ( Lesson 3.21). In both works, an oversized emperor (when compared to the horse) is depicted. Compared to the figure of Marcus Aurelius, Charlemagne has the stiff, squat figure and emotionless expression of the Early Christian period. The combination of these two styles thus makes the work completely Carolingian.

Facade of Santa Susanna

The facade of Santa Susanna in Rome, which was designed by Carlo Maderno (1556-1629), shares similar characteristics as the facade of Il Gesù . The sharp sudden verticality, the projection of the central section of the lower story, the narrow nature of the facade, and the scroll buttresses of the upper story of Il Gesù are developed further. The projecting columns and pilasters bring the viewer into the central axis of the structure. This combination of elements characterize the Italian Baroque style. In addition, the stautuary in the recessed niches emphasize the sculptural nature of the church's the facade that is typically Baroque.

triforium

The gallery was now unnecessary in the High Gothic Churches thanks to the use of flying buttresses. So then, the elevation (Image 060) at Chartres is three stories: arcade, triforium and clerestory.

Byzantine

The history and culture of the surviving Eastern Christian Roman Empire is referred to as Byzantine. This name comes from the name Byzantium,the original name of its capital, Constantinople. The Byzantines, however, did not use this term to refer to themselves because they considered themselves Romans (even though the official language of their empire was Greek). The Byzantine culture was unique from classical Rome because it was a theocracy. Byzantine emperors saw themselves as Christ's personal priests on earth, and because of this, they were the sole authorities in both the church and the government.

Giotto di Bondone (ca. 1266-1337)

The most important painter of the 14th century was Giotto di Bondone (ca. 1266-1337). Many art historians assert Giotto as the father of Western painting. Giotto's fame comes in part from the fact that he made a definitive break from the Byzantine style in his work. The other reason for he is held in such high regard is his naturalistic method of painting based on observation of the real world rather than established prototypical images.

Figure Serpentinata

The spiraling composition of complicated and interlocking figures directs the eyes upward, and this technique is known as figura serpentinata.

The Great Mosque cont. https://ic.ucsc.edu/~langdale/arth139/damasdiag.jpg

The title "Great Mosque" refers to the central mosque of a city. These structures are built large enough to hold all members of the Islamic community. It is primarily used for noonday prayers on Friday, which is the Islamic Sabbath. Great mosques are also referred to as Friday mosques (masjid-i jami in Arabic) or congregational mosques.

Fourth Style wall painting from the Ixion Room from the House of the Vettii (ca. 1C CE) (Image 039)

This room is named for the mythological scene involving Ixion on the back wall. The decorative program combines unrelated "framed" illusionistic scenes with delicate ornamentation. The architectural vistas are unrelated to one another, and if the wall was removed, these scenes would not form a unified landscape or cityscape. The windows provide shallow ledges for the figures, who look like they would tumble forward into the room if they took a step forward. The First Style painting along the lower sections of the walls in the Ixion Room are some of the finest surviving examples of this style.

statue of Apulu (Apollo) (Image 031)

This work once stood on top of the Temple of Minerva in Veii. This piece is full of movement and energy conveyed through the gesturing arms and flexed legs with fan-like calf muscles, making it the embodiment of the Etruscan Archaic style. Like Greek Archaic works, the figure wears an Archaic smile, but the Etruscan version is much more lively. The schematized rippled folds of the figure's garment are also characteristic of the early Etruscan style.

Islamic Secular Architecture: The Alhambra in Granada, Spain

Walls typically have geometric tile dadoes (lower wall panels) with tessallation patterns and carved stucco panels covering the upper portions of the walls, as seen in the Comares Palace facade. The Palace of the Lions is next to the Comares Palace, and it is known for its open court, the Court of the Lions (Image 065), which features a fountain with a large basin that rests on 12 lion sculptures. The fountain sits at the intersection of two water lines that run on a hydraulic system that carries water throughout the complex to all of the buildings and the gardens. The Hall of the Sisters from the two large marble flagstones that are part of the room's floor. This rooms contains a small fountain that carries water to the Court of the Lions.

sarsen

a type of sandstone

capitals decorated with relief carvings (Church of Sainte-Foy)

http://www.bluffton.edu/homepages/facstaff/sullivanm/france/conques/stefoy/int3.html Throughout the Church of Sainte-Foy are over 200 columns with capitals decorated with relief carvings. Some of these are simply decorative, featuring images of plant motifs, while others are historiated and tell Biblical stories as well as stories from the life of Sainte-Foy. These capitals functioned as didactic pictures for both the monks and the pilgrims, and traces of paint indicate they were once polychrome.

tracery

in architecture, branching, ornamental stonework, generally in a window, where it supports the glass. Tracery is particularly characteristic of Gothic architecture (from the Art Lexicon).

Cerveteri

major Etruscan city

Polychromatic

many colored

agora

marketplace

Media

material

Situated in the center courtyard (Image 183)

of the al-Haram Mosque (which was actually built around the Kaaba), the structure has a solid gold door (added in 1982) and it is covered with a black curtain with calligraphic inscriptions in gold and silver thread known as the kiswa(h).

pronaos

porch

Spolia

recycled or repurposed building materials. Typical of early Christian churches, Old Saint Peter's had a simple brick exterior and a highly decorated interior with frescoes, mosaics, and rhythmic series of alternating arches and marble columns that were spolia from pagan temples.

barrel (or tunnel) vault

semi-cylindrical in cross-section, made up of a continuous row of arches joined to one another (from the Art Lexicon).

khutba

sermon

Octavian

the adopted son and nephew of Julius Caesar, restored order to the Roman state. Once Octavian took power, the Roman Republic period officially ended. The Roman Senate ceased to be the state's governing body, and the power of the nation was in the hands of a single man- the emperor. Octavian was given the title of Augustus ("revered one") in 27 BCE, and scholars consider this designation as the beginning of the Imperial period in Rome.

Amarna period

the art of the Amarna Period was also revolutionary and broke with the traditional Egyptian canon of depiction. This new approach is certainly evident in the statue of Akhenaton (ca. 1350 BCE). The statue of the pharaoh has curving contours, an elongated neck, small arms, a long face with full lips, and heavy eyelids. His oddly shaped body has a narrow waist, protruding belly, wide hips, and fatty thighs. This portrayal is very different from the perfect and heroically proportioned images of the pharaohs created throughout Egyptian history, and it must have been very shocking for Egyptians to see a pharaoh shown in this way.

Nerva

the first emperor of the High Empire, but he only lived two years. He was succeeded by his adopted heir Trajan, who was a brilliant general. During his reign, Rome expanded Rome's borders to its greatest extent.

Picture Plane

the imaginary plane corresponding to the surface of a picture that is perpendicular to the viewer's line of sight

silhouettes and outline figures

vague forms/shapes

mullions

vertical member that divides a window or separates one window from another (from the Art Lexicon).

The Ficoroni Cista (ca. late 4th C BCE)

was produced by an Etruscan artist in the Roman Empire. Cistae were popular luxury items for women's toiletries. These and other implements in bronze were quite popular in 4th century BCE Etruscan arts. The Ficoroni Cista bears the name of its Etruscan artist, Novios Plautios, who signed it from Rome instead of an Etruscan city. Greek technique and subject matter (an episode from Jason and the Argonauts) are used. The figures are seen from a variety of positions and on different levels in the style of the Niobides Krater (Lesson 3.08).

paradigm shift

when one era shifts into another, the old habits are disrupted by new ones that eventually settle into a familiar routine (from the Art Lexicon).

trajan decius http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Emperor_Traianus_Decius_%28Mary_Harrsch%29.jpg

who reigned not quite three years, is famous because of his brutal persecution of Christians. Like the introspective portraits of Marcus Aurelius and Caracalla, his portait gives us an image of a sad, tired, worried old man, not a proud, confident ruler.

Kufic script

(named for the important calligraphy center in the city of Kufa). Kufic script is very angular, with its upright forms creating almost right angles with the baselines. In traditional kufic practice, no vowels (a,e, i, o, u) are written in the text, only consonants. To facilitate recitation of the verses, vowels are indicated by the red or yellow symbols below the baselines.

Pyxides

(pl. form of pyxis) were produced in other cultures (cf. Athenia pyxis (ca.430-420 BCE)), and they tend to be lidded boxes that are cylindrical in form.

Summary of Northern1 Romanesque and Gothic Architectural Styles

1"Northern" means non-Italian. By now your head is probably swirling with all the new architectural vocabulary, so let us now take a moment to review what we have learned. Be sure to print this study guide, along with the review of Romanesque and Gothic architectural sculpture below, and add them to Section "C" of your notebook.

Numbers cont..

1- unity of God 2- dual nature of Christ, fully man and fully God 3- Trinity (persons of the Godhead: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit); Apostles Peter, James, and John 5- wounds of Christ 7- complete perfection 8- resurrection (the time between Christ's entry into Jerusalem and his resurrection was eight days) 10- Ten Commandments; completeness 12- Twelve Tribes of Israel (Old Testament); Twelve Apostles (New Testament); wholeness 40- trial; testing; generation; long period of time

Humanism

A renewed interest in humanism in fifteenth century Italy was the spark that ignited an this intense period of artistic expression known as the Renaissance. With the printing press and the expanding use of vernacular language in literature, people had easier access to knowledge. Humanism focused on education, and the humanistic ideals emphasized acquiring knowledge and actualizing the full potential of man.

Theodora and her attendants (Image 051)

Across from the Justinian mosaic, we see a work featuringhis wife Theodora and her attendants (Image 051). The presentation here is similar, but there is more indication of a physical setting. The courtyard fountain and canopy indicate that the empress (who is holding the chalice for the wine in the Eucharist ritual) is depicted outside the church (probably following Justinian in the procession). This slight bit of setting in this scene is simply symbolic, so it is not illusionistically rendered. It is most interesting that neither Justinian or Theodora ever visited Ravenna. Their presence in these mosaics is simply symbolic and propagandistic, attempting to legitimize their right to rule Ravenna as part of the Byzantine empire.

Constantine

After Diocletian stepped down, Rome experienced civil disorder and unrest as the remaining tetrarchs fought to control the empire. In 312 CE Constantine, the son of tetrarch of the West, invaded Italy and won a pivotal battle at the Milvian Bridge. Constantine claims he had a vision of a cross-bearing angel before the battle who told him, "in this (cross) you will conquer." Therefore, Constantine attributed his victory to Christ. Constantine issued the Edict of Milan in 313 CE proclaiming toleration for Christianity, which by now was the most influential world-view in the empire. Constantine had uncontested control of Rome by 324 CE. He moved the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Byzantium (modern Istanbul). Then, he renamed the city Constantinople in his honor. In 325 CE, Constantine sponsored Christianity was recognized as the unofficial religion of the Roman world, signaling the beginning of Christian Middle Ages.

Chartres Cathedral, Chartres, France http://www.greatbuildings.com/cgi-bin/gbc-drawing.cgi/Chartres_Cathedral.html/Chartres_Plan.gbd https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/42/flashcards/1180042/jpg/picture61328997719179.jpg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Triforium_Chartres.jpg

After the fire in 1194, the new cathedral was conceived of in High Gothic style, and this building is one of the first to be designed with flying buttresses as an architectural elements. As seen in the structure's plan (Image 060), each rectangular unit in the nave had its own vault and was flanked by one square in each aisle. This type of spatial arrangement would soon become standard for High Gothic Churches because it created a more unified interior space. Chartres's nave (Image 060) also utilized a new elevation that incorporated enlarged clerestory windows and eliminated the gallery level, which had helped to brace Romanesque and Early Gothic nave walls. The gallery was now unnecessary in the High Gothic Churches thanks to the use of flying buttresses. So then, the elevation (Image 060) at Chartres is three stories: arcade, triforium and clerestory.

Spanish Art in the Americas

Although Spain's status as the greatest world power was declining in the 17th century, it still possessed a great deal of territory around the globe, particularly in the Americas. The Spanish art of the Americas is an interesting fusion of indigenous styles and subjects with those of the European tradition.

Blind arcade

An arcade is a series of arches. When the arches are simply for decoration and provide no actual openings, it is considered a "blind" arcade since you cannot see through the archways.

ogee arch

An arch with a pointed apex, formed by the intersection of two S curves usually confined to decoration and not used in arcade arches. Ogee arches were used only in the late Gothic period.

icon

An icon is a small portable painting (often on a wooden panel) depicting Christ, the Virgin Mary, and/or the Saints. Icons became important components of Byzantine worship and still are in use in Eastern Orthodox Christianity today.

Loggia Rucellai,

Another historically important construction is diagonally across from the palazzo: the beautiful Loggia Rucellai, which opens onto Via della Vigna Nuova, commissioned by Giovanni Rucellai at the same time as the Palazzo. The loggia, a classical construction of three large rounded arches, is known for the architrave (an architectural element in Classical architecture that is the lintel or beam that rests on the capitals of the columns). It boasts the decorative motif of the Rucellai coat of arms, a sail blowing in the wind. Until 1677, the loggia was the location of both public and private Rucellai family ceremonies. The small piazza in front of the loggia, the loggia itself, and the Palazzo go to make up a unified environment that served, for centuries, a residential, commercial and social function.

Florence Cathedral

As a powerful and wealthy city-state in the fourteenth century, the Republic of Florence created several building projects which asserted their prestige. The grandest of these projects was the Florence Cathedral, properly called Santa Maria della Fiore and commonly referred to as the Duomo. Started in 1296 under the direction of Arnolfo di Cambio, the cathedral emphasizes horizontal space over the soaring heights of of contemporary Northern cathedrals. Its exterior is characteristically Tuscan Italian, incorporating cream and green-colored marble veneer in organized geometric designs to match the adjacent baptistery that we studied in Lesson 5.02. Since the dome of the cathedral dates from the Renaissance, we will discuss it later in the course.

Kylix

Bell shaped

Numbers

Certain numbers carry symbolic significance in the Christianity. These were rather represented in the amounts of things rather than actual written numbers. For instance, an apse (which contain the main altar of a church) usually has five windows since the number five is an iconographic representation of the five wounds of Christ from his crucifixion. The number twelve is also significant for Christians as it symbolizes wholeness or completeness in the Bible. Christ had twelve Apostles in the New Testament, and there were twelve tribes of Israel in the Old Testament.

The Louvre

Classicism emerged in French Baroque architecture as well. Both the French and Italian classical styles are used in the east facade of the Louvre. For his first major building project, King Louis XIV wanted to close in the courtyard of the Louvre. The commission was given to Bernini first, but the Italian's design was too elaborate for French tastes. Three French architects completed the project as a collaborative effort. The final result shows is clearly classically inspired with its three French-style pavilions separated by two colonnades with paired columns and a temple-like front on the central pavilion.

The Great Mosque in Cordoba, Spain

Cordoba was the capitol of Islamic Spain, and the city's Great Mosque (ca. 785-786) (Image 056) is the largest mosque in the Islamic West. The originial mosque of Abd Al-Rahman I was enlarged under the reigns of Abd Al-Rahman II (833), Al-Hakam II (964), and Al-Mansur (987) in the ninth and tenth centuries. It was converted to a cathedral in 1523 after the Muslims were driven out of Spain.

Donatello: Habakkuk

Donatello's rendition of the Old Testament prophet Habakkuk for the campanile of the Florence Cathedral is strikingly realistic with its deep-set and anguished eyes, furrowed brow, and bald, bony head (cf. Roman veristic sculpture from the Republican period in Lesson 3.16).

Islamic Secular Architecture: The Alhambra in Granada, Spain

Due to its various phases of construction, the plan of the Alhambra has no central organizing element, instead consisting of several palaces linked together. The overall themes of the decoration of the palace was the idea of "paradise on earth". Colonnades, fountains with running water, and reflecting pools added aesthetic and functional complexity to the complex. While the exterior was left plain and austere, the interior is covered with intricate tile work, wooden inlay, and stucco carvings. The decoration for the most part consists of Arabic inscriptions that have been manipulated into geometrical patterns and calligraphic arabesques.

Watercolor

Durer's Great Piece of Turf shows a precision based on close observation of nature unlike the extremely stylized images of flowers in the Medieval period. Botanical details are rendered with a such an incredible accuracy that botanists have been able to identify the species depicted: daisies, yarrow, plantains, dandelions, pimpernels, and cocksfoot. Durer wants to give the impression that this is a random chaotic arrangement of grasses, leaves, and meadow flowers, so there are no symbolic aspects. Although a careful examination reveals the several different species, the overall work gives the impression of a whole section of turf rather than the individual plants that comprise it.

Fresco Painting

During the Late Byzantine period, mural painting was widely used. This image of the Anastasis (loosely translated from Greek as "Resurrection") comes from the Church of Christ in Chora. The events of Christ's life between his death on the cross and his resurrection three days later are referred to in Biblical scripture, but they are not discussed or described in detail. In this version of the event, Christ in glory (symbolized by the mandorla), triumphs over a bound Satan and the barriers of Hell. He raises Adam and Eve from their tombs, which symbolically represents the promise of resurrection for all believers in Christ. The figures on the left include John the Baptist and King David, and while those on are led by Saint Stephen.

Three periods of Byzantium

Early Byzantine (527-726 CE): from the rule of Justinian to the beginning of Iconoclasm Middle Byzantine (843-1204 CE): from the end of Iconoclasm to the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders Late Byzantine (1261-1453 CE): from the recapture of Constantinople by the Byzantines to the conquest of the Ottoman Turks.

Stem stitching https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backstitch laid-and-couched stitching https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Couching

Eight colors of died wool yarn (2 shades of blue, yellow, terracotta red, buff, and 3 shades of green) were used as well as two different kinds of stitching (stem stitching and laid-and-couched stitching). The natural color of the linen cloth is left exposed for the background, human flesh, building walls, and other "colorless" design elements. Stem stitching is used to outline contours and interior details, and the laid-and-couched work is used for solid areas.

Thirty Years' War

Europe experienced remendous political, religious, intellectual, and economic changes during the early seventeenth century. The Thirty Years War (1618-1648) determined the foundations of the modern European nations. The Treaty of Westphalia, which brought the Thirty Years War to an end, allowed freedom of religion throughout Europe, subsequently ending the Catholic Church's role as the dominant (aka official) Christian authority in the West. Scientific and intellectual gains were made during the period with the widespread acceptance of heliocentrism, the invention of advanced mathematical systems, and a focus on chemistry, anatomy and physiology as systematic sciences. In Addition, sixteenth century worldwide exploration and mercantilism resulted in a veritable worldwide marketplace in the early seventeenth century as well, resulting in extraordinary economic prosperity for Europe.

Northern Renaissance in France2

Francis I became king of France in 1515. Like other rulers (eg. the German emperor Charles V (r. 1519-1556) and Henry VIII of England (r. 1509-1547)), Francis wanted to create a setting of great splendor in which to present himself. Jean Clouet (1485 - 1541) was a court painter and superb royal portrait artist. His style combines the Flemish love of detail with Italian Renaissance idealism. His portrait of Francis I is unusually large. Francis I wears opulent Renaissance apparel in this half-length image with a scarlet brocade background. His cap is studded with pearls and encircled with white feathers. His magnificent black and white striped satin doublet is lavishly embroidered in gold, and he wears a medal of St. Michael on a gold chain around his neck. His right hand holds gloves and , rests on a table with a green velvet cover; his left rests on a magnificently crafted sword hilt.

Frescoes and Icons

Fresco painting was widely used in the Middle Byzantine period as well. Some of the best preserved examples are found in the monasteries and churches of Yugoslavia. During the Middle Byzantine period, icons reappeared and were once again produced in great numbers. One of the most famous is known as the Vladimir Virgin (ca. 11C), which is typically Middle Byzantine in style.

Greek Art Periods

Geometric period (ca. 9th-7th Century BCE) Archaic period (ca. 6th Century BCE) Classical period (ca. 5th Century BCE) Late Classical period (ca. 4th Century BCE) Hellenistic period (ca. 3rd-1st Century BCE)

Gian Lorenzo Bernini: David

Gian Lorenzo Bernini's works was the first and, arguably, the greatest master of Baroque sculpture. His work encapsulate the drama, energy, and movement that characterize the Baroque style. Bernini's depiction of the Bible's David is quite unlike the tranquil Renaissance versions of Donatello or Michelangelo. Bernini shows David in action, with his harp and armor at his feet as he pivots to throw the stone at Goliath. The number of points of view the sculptor presents are astonishing! The right side shows David's energetic movement with his open stride almost a leap as he aims his sling. From the front, David's pose is frozen one second before the fatal shot. The diagonal of his form creates a sense of rhythmic balance between movement and pose. According to contemporary sources, the head of David is the self-portrait of the artist.

Giovanni da Bologna

Giovanni da Bologna (1529-1608) was an important sixteenth-century sculptor whose work combines the characteristics of Mannerism and his own innovative style. The dynamism and energy in his works anticipate the Baroque sculpture of the 17th century. In the Abduction of the Sabine Women, the artist depicts a story from classical mytholog in which the earliest Romans stole the wives from the neighboring Sabines. This work is significant as it is the first monumental sculpture (standing over 13-feet high) since classical antiquity with no single viewpoint. To create multiple viewpoints in the work, Bologna carved open spaces between the figures, a technique last seen in Hellenistic sculpture (cf. the Laocoon group in Lesson 3.11). The spiraling composition of complicated and interlocking figures directs the eyes upward, and this technique is known as figura serpentinata.

Black figure vase painting

Greek pottery was a highly sought after commodity in the Eastern Mediterranean, especially after the development of black-figure vase painting by the Corinthian Greeks. In this technique, dark figures were silhouetted against a light background that is the natural color of the clay. Details and colored highlights were then added within the silhouetted forms

Groin vault (Speyer cathedral) http://www.pitt.edu/~medart/menuglossary/groinvault.htm

Groin vaulting puts less outward pressure on the walls below, while weight from a barrel vaulting "pushes" down on the walls below, creating an outward force on the walls. This means that the walls supporting barrel vaulting must be thick and strong, and piercing these walls with large windows weakens them. The insertion of windows in these walls ensures collapse of the structure because of the outward pressure, which means the barrel vaulting will fall to the floor. In contrast, the weight of groin vaulting is carried on piers rather than the walls below, so the walls can be thinner and/ or pierced by windows.

Hippodamos was from Miletos, a Greek city in Asia Minor destroyed by the Persians in 494 BCE. Thirty years later, Hippodamos led the town's reconstruction. He implemented a strict grid plan in Miletos, Priene, and other cities. Regardless of the shape of the land, all streets met at right angles.

Hippodamian plan https://s3.amazonaws.com/test.classconnection/164/flashcards/34164/jpg/priene5.jpg

Hippodamian plan

Engraving2

His depiction of Adam and Eve as ideal male and female nudes similar to classical sculptures dominates the Biblical narrative. The figures seem rigid because Durer was focused on applying a set of rules of proportion which conflict with his presentation of the natural world. It is evident that the Biblical story served the artist only as a pretext for representing the nude. It is Durer's mastery of the engraving technique that creates a sense of unity in the image. Durer treated the surfaces with great care, modeling in light and dark by using fine dotting and a variety of lines to create a vast array of textures.

Abstraction

Imagery which departs from representational accuracy, to a variable range of possible degrees, for some reason other than verisimilitude. Abstract artists select and then exaggerate or simplify the forms suggested by the world around them (from the Art Lexicon)

Jean- Honore Fragonard

Jean-Honore Fragonard The works of French Rococo painter Jean-Honore Fragonard (1732-1806) are characterized by a delicate hedonism. Although trained by Boucher, Fragonard's style is much more akin to that of Rubens. The artist is recognized for his use of color as well as his quick, energetic, and fluent compositions. The Swing (Image 101) perfectly depicts the frivolity of the aristocracy, and the work showcases Fragonard's ability to combine a romantic and visionary depiction of nature with a sense of sensuality. An unknown French nobleman originally commissioned a serious history painter to create the work. Her instructions to the artist were: "I desire that you should paint Madame (pointing to his mistress) on a swing which is being set in motion by a Bishop. You must place me where I can have a good view of the legs of this pretty little thing... ." Since this was not his typical subject matter, the history painter recommended Fragonard since his Rococo style was as a more suitable for the salacious subject matter. In the work, a young lady in a swing has been pushed high enough that her lover can get a peek up her skirt. Settled in a lush garden, the two cupid figures huddle together while the lover peers from behind a bush. The painting features pastel greens and pinks and evokes a sense of silliness and fun, enhanced by the loose brushstrokes in her gown. The viewer even gets a glimpse of what her lover is hoping for - her stockings and garter belt. Paintings such as this would soon be condemned by the Enlightenment, which aimed to depict exemplary nobility and moral behavior.

Merovingian Looped Fibulae (mid 6th century CE) (Image 053)

Jeweled fibulae like this pair of Merovingian Looped Fibulae (mid 6th century CE) (Image 053) were considered status symbols among the early medieval warrior lords, just as they were in Rome and Byzantium. It is likely these belonged to a wealthy Merovingian noblewoman, and since they were precious to her, she was buried with them to wear in the afterlife. The entire surface is covered with decorative zoomorphic (animal) patterns that have been carefully altered to fit the shape of the object. Not only were they functional (they were used to fasten garments together), but they are also beautifully crafted. Below the center of each pin are fish, and the looped forms around the edges are the stylized heads of eagles that have inlaid garnets for their eyes. The patterns accent and amplify the functional form of the fibulae, becoming organic parts of the pins themselves.

Reading the Iconography

Learning Christian iconography becomes much easier with practice, but it may be a little overwhelming at first. Take a minute and look at at this apse mosaic work from the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe, Italy. Now, understand its meaning through its iconography (symbols noted in BOLD): The upper band shows Christ (wearing purple). He reigns from heaven surrounded by stylized clouds, and he is flanked on either side by the winged symbols of the four Evangelists (eagle, angel, lion and ox) The lower band presents twelve lambs facing the direction of Christ that symbolize the Apostles Green and fruitful vines cover the arch, and outside the arch panels with blue backgrounds contain palms of victory. Insider the arch, the presence of God is represented by a hand coming down from heaven. The earth is green and bountiful against a sky of gold, with many pine trees populating the landscape. Three lambs (Symbols of Peter, James and John) direct their attention to the transfigured Christ (shown as a Cross) between the Old Testament Prophets Moses and Elijah (cf. Matt 17:1-13). Finally, the twelve lambs stand among white lilies across at the baseline of the apse. These figures are interpreted as Christian believers in general or members of Saint Apollinaris' congregation. The Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe is actually a Byzantine work, not an Early Christian work. Regardless the period or style, the consistency of Christian symbolism makes this mosaic apse a great introduction to Christian iconography.

Speyer Cathedral, Speyer, Germany https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Speyerer_Dom_Mittelschiff.jpg

Lighting was another challenge for Romanesque architects. The heavy nature of early Romanesque walls meant that windows could not be embedded without affecting the structural integrity of the building. Clerestory windows were difficult to incorporate with a barrel vaulting system, so the Romanesque builders changed to the groin vault, a more efficient2 support system. The incorporation of groin vaults meant that a building's walls did not have to bear the full weight of the vaulting system. Architects were able to remove the wall surface and insert clerestory windows, solving the problem of interior lighting. Speyer Cathedral in Germany is an early Romanesque structure that uses groin vaulting. The groin vaulting was added during renovations in 1080 to replace to old timber roof. Notice the light afforded by the large clerestory windows as well as the characteristic crown of the groin vault.

Lippi's Madonna with Child and Angels (Image 071)

Lippi's Madonna with Child and Angels (Image 071), painted around 1465, is one of his best known and most admired paintings of the Renaissance, and it is typical of his later work. This beautiful composition presents strikingly "human" presentations of the Madonna, Child and angels (one of whom engages the viewer with a playful glance). The Virgin Mary is shown in profile, praying in front of the Child supported by two angels whose facial expression actually makes them look like two mischief-makers or just young boys. Here, too, we see the artist's use of delicate drapery and use of perspective through a realistic landscape inspired by Flemish paintings. The popularity of this work of art likely comes from the fact that many think the resemblance of the Madonna could actually be the a portrait of Lucrezia Buti.

Lucas Cranach1

Lucas Cranach the Elder made an impression on the Reformation not through his ideas, his books, or his ecclesiastical service, but his art through printmaking. As the Saxon court painter in Wittenberg for Frederick the Wise, he produced many works of art on paper that were emblematic of Protestant theology at the time of the Reformation. He also became intimate friends with Luther, both of them standing in turn as godparent to a child of the other, and Cranach is responsible for the most famous portraits of the reformer. He also aided the spread of the Reformation itself through the many woodcut prints he created that adorned Protestant books. These texts gained popularity due to the influence of the invention of the printing press.

Giulio Romano

Mannerism did not have a significant impact on architecture since Late Renaissance architects strove to maintain the ideas of balance, proportion and harmony characteristic in Early Renaissance works. Structures designed in the Mannerist style show a lack of symmetry and proportion seen in both painting and sculpture. In addition, Mannerist structures arbitrarily applied decorative elements, as seen in Giulo Romano's (ca. 1492 - 1546) Palazzo del Te in Mantua. The palazzo's inner courtyard facade is clearly Mannerist with its unbalanced keystones and random triglyphs in the entablature. Voussiors are applied to the rectangular niches as an example randomly applied ornamentation since there are no arches to necessitate their presence. The incorporation of massive Tuscan columns as "supports" for the tiny architrave further demonstrate Mannerist architecture's lack of symmetry and proportion. Spend some time now at the Web Gallery of Art viewing the other works of the Mannerists, as well as the Venetian masters, in preparation of the AP Art History Exam.

Masaccio1

Masaccio (1401-1428) is considered the first great master of Renaissance painting. His fresco cycle from the Brancacci Chapel of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence illustrate why he is considered one of the most important figures in Western art. The Tribute Money fresco depicts the Biblical account of Matthew 17:24-27. The focus of the work is Christ is confronted by a tax collector who stands in front of Jesus and his disciples in the center of the work. Massacio includes two other scenes and tells the story using continuous narrative, presenting Peter three different times within the composition of the work. In the center, Christ motions to Peter to retrieve a coin from the mouth of a fish to pay the tax. On the left side, Peter pulls the coin from the mouth of the fish, and on the right, Peter pays the collector. Giotto's influences is evident, but Masaccio's figures are more naturalistically rendered because he incorporates much more detail and a mastery of chiaroscuro* far beyond Giotto's ability. Masaccio's figures seem to possess the mass and realistic sense of movement of Donatello's statues on a two-dimensional surface. Masaccio incorporates a variety of techniques to create a sense of depth in the fresco: a circular arrangement of the disciples, the use of light and shade, the blurred background, and architecture painted in perfect perspective. The casting out of Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden (Genesis 3:23-24) from the Brancacci Chapel also incorporates chiaroscuro to create depth. The realistic presentation of the figures in motion and their intense psychological anguish are also striking.

Engraving6

Melancolia I is the most complex of this set of three master engravings. A winged genius represents the figure of Melancholy. She rests her head on her hand in reflection, holding a compass. Woodcutting tools and geometric shapes surround her, including a sphere and a giant polyhedron. The tools are drawn from the field of architecture, which emphasizes measuring and building. The rhomboid and sphere are symbols of geometry, the science of measurement and numbers upon which all arts are based. A bell, an hourglass, scales, and a magic square of 16 numerals (with each line adding up to 34) hang on the wall, and a dog sleeps at Melancholy's feet. A cherub sits straddling an upturned millstone while a bat-like creature holds up the inscription "Melencolia I." The dog and bat correspond to this melancholy humor. Melancholy was considered to be both a negative and positive power of the mind, as represented by the bat and writing putto. The precise meaning of the image is uncertain, but based on the iconography, it seems to deal with the relationship between melancholy and creativity. Melancholy may take away the enthusiasm for creativity, but creative people tend to have melancholic dispositions.

moralized Bible

Moralized Bibles were a type of picture Bible with lavish illustrations popular during the 13th century that traditionally paired Old and New Testament scenes with illustrations that explained the pairings' moral significance. These works, which were heavily illustrated and extremely expensive, were created to interpret and explain the scriptures, but they do not contain the full text of the Bible. Instead, only some episodes from the Bible were presented with accompanying illustrations to explain their allegorical and moral meanings. Interpretations of these scenes can vary from Bible to Bible.

qibla wall

Muslims must face the qibla wall while they worship and direct their prayers to Mecca.

Durham in the north of England Cathedral: (https://www.durhamcathedral.co.uk/) (http://www.greatbuildings.com/cgi-bin/gbi.cgi/Durham_Cathedral.html/cid_2515946.gbi) Pillars: http://apah.lakegeneva.badger.groupfusion.net/modules/groups/homepagefiles/49961-87537-60393-12.jpg

Norman architects also built at Durham in the north of England. The great cathedral was built between 1093 and 1130. Massive cylindrical pillars alternate with compound piers. Geometric patterns decorate these pillars, recalling the designs of the Hiberno-Saxon period. The compound piers carry the weight of the slightly-pointed transverse arches, creating a synchronous rhythm in the nave.

Notre Dame de la Belle Verriere (Image 060) https://udayton.edu/

Notre Dame de la Belle Verriere (Image 060), located on the south side of the Cathedral at the entrance to the choir, is considered the most spectacular work of stained glass found at Chartres. Mary is frontal and seated on a throne as the Queen of Heaven holding the Christ child (sedes sapientiae pose) in the central panel of the window. She is dress in a bright, luminous blue robe and has a nimbus bordered with pearls as well as a crown. Overhead, there is an image of the dove of the Holy Spirit, and surrounding them are images of angels, Christ's passion, and the Wedding at Cana in individual panels.

Satan presiding over the torturing http://www.bluffton.edu/homepages/facstaff/sullivanm/france/conques/stefoy/0058.jpg Seven Deadly Sins http://www.deadlysins.com/sins/

Once through the door to Hell, a panel (over the right door into the church) shows Satan presiding over the torturing of those condemned to eternity in Hell, and in particular, it shows the punishments of those who commit the Seven Deadly Sins. For the worshippers who passed through the portal into the Church of Sainte-Foy, this tympanum served to remind them of their responsibilities as good Christians as well as what happened to them should they decide to sin. Even the illiterate could "read" the sculptural images of Heaven and Hell and understand the consequences of being virtuous versus being sinful.

Titan3

One of Titian's most famous works is the so-called Venus of Urbino (Image 080). Although the subject is called a goddess, the woman portrayed as "Venus" was probably a concubine or mistress of the Duke of Urbino, the patron of the piece. The warm, golden figure of the subject is naturalistically modeled in light with cascading curls. The use of masterfully blended color in the rendering of her arms and the sheet create a sense of warmth. In this intimate setting, illusionistic depth is creating through the use of light and color. This sense of deep space is furthered by the inclusion of the two maids and the open window with the "Venetian sky" in the background of the work. The small dog is both symbolically and technically significant, serving as a symbol of fidelity as well as a pendent, or balancing, figure. The scene is an intimate, simple domestic interior, and the entire composition has a sense of warm, human, temporal reality.

Great Altar of Zeus and Athena from Pergamon (ca. 175 BCE) (Image 038)

Pergamon was a wealthy city, and it was once a treasure trove of art. Its most famous structure was the Great Altar of Zeus and Athena complex (ca. 180-175 BCE) (Image 038). Built by Eumenes II (197-159 BCE) as a memorial of Pergamon's victory over the Galatians, and it stood on top of the Pergamene acropolis carefully aligned with an existing temple of Athena. The altar itself stood in a large court set on top of a six-foot high podium, and surrounding the court were two peristyles of Ionic columns. An incredible frieze depicting the theme of gigantomachy (the battle between the Olympian gods and the Giants) covered the bases of the colonnade. This subject symbolized the triumph of order over chaos and honored the Pergamene kingdom's defeat of barbarian invaders in the third century BCE.

Mannerism2

Scholars assert that the Mannerist style was a reflection of the turmoil in Italy during the early to mid-sixteenth century. This was the age of unprecedented religious turmoil resulting from the corruption in the Catholic Church, the division in the Church as a result of the Reformation movement, and the Inquisition of the Counter-Reformation that sought to bring Protestants back into the Catholic fold. Politically, the Italian Wars dominated the period, and all but three of Italian city-states lost their independence. It was also a period of serious economic pessimism.

Lysippos new canon

Sculptures created with his canon has a smaller head; longer, lankier torsos and limbs; and a loss of the defined musculature. His sculptures are recognized for their tension and the sculptor's rejection of stability and balance.

Embroidery: The Bayeux Tapestry http://www.wga.hu/art/zzdeco/2tapestr/2bayeux/03bayeux.jpg

The Bayeux Tapestry (Image 059), is arguably the most famous Romanesque work of art. Since this work is actually linen fabric embroidered with wool, this work is not actually a tapestry, but the design work is closely related to what we see have seen in Romanesque manuscript illumination. Eight colors of died wool yarn (2 shades of blue, yellow, terracotta red, buff, and 3 shades of green) were used as well as two different kinds of stitching (stem stitching and laid-and-couched stitching). The natural color of the linen cloth is left exposed for the background, human flesh, building walls, and other "colorless" design elements. Stem stitching is used to outline contours and interior details, and the laid-and-couched work is used for solid areas. The Bayeux Tapestry is 20 inches tall and 230 feet long, and it features a continuous, frieze-like pictorial narrative of the Norman defeat of the Anglo-Saxons at Hastings in 1066. Interestingly, the entire work was bordered with real and fanciful animals and other decoration much in the manner of the illuminated manuscript. There is also an explanatory text in Latin sewn in thread that accompanies many of the pictures. The work chronicles major events in the story of the Norman Conquest (like the Battle of Hastings) as well as lesser events, such as preparations for battle and the serving of meals. This method of relating historical events has been seen before in the Column of Trajan (Image 045, covered in Lesson 3.20), making the tapestry one of the most Roman-esque of the works from the period. This detail shows the Norman horsemen cutting down the Anglo-Saxon warriors, whose bodies litter the lower border. To see the entire work as well as translations of the Latin text, follow this link. Click here to see an animated version of the Bayeux Tapestry.

Sources of the Iconography

The Bible, the sacred text of Christianity, is the origin of most Christian iconography. There are, however, some symbols (e.g., peacock) that had origins in the religion of the Roman Empire. These symbols have been reinterpreted from their original Roman themes (e.g. the sun, grape vines).

Book of Durrow (ca. 660-680)

The Book of Durrow (ca. 660-680) is one of the earliest examples of a Hiberno-Saxon illuminated manuscript. This work contains text, illustrations, and decorative pages known as carpet pages that are typical of Hiberno-Saxon manuscript illumination (click here for a detail). The Book of Durrow also has pages with a author portraits for each of the Four Evangelists. In these portraits, the Evangelists are each represented in iconographic form using their unique symbols before the text of his particular gospel. In the Saint Matthew page, we see Matthew presented as a man (his symbol). The image of Matthew incorporates the typical Early Medieval abstract patterned decoration with a flat figural representation characteristic of the Early Christian period.

Church of Sainte-Foy http://www.bluffton.edu/homepages/facstaff/sullivanm/france/conques/stefoy/indexintro.html https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Abbaye_Ste_Foy_%C3%A0_Conques_%2801%29.jpg

The Church of Sainte-Foy (ca.1050-1130) (Image 058) is nestled in a hillside valley in Conques, France. Saint Foy (Saint Faith) was a 4th century child martyr who was beheaded because she refused to pay homage to the Roman gods. Her relics (her skull) were originally housed at an abbey in Agen, France, where she was from. Around 866 CE, a monk from the abbey church at Conques, stole the saint's skull. justifying his actions as furta sacra ("holy theft" or "holy transfer"), claiming that the Sainte-Foy had visited him in a dream and expressed her desire for her relics to be moved to Conques. The original monastery a Conques was remodeled and expanded twice after the relics of Saint Foy were brought to the site in the 9th century, but this structure was partially destroyed to make way for the current church begun by Abbot Odelric ca. 1050 CE. This 11th century manifestation of the church has survived in tact in its Romanesque form, and thus, it provides us with an excellent opportunity to study all aspects of a typical Romanesque church, from its plan to its architectural scuplture to its reliquary.

Jan van Eyck - Ghent Altarpiece (closed)

The Ghent Altarpiece by Jan van Eyck (ca. 1390-1441) is an example of a public devotional item as well as being largest and most impressive. Trained as a miniaturist, Van Eyck was known for his intricate details, which can be seen in all of his works. The patrons of the altarpiece, the chief magistrate of Ghent and his wife, appear as donors on the lower panels of the exterior wings, seen here when the altarpiece is in the closed position. Illusionistic grisaille2 figures of John the Baptist (left) and John the Evangelist (right) are between the portraits of the donors. In the upper register, there is an Annunciation scene with a striking sense of three-dimensional space (i.e the cityscape outside the windows). The arched panels at the top are filled with pagan and Old Testament figures who, prophetesses from classical mythology whose writings the Medieval church interpreted as prophesies of the coming of Christ. They are flanked by two Old Testament saints Zachariah (left) and Micah (right) who also foretold Christ's advent. Despite the differences in scale, the realism of these figures is striking. The trompe-l'oeil3 niches in the lower registers and the roof beams in the upper register unifies the work . Using of value (modeling in light and shade) gives the forms volume and solidity.

Golden Haggadah (ca.1320) (Image 064)- The Plagues of Egypt, Scenes of Liberation, and Preparation for Passover http://www.bl.uk/learning/images/story/passover%20scenes%20l.jpg

The Golden Haggadah (Image 064) is an illuminated manuscript of the Jewish faith. A Haggadah is a collection of Jewish prayers written to accompany a seder, a ritual meal eaten the night before the Passover festival begins. Haggadah literally means "narration" or "telling" in Hebrew, and the term refers to a command in Exodus that required the Jews to tell the story of their people and how they escaped their captivity in Egypt. This work was created in Spain and shows the influence of Northern French Gothic (courtly) style of painting. The Golden Haggadah was created by two different artists based on the two distinct styles of the illuminations. One artist created stocky figures with exaggerated facial expressions, while the other's style is more refined and achieved a better sense of three-dimensional space. The rich nature of the illustrations indicate the work was likely created for a rich patron, allowing him to show off both his wealth and his piety. The Haggadah is an educational text, and it would have been used in a private home. It was one of the most lavishly decorated of all the Jewish sacred writings.

Cologne Cathedr

The Gothic style in Germany can be seen in Cologne Cathedral, which was begun in 1248, but not completed until 1880. The nineteenth-century builders remained true to the Gothic plan of Gerhard of Cologne, the cathedral's original architect. It has Gothic elements such as a three-story elevation, lancets, and pointed arches. This German Gothic tympanum from the south transept doorway of the Strasbourg Cathedral (ca. 13C) also shows the influence of French Gothic. It depicts the Death of the Virgin Mary (a non-Biblical scene). The Virgin is surrounded by the Twelve Apostles, who fill the arched frame). Christ received Mary's soul in the center (represented by the doll-like figure in Christ's left hand). Mary Magdalene crouches in grief in the foreground. The work has the range of expressions, fluid motion, dramatic poses, and flowing drapery seen in its French sculptural forerunners.

The Great Mosque1 at Damascus in Syria

The Great Mosque at Damascus built in the early seventh century (click here for a plan), making it the oldest surviving mosque. This structure was originally a Roman temple to Jupiter, and next it was the Byzantine Church of Saint John the Baptist. What results is a mosque that shows both classical and Byzantine influences. The minarets were modified Roman square towers which were left intact by the Byzantines. The Muslims simply changed the function of these existing structures to meet the needs of the Islamic faith. The entrance to the prayer hall has a pedimental front and empties into a classically design courtyard. The entrance and the courtyard have arches and mosaic cycles which are reminiscent of the Byzantine style.

The Great Schism

The Great Schism impacted religion life, splitting the church into competing factions. In some cases, priests were more interested in church politics than ministering to their congregants. Finally, use of the vernacular language (i.e., the common spoken tongue, as opposed to Latin) took hold in literary circles. As a result, authors like Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio began writing their works in Italian.

Reformation vs Counter Reformation

The Italian peninsula was in a period of upheaval at the end of the fifteenth century and the beginning of the sixteenth. Invasions from France and the Holy Roman Empire and internal strife combined with an unprecedented level of corruption in the Catholic Church that would result in the (Protestant) Reformation and the Catholic Church's Counter-Reformation. During the Counter-Reformation, the Catholic Church commissioned both art and architectural works to add a visual element to their campaign against the Protestant Reformers. The impact of both the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation on sixteenth-century European art cannot be overstated. Make sure you review the finer points of the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation using the links above.

Composite beast & alabaster

The Lamassu (Image 025) is a composite beast of Assyrian invention. It is a supernatural winged human-headed bull with a four-tier headdress that indicates it is a deity. Images of these impressive beasts were carved into monumental alabaster sculptures and placed outside the entrance to the royal throne room in the citadel of Sargon II to stand guard and protect the ruler. They were also great intimidation tools for visitors, and no doubt symbols of the king's divine right to rule.

El Greco2

The Penitent Magdalene (ca.1577) is one of El Greco's most common subjects. She and Saint Veronica were both close to Christ and His Passion, and they are the only female saints El Greco ever painted. The painting has Titian's use of color and the elongated figural form and elegance of Mannerism.

Rayonnant style

The Rayonnant style defined the later half of the High Gothic period, but the Flamboyant style defined the Late Gothic period in the fifteenth century. The name of the style was comes from its use of ornate tracery 2 that gives the suggestion of thin flames. The overlapping features of the Flamboyant style seem flicker through overlapping features (such as pinnacles before rose windows), complex views, extreme ornamentation, and highly attenuated proportions. The masterpiece of the Flamboyant style is the church of Saint-Maclou.

Sculpture in the Age of the Warrior Emperors

The Severan Dynasty ended with the murder of Severus Alexander in 235 CE. Once again, the Rome empire was plunged into chaos with fifty years of a rapid-fire succession of general-emperors. Each of the leaders lasted only about two years in power, and all of their ruled ended violently. The incredible instability of Rome meant few major building projects were commissioned or executed during this period. A great deal of statuary from this period does survive since each of the short-lived emperors wanted to legitimize his reign with official portraiture. Trajan Decius, who reigned not quite three years, is famous because of his brutal persecution of Christians. Like the introspective portraits of Marcus Aurelius and Caracalla, his portait gives us an image of a sad, tired, worried old man, not a proud, confident ruler. Other that creating imperial sculptures, sculptors were also busy creating sarcophagi during the 3rd century as burial became more popular and the Roman custom of cremation was increasingly abandoned. One such example is the Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus (Image 047). The exterior is decorated with a battle scene between the Romans and a barbarian foe, which is likely the Goths. The presentation of the scene on the sarcophagus shows a near total rejection of the classical style. First, there is no common baseline in this extremely chaotic scene. There is also a definite lack of motion in the composition, which should be a frenzy- every figure seems frozen in his pose. In addition, the figures are noticeably disproportional and frontal. The central figure in particular has a head that is disproportionately large and blocky for his stocky body. This figure is believed to be the son of one of the warrior-emperors and the person for whom the sarcophagus was created. He has an air of self-assurance and fearlessness. On his forehead, he has the symbol of Mithras, the Persian god of light, truth, and victory over death. This symbol (as well as the popularity of burial over cremation) reflects the growing influence of eastern religions inside the borders of the Roman empire. It is clear that the sculptor of the sarcophagus was rejecting the classical norms and traditional modes of representation, instead incorporating ideas that had been used in the art of the plebeian, or lower, classes for some time. These elements will also set the standards for artistic representation in the Middle Ages.

Santa Sabina (ca. 422-432) (Image 049)- exterior, interior, and plan

The Temple of Juno Regina orginally stood on the site of Santa Sabina. The basilican church of Santa Sabina was an expansion of a Roman house-church owned by a woman named Sabina, and its plan has more modest proportions than those of Old Saint Peter's. Twenty-four Corinthian columns made from Proconnesian marble line the nave arcade, creating a steady rhythm towards the apse end. Clerestory windows pierced the upper walls of the nave, flooding the interior with light and reflecting off the glass tile mosaics that covered the walls. Light is often used as a symbol of divinity and Jesus Christ, creating an overall sense of spirituality. The structure had a timber roof and carved wooden doors. While considerably smaller than Old Saint Peter's, Santa Sabina shares many of the same characteristics, such as a simple brick exterior, rows of columns lining the nave, a terminating apse, and clerestory windows.

Harbaville Triptych

The Triptych1 format gained popularity during the Middle Byzantine period. Works like the Harbaville Triptych (ca. 950) are excellent examples of luxury items this time. Made from ivory, four full-length saints and two saints in medallions are carved on each wing. In the central panel, the upper register shows the Deesis. John the Baptist and the Theotokos intercede with an enthroned Christ on behalf of the work's owner. Five Apostles fill in the bottom register. The back of the central panel has a carving of the Triumphal Cross in the Garden of Paradise.

Viking Art before Christianity

The Vikings were skilled warriors, sailors, craftsmen, and administrators, and they swept across Norther Europe in the Early Middle Ages. Since they were the most powerful force in the area, they conquered and colonized lands from Greenland to Western Russia to France. The ships of the Vikings were functional military vessels as well as a medium for art. In a burial mound near Oseberg, Norway, archaeologists discovered a ship in a burial mound that was over seventy feet long and once held a vast treasure (looted by grave robbers). Inside the mound were the remains of two women and, of course, the ship itself. This wooden, animal-head post (ca. 800) from the Oseberg ship is an example of Viking art which shows their characteristic unique and creative combination of the animal motif with the interlace patterning.

Notre Dame de la Belle Verriere (Image 060)

The architectural sculpture of the Chartres Cathedral is also quite impressive and shows a growing trend toward naturalism in the Gothic period. In the jamb statue of Saint Theodore, the figure is almost completely free of the architectural framework, and his pose is determined independently instead of being dependent on the architectural setting. The movement of the figure is more natural (instead of angular), and the drapery is neither stiff nor completely linear. The saint's expression is also incredibly individualized and distinctive.

The Catacomb of Priscilla (Image 048)

The common elements of Early Christian art are also present the Catacomb of Priscilla (Image 048). Again, the fresco features a youthful, beardless figure of Christ and orant figures with raised arms and open hands. Another Old Testament account of salvation from the Book of Daniel (see Daniel 3:8-30) is illustrated In this scene, three young men have been thrown into the furnace by the Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar. They stand in the flames in the traditional orant pose, and they do not burn because they are saved by God. Fish images were also commonly used in the catacombs since the Early Christians used the fish as an acronym of their Savior, Jesus Christ and a symbol of their religion. Click here to take a tour of the catacombs. The plans and reconstructions of the sites are amazing!

west facade (Saint-Etienne in Caen, France) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Mairie_de_Caen_abbaye_aux_hommes_St_Etienne_702.JPG

The design of the west facade is highly influenced by Ottonian architecture, resembling the westwerk from the Ottonian abbey church at Corvey. Four buttresses have been placed along the divisions of the nave and side aisles, diving the facade into three sections. The twin towers also show a tri-partite division with increased piercing of the wall surface at each higher level.

Schongauer- Saint Anthony Tormented by Demons

The fifteenth century saw the development printmaking media in woodcut graphics and metal engraving. Martin Schongauer (ca. 1430-1491), one of the most skilled of the Northern engravers, created the engraving Saint Anthony Tormented by Demons. The artists presents an impressive variety of shapes, lines, and shading to create the various textures of cloth, features, spikes, etc..

The illumination of Saint Matthew in the Ebbo Gospels (ca. 820)

The illumination of Saint Matthew in the Ebbo Gospels (ca. 820) is an example of a different style that also emerged during the Carolingian period. Instead of the classical calm, the composition has an anxious, frenetic energy. It seems almost a fusion of classical art forms (pose, hair, clothing style) with the interlocking linear forms of the Viking-Warrior Lord arts (heavy use of line). The energy in this illumination is palpable as Saint Matthew's hair stands on end in a state of wide-eyed anxiety. The folds of his drapery and the landscape elements seem to literally vibrate.

S-shaped curve

The jamb statues are completely freed from their architectural setting and bear naturalistic poses, graceful gestures, and fluid drapery. The pose of Mary reflects the S-shaped curve so popular with Late Gothic sculptors. The Gothic artists were attempting to reestablish contrapposto, but the figures do not show true weight shift. It will not be until the Renaissance that statues "stand" as naturally as they did during classical times.

Flemish Baroque

The mainly Protestant northern portion of the Netherlands broke free from Spanish control in the seventeenth century and established the Dutch Republic, which is roughly equivalent to the modern state of Holland. Flanders (now Belgium) was the Catholic southern portion of the Netherlands that remained under Spanish control. Stylistically, the Flemish Baroque was very similar to the Spanish Baroque.

a gardenscape from the Villa of Livia

The masterpiece of Second Style painting. (wife of the emperor Augustus). In this work, atmospheric perspective (also known as aerial perspective) is used to create the illusion of depth. This technique involves painting objects in the foreground with clarity and precision while rendering objects in the "distance" as blurred and less distinct in order to create an illusion of three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface. In this work, the hazy background contrasts with the detailed painting of the trees, birds, birdcage, flowers, and fence. All of this works together to create the illusion that the surface of the wall has dissolved into a deep, lush garden.

Hieronymous Bosch - Garden of Earthly Delights

The most enigmatic artist of the late 15th century was Hieronymous Bosch, who has been described as everything from a visionary to a pornographer. Bosch's most famous and most controversial work is the Garden of Earthly Delights triptych. Standing over seven feet tall and twelve feet wide, this fantastical composition was probably a private commission. Its intense detail and complexity are beyond interpretation, and a consensus on a widely acceptable interpretation has eluded art historians for centuries of art historians. In the left panel, God presents a naive Adam with a savvy Eve. The imaginative redering of the Garden of Eden is filled with fanciful animals and dominated by a strange pink fountain. The right panel presents a descriptive scene of hell where demons devour and torture the damned. These wretched souls are tormented with musical instructions or gambling paraphernalia. The central panel below shows a sea of nudes cavorting in another fantastic landscape filled with birds and fruit, which are both fertility symbols.

Palladio : Venetian Architecture

The most famous Venetian architect of the era was Andrea di Pietro, known as Palladio (1508-1580). He was also a scholar and authored an architectural treatise that influenced Western building for generations. In fact, no architect had a greater influence on the architecture of Colonial America than Palladio. One of his most famous works is the Villa Rotonda. Located just outside of Venice, the villa was commissioned by a retiring church official for entertaining guests in the countryside. Its plan's design was based on a central-plan with four identical facades. Since the villa sat on top a hill, four facades were constructed to capture every possible view of the countryside. The facades resemble a Roman temple front (cf. the Pantheon), demonstrating Palladio's knowledge of and love for classically inspired design.

great sphinx

The most famous secondary works is the Great Sphinx (Image 017). A sphinx is a lion with a man's head. Carved "in situ" ("in place") from a massive desert stone, the Great Sphinx is the earliest colossus (very large statue) created and the largest to be preserved. Scholars believe the head is an image of Khafre. The Great Sphinx was a symbol of tremendous royal power to the ancient Egyptians.

Scenes of the Apocalypse (Image 061)

The other page from the Scenes of the Apocalypse (Image 061) is a folio from the text of the Bible. Here, you can see pairings of the Old Testament and New Testament scenes accompanied by explanatory texts. These literary and visual readings would combine together to convey a moral.

Reliquary of Saint (Pope) Alexander https://s3.amazonaws.com/classconnection/897/flashcards/9142897/jpeg/webpage-imagef00059-151853FF5B710C5E36D.jpeg

The reliquary of Saint Alexander is extremely interesting because it displays the variety of artistic sources that were available to the Romanesque artist. This idealized portrait is made from silver repousse and gilt bronze and is reminiscent of the idealized imperial portraits of ancient Rome (cf. Augustus Prima Porta, Lesson 3.18). The plaques that surround the reliquary box indicate the influence of the Byzantine style, and the incrustation of gems combined with various floral and geometric designs originate in the Early Medieval style.

Les Tres Riches Heures du Duc de Berry ("The Very Fine Hours of the Duke of Berry")

The scenes depicted in the book represent the twelve months of the year using alternating depictions of seasonally appropriate activities of both the nobility and the peasantry. In these images, nobles are enjoy courtly activities while peasants are shown working, but all are well-cared for and content thanks to the generosity of the Duke of Berry. Depicting the people as happy and satisfied speaks establishes that the Duke as a magnanimous host, generous patron, and good Christian. In a lunette placed above each scene, the chariot of the sun indicates the passage of time along with each month's corresponding zodiac sign. In this detail of May, members of the noblity ride out to celebrate the first day of May at an annual spring festival. This work has an elegant and courtly style that unites naturalism and delicate ornamentation with the brilliant color of the International Style.

"Jacob Wrestling the Angel" from the Vienna Genesis (early 6th century CE) (Image 050)

The second scene illustrates the story of "Jacob Wrestling the Angel" (Image 050) from Genesis 32:22-31. Again, a whole sequence of events is told using continous narration using a number of scenes along a U-shaped path. In the center foreground, Jacob is seen wrestling with the angel, and then to the left he receives the angel's blessing. The progression of events resembles a classical frieze, such as the one seen on the Column of Trajan. An additional image from the manuscript shows the account of Joseph interpreting the dreams of two of his fellow prisoners (Genesis 40). After being sold into slavery by his older brothers (Genesis 37:12-36), Joseph eventually found himself in the service of a captain of the Egyptian pharaonic guard. His master's wife was attracted to Joseph. She tried to seduce him, but Joseph rebuffed her advances and remained faithful to his master. Angry at Joseph's rejection, the master's wife accused Joseph of attacking her, and Joseph was placed in jail (Genesis 39)

Caryatids

The structure was incredibly ornate, having column shafts were actually carved female figures

the Baptistery of San Giovanni (St. John) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Florence_Baptistry.jpg

There is another famous Italian Romanesque work in Florence, Italy that dates to the 11th century: the Baptistery of San Giovanni (St. John). This works shows the influence of classical mausoleum design and the Early Christian central plan, and its form can be traced to Santa Costanza in Lesson 4.03. Again, the Tuscan Romanesque design uses green and cream marble ornamentation as a veneer. The baptistery also has a tripartite (divided into thirds) nature: three levels, three arches for each bay, three entrances, etc.

The Baths of Caracalla http://wings.buffalo.edu/AandL/Maecenas/rome/baths_caracalla/thumbnails_contents.html

Thermae (baths) were some of the most popular projects that emperors commissioned during the empire. They were recreational centers that had a vast array of amenities, such as rich gardens, exercise grounds, lecture halls, libraries, restaurants, swimming pools, and, of course, baths. Caracalla commissioned the largest bath complex at well over forty acres. The plan of the main complex was symmetrical around a central axis (in other words, each side is a mirror image of the other). Huge groin vaults created from brick-faced concrete, enclosed huge spaces with light entering the interior through clerestory windows. The most interesting architectural feature of the baths was its dome over the caldarium (hot bath) because it was almost as big as the dome of the Pantheon, and the dome sat on a much taller base. The interior of the baths was extremely ornate with multitude of decorative elements such as frescos, mosaics, and marble revetment. The baths were also furnished with statuary, such as a copy of the Greek work Weary Herakles (Lesson 3.09) by Lysippos.

Christ in Majesty at the Second Coming http://www.oneonta.edu/faculty/farberas/arth/Images/ARTH212images/Gothic/Chartres/RoyPort_Majesty.jpg capitals on the columns over the jamb figures https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/707/flashcards/508707/jpg/picture871304977252638.jpg scenes from Christ's life http://etc.usf.edu/clippix/pix/Chartres-Cathedral-west-portals-capital-frieze-between-left-and-central-portals-the-Magi-before-Herod-Annunciation-to-the-Shepherds-Nativity-Visitation_medium.jpg the jamb statues http://www.oneonta.edu/faculty/farberas/arth/Images/ARTH212images/Gothic/Chartres/RoyPort_jamb2.jpg

These portal sculptures are the most magnificent extant examples of Early Gothic sculpture, and they are unified by a common theme: the power and majesty of Christ. The left tympanum shows Christ's Ascension into Glory; the right, Christ in the lap of the Virgin Mary (the sedes sapientiae or "Throne of Wisdom"); and the middle, Christ in Majesty at the Second Coming. In the detail of the central portal, we see a familiar composition: Christ surrounded by a mandorla and flanked by the symbols of the Four Evangelists, while the twenty-four elders occupy the lintel below. The capitals on the columns over the jamb figures, however, are probably the most interesting facet of the portals. They show scenes from Christ's life in a continuous friezelike presentation. Below the capitals, the jamb statues depict Old Testament kings and queens, who were Christ's earthly ancestors and served as shadows of Christ's kingly office.

Illuminated manuscripts

These sumptuously decorated handwritten manuscripts are referred to as illuminated manuscripts because of the brilliance of the decorations.

bust of a Flavian woman

This intense contrast of light and shadow can also be seen in the bust of a Flavian woman (ca. 90 CE). The woman's elegant and sensitive facial features are balanced against the curls of the popular Flavian hairstyle. The deep carving and the shadows it creates inside the curls of the woman's hair create thee appearance that her hair is a different color that the rest of the work, despite it being created from one piece of stone. Flavian sculpture is sometimes referred to as being COLORISTIC for this reason.

Justinian with Bishop Maximianus and their attendants (Image 051) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Chirho.svg

To Christ's right, we see a mosaic of Justinian with Bishop Maximianus and their attendants (Image 051) on the choir wall. The presence of the emperor in the church is meant to sanction his right to rule. Justinian stands to the right side of the Savior, and the two figures are visually united by their royal purple robes and their halos. His halo and central position indicate he is the most important in this group. He is flanked by 12 attendants, which further connect him to Christ (who had 12 apostles). To the emperor's right there are imperial bureaucrats and soldiers, and on his left, members of the clergy. The chi-rho-iota symbol, which is the monogram of Christ, is present on a soldier's shield. This work clearly stresses the unity between the state and church in Byzantium. The positions of the figures expresses formulas of rank and precedence. While Justinian is at the center in holy royal attire, the figure to his left, Bishop Maximanus, who was responsible for completing the church, is also given a sense of importance by the mosaic inscription above his head. The positions of Justinian and Maximanus are intentionally ambiguous to symbolize imperial and churchly powers are in balance. While the emperor appears to stand slightly behind the bishop, the gold paten (the large bowl or plate used for the Eucharist bread) that Justinian holds overlaps Maximanus's arm. All of these elements work together to confer the divine sanction of the emperor's rule.

Mosque of Selim II

Towards the end of the thirteenth century a substantial Turkish dynasty known as the Ottomans came to power. They were led by their founder Osman I. From the Anatolian plain, the Ottomans expanded their empire into Asia, Europe and Africa and by the fifteenth century had become one of the major world powers. The Ottoman emperors were extremely ambitious builders and even sponsored the development of a completely new type of mosque. In the Ottoman version, the prayer hall was square and covered by a dome, thus creating a central-plan mosque. A s time progressed, the number of domical units increased, creating an array of geometric spaces.

Early Renaissance Art

Traditionally, the fifteenth century in Italy is considered the beginning of a period known as the Renaissance. This period's name, based on a French word meaning "rebirth," refers to the resurrection or "rebirth" of classical ideals, thought, and art that had been "lost" since antiquity. The vibrance and innovations of the art and architecture of fifteenth-century Italy has impacted all subsequent generations Patronage was integral to the Renaissance period. Italy in the fifteenth century was a collection of independent city-states, not a unified nation. In order to glorify their rule, establish a sense of civic pride, and create employment for their citizenry, the rulers of these city-states (dukes and princes) spent a great deal of on the arts. The Pope and religious officials were also major patrons of the arts. This wealthy patronage system fueled the artistic fire of the Italian Renaissance.

Northern Renaissance in Spain

Under the rule of Charles V of Hapsburg (r. 1526-1556) and his son Phillip II (r. 1556-1598), Spain emerged as the dominant European power in the sixteenth century, and the Spanish Empire controlled more territory than any other political entity in world.

Jan van Eyck - Ghent Altarpiece (open)

Battle of Issus

a mosaic replica of a famous painting by Philoxenos. his Roman copy from the original of ca. 310 BCE) is also known as the Alexander Mosaic (Image 040). This work presents Alexander's victory over the Persian king, Darius III at Issus (modern Turkey). recovered from a wealthy home in the ruins of Pompeii, Italy. Regardless, the innovations of light, space, and emotion can be clearly seen in this work. Technical advances are evident in the incredible use of shadow in the work. The portrayal of depth, seen in the foreshortening of the horses, is best seen in the figure of the central horse, whose rear comes straight out at the viewer. Notice the striking range of emotion in this work as well. Alexander's focuses intensely on Darius, who looks back at him hopelessly because he understands he is defeated.

black-figure technique

a popular technique for decorating Archaic pottery

Revetment

a stucco or marble facing

Polygnotos of Thasos

active approx. 450 - 420 BCE) is the artist credited behind this revolution in Greek painting. None of his works survive, but from ancient descriptions of his work we know that the Greek master worked landscape elements into his compositions and dropped the idea of a single baseline.

atmospheric perspective

also known as aerial perspective) is used to create the illusion of depth. This technique involves painting objects in the foreground with clarity and precision while rendering objects in the "distance" as blurred and less distinct in order to create an illusion of three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface.

Prefiguration

an Old Testament account of salvation

Chiastic

cross balance

abrasion

cut

Peplos Kore from the Acropolis (Image 028)

ets her name from the simple, long, woolen belted garment she is wearing, known as a peplos. Scholars believe that this is a female goddess figure from Athena's sanctuary on the Acropolis. In 480 BCE, this sanctuary was sacked by the Persians, who knocked this work and other votive offerings. The Athenians buried all of the damaged Archaic works, which accounts for the preservation of the traces of paint for more than two millennia. The Peplos Kore is a stylistic companion to the Anavysos kouros with its more naturalistic and softer modeling of the female form. She has a frontal posture, and the drapery conceals her body with the exception of her head, arms, and feet. At one time, her left arm was extended, further "freeing" the work from the stone. The arm would have held an attribute (a conventional object used in art to identify a saint or mythical figure) that would have identified which deity she represents. As the empty socket suggests, the missing arm was not part of the original stone.

Muhammad

founder of Islam, was born in Mecca in Saudi Arabia around the year 570. His family lineage could be traced back to the Hebrew prophet Abraham via the patriarch's son Ishmael. Muhammad began received revelations from Allah (Arabic for "the God") around age 40 (610 CE). These revelations are recorded in the holy book of the Islamic religion, the Koran (Quran).

piers that rise through the tribunes (also known as galleries) (Church of Sainte-Foy)

http://www.bluffton.edu/homepages/facstaff/sullivanm/france/conques/stefoy/0093.jpg

Plan (Cathedral complex at Pisa)

http://www.quondam.com/11/1118i01.jpg he Romanesque style can be seen in the cathedral's plan, which has a five-aisle design, galleries, and numerous rounded arches. The alternating use of green and cream colored marble is particular to the regional style of Tuscan Romanesque. An architectural characteristic unique to Italy is the freestanding bell tower. The Tower of Pisa (as it is commonly called) leans because its foundation did not settles at an angle.

anthropomorphic

human and animal characteristics

Chartres Cathedral, Chartres, France https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Chartres_cathedral.jpg

is a an interesting study of medieval architecture spanning late Romanesque/ Early Gothic styles through the Late Gothic. The tragic history of fire and rebuilding over the course of several hundred years allows us to study architectural development in one structure.

Michelangelo's Moses

is another important work. Created as part Pope Julius II's tomb, figure of the prophet displays the incredible physical, emotional, and psychological energy of Hellenistic statuary. The deep carving of his twisting beard and heavy, flowing drapery create a play of light and dark that enhances the intensity of the work. The prophet holds the Tablets of the Law. His anatomy is powerful despite his seated position. This sense of strength is forcefully conveyed though bulging muscles, swelling veins, a turned head, and adeeply carved gaze. The presence of horns on Moses's head is not Biblical, but instead it is a convention of Early Christian iconography which mistranslated the Latin word for "wisdom" as "horns." Michelangelo included them as a conceit to tradition, but also to enhance the power of this "forceful" presentation.

Salisbury Cathedral (ca. 13C) http://www.brynmawr.edu/cities/Cities/wld/01610/01610b.jpg

is considered the classic example of the English Gothic style. While it has multiple lancets and pointed arches, Salisbury Cathedral differs in several ways from its French contemporary, the Cathedral at Chartres (Lesson 5.07). The facade of Salisbury is has squat proportions, and it is actually wider than building behind it. The plan of the English cathedral is distinctive for its long, rectangular shape and double transepts. The nave reveals the influence of French Gothic in its three story nave elevation, pointed arches, and quadripartite rib vaults. The rib vaults spring from the triforium and the contrasting light and dark stone work, however, are English in origin, not French.

the various parts of a Romanesque church portal, which include:

jamb column jamb figure trumeau tympanum (pl.tympana) voussoir archivolt spandrel

Augustan sculpture

looks different from the veristic Republican period works. Augustus took control of the state in his early thirties and rules well into his seventies. In his portraits, however, Augustus is always presented as young and powerful (regardless of his age when the works were created). The aged realism of Republican verism is no loner present. The images from the Early Empire are much more inspired by works from ancient Greece, and in some works, Augustus is even shown as godlike. Portraits of the emperor were on display throughout the empire- basilicas, forums, baths, markets, etc. Augustus's likeness was the same across the empire on the heads of all the statues, but there were several different body types used. The emperor was shown as an armed general, a ruler on horseback, a hooded priest, a magistrate, a nude warrior, or one of the Roman gods (usually Jupiter, Apollo, or Mercury). These portraits functioned as a type of propaganda. Their versatility allowed Augustus to change his image and present himself to the different populations of empire most effectively.

cromlechs or henges

megaliths were placed in circular formations

Krater

mixing bowl with various placement of the handles

the Maison Carree in Nimes, France

modeled after the Augustan Temple of Mars. Examining the French work, the characteristics of earlier Roman and Etruscan temples are present: a platform, central staircase, deep porch, and pseudodipteral columns along the side and back. The presence of Corinthian columns and the white marble connect the structure to Ancient Greece as well.

Tumuli

mound shaped tombs

Iconography

n the visual arts is more than just the the pictorial illustration of a subject. It is the study of symbolism, subject matter, and their meanings. There is a great deal of rich iconography in Christian art, and these symbols and subjects were used to help early Christians learn and memorize the Biblical truths. The use of images was integral to teaching the largely illiterate population of the Middle Ages. These Christian symbols and subjects will be used in the Medieval period as well as the Renaissance, and they continue to be seen in contemporary Christian art as well.

Material

substances used in a work (tile, clay, steel, etc.)

ribs (Sant'Ambrogio, Milan, Italy)

supporting arches http://www.pitt.edu/~medart/menuglossary/ribvault.htm

obelisks

tall, thin, four-sided shaft of tapering stone that rises to a pyramidal point

Aegean art

the art produced by the civilizations in the Aegean Sea between 3000 - 1200 BCE

Cimabue's Madonna Enthroned

the central figure has volumetric form, but still lacks a sense of sculptural solidity.

Helladic

the civilization of the Greek mainland, or Hellas

verism

the use of an uncompromising realism and directness in portraiture that is completely different from what we have seen in the Ancient Near East, Egypt, or Greece.

amphiprostyle

columns across the front and back porches

prostyle

columns across the front porch only

peristyle

columns around the cella Various Types: peripteral: single row of columns around the cella dipteral: double rows of columns around the cella pseudo dipteral: only an outermost row of columns

West Pediment

depicted the contest between Athena and Poseidon to determine who would be the patron deity of Athens. Only fragments of the west pediment remain, and they are housed in the British Museum.

minarets

exterior auxiliary towers

Orants

figures with arms raised in a gesture of prayer.

nephrite

true jade

radiocarbon dating

used to find out the precise age of an object

iwans

vaulted open rooms

Folio from a Qur'an (Image 187)

As expected, there are no figural forms in the Folio from a Qur'an (Image 187) from the Abbasid Dysnasty since it is a page from the Islamic holy text. Created using ink and gold on vellum, the page is written in kufic script (named for the important calligraphy center in the city of Kufa). Kufic script is very angular, with its upright forms creating almost right angles with the baselines. In traditional kufic practice, no vowels (a,e, i, o, u) are written in the text, only consonants. To facilitate recitation of the verses, vowels are indicated by the red or yellow symbols below the baselines.

Diego Velazquez

Diego Velazquez (1599 - 1660) was the greatest painter of the Spanish Baroque. He was the official court painter for Felipe IV as well as chamberlain in the king's court. The Water Carrier of Seville is an important early works by Velazquez. The influence of Caravaggio is evident in the use of tenebrism and plebeian figures. Velazquez combines incredible clarity and detail with an inherent dignity of the figures themselves. He also manipulates scale and composition to further bring the viewer into the work as a participant. Velazquez painted his masterpiece Las Meninas (Image 091) (or The Maids of Honor), in 1656 near the end of his life. One of the most famous paintings in Western art, the artist depicts himself before a large canvas (presumably) painting a portrait of King Felipe IV and Queen Mariana, who are reflected in the mirror in the distance. The work is visually complex, and art historians do not agree on any interpretation. What is Velasquez painting? Perhaps this is a picture of the king and queen, who stand outside the confines of the picture plan in the viewer's space, but what we actually have is a portrait of their daughter, the Infanta Margarita. While it cannot be said for sure, it is clear that the painting was an effort by Velazquez to elevate both himself and his profession, as he wears the red cross of the Order of Santiago and shows himself inside the royal residence. Velázquez also portrays himself, painting the painting itself, on the left of the canvas, thus affirming the supremacy of the art of painting. The Infanta Margarita (1651-1673), wears white and appears in the center of the composition, surrounded by her ladies in waiting, the "meninas" María Agustina de Sarmiento and Isabel de Velasco, along with two court buffoons, María Bárbola and Nicolasito Pertusato, and a mastiff. Behind her, the duenna Marcela de Ulloa converses with the quartermaster, José Nieto, who is in the doorway. The King and Queen, Felipe IV and María de Austria (1634-1696) are reflected in the mirror at the back of the room, leading to series of complex spatial relations Velazquez portrayed the realities of image on canvas, of mirror images, of optical image, and of the two painted images. The work has contrasts of real spaces, mirrored spaces, picture spaces, and pictures within pictures - it itself could even have been taken from a large mirror reflecting the whole scene. The painting is thus a pictorial summary and a commentary on the mystery of the visual world, as well as a comment on the ambiguity that comes from the various modes of visual stimuli. Velazquez uses several methods in order to achieve this visual complexity. He extends the depth of the picture in both directions through the open doorway and the outward glances of several of the figures. He also played with light and shadow by placing many intermediate values of gray between the lights and darks. This method approached effects that were later discovered in photography.

Johannes Vermeer

Johannes Vermeer (1632-1675) was the foremost painter of Dutch Baroque genre scenes (paintings depicting everyday life). Genre works were extremely popular among the successful seventeenth-century Dutch middle-class patrons. These interior scenes provide a glimpse into the private lives of the prosperous citizens of the Upper Provinces. Vermeer was not a famous painter during his lifetime, and only about 35 paintings have been attributed to him. Much of his income was derived from his jobs as an innkeeper and an art dealer. His work stood out because even though 15th and 16th century Flemish painters did paint domestic interiors, they inhabited them with sacred personages (cf. The Merode Altarpiece (Image 066)). Vermeer and his contemporaries began to fill clean, middle-class dwellings with men, women and children in household tasks or at leisure. Vermeer's interior scenes typically show women, and they are idealistic depictions of Dutch social values. Woman in Blue Reading a Letter (1663-1664) stands in front of a window, completely immersed in her thoughts and the content of the letter. As she reads a letter, it completely consumes her. The composition is simple, and the viewer is drawn to the pure majesty of the main figure standing against the luminous white wall, which is balanced by the brownish map. Its classical simplicity and quiet grandeur make this work ione of Vermeer's masterpieces. In Woman Holding a Balance (Image 092), a young woman in a fur-trimmed jacket stands in a room in her home. Light from a window illuminates the room. Her valuable items are spread out on the table in front of her - necklaces, gold chains, and gold coins. Our gaze is directed to her hand, which holds a balance for weighing gold, perhaps an allusiion to the importance of leading a balanced, temperate life. The mirror on the wall may signify self-knowledge, or it may be sign of vanity like the pearls and gold. The framed painting on the back wall depicts the Last Judgment, and Christ, the weigher of souls, appears above the woman's head. The woman is holding the scales and contemplating both earthly and heavenly treasures. Vermeer's us of pictorial light is one of his most impressive qualities. He is believed to have used both mirrors and a camera obscura, a predecessor to the modern camera based on passing light through a pinhole to project an image on a screen or a wall. He did not copy the projected images, but used the camera obscura and the mirrors to rework his compositions in order to place his figures and objects in beautiful arrangements. He also was highly advanced in his color composition, producing colors that were artfully shaded and true to their optical effects. He realized that shadows are not colorless, and showed in paint how light makes colors affect each other, painting reflections in surfaces that mirrored nearby colors. He even seemed to have a grasp of what photographers call "circles of confusion," which appear on out of focus negatives. Likely he saw these through the camera obscura, and was able to use the color dots to give the impression of an image that is slightly out of focus. When the observer steps back, however, the painting is beautifully focused and incorporates multi-dimensional color. Allegory of the Art of Painting, is also emblematic of the Vermeer's style. The work demonstrates his characteristic precision, charm, and masterful handling of light and perspective. This painting was called The Artist in His Studio, and it is assumed that the artist is a depiction of Vermeer himself. The intention of creating an allegory is stronger here than in Vermeer's other works. The heavy curtain on the left allows the viewer to peek in and partake of the scene, but it also helps create a sense of illusionistic depth on the flat surface of the canvas. The young girl wearing a crown of laurel leaves is Fame. She may also have a connection with Clio, the muse of history,since she holds a trumpet and a book of Thucydides. A work created to laud the art of painting, the scene contains an elegant room with a chandelier, chairs, and the lush curtain. The large map on the back wall of the room shows the northern and southern Netherlands, and it symbolizes the area over which an artist's fame could spread. The painting stresses the importance of man achieving fame in the pursuit of his artistic endeavours.

Architectural Ornamentation

Many Islamic buildings are adorned with brilliant tilework. We can examine this artistry by taking a look at a mihrab (ca. 1354-1355) that once stood in the Madrasa Ammo in Iran. Koranic verses written in beautiful calligraphy with the abstract arabesque1 style cover this characteristic Islamic pointed arch. The calligraphy and the geometric designs are wonderfully integrated and give Islamic art a unique style.

the Abbey Church of Saint Pantaleon in Germany (ca. 980)

Ottonian architecture followed the path of Carolingian works, as seen at the Abbey Church of Saint Pantaleon in Germany (ca. 980). The twin towers flank the entrance similar to the Palatine Chapel, and the entrance facade is reminiscent of the Lorsch Torhalle because it incorporates a large lower portal, a second story with windows,and engaged pilasters

El Escorial

Phillip II was also responsible for El Escorial, the most significant Northern architectural project of the sixteenth century. Following his father's wishes for a "dynastic pantheon," the king commissioned this sprawling complex (over 600 feet by 500 feet) to serve as a royal mausoleum, a palace, a church, and a monastery. Juan de Herrera (1530-1597) directed the project, and the compound's design reflected Phillip's desire for grandeur as well as Renaissance simplicity, balance, and order of Italian architecture (seen in the facade of the main portal).

Ravenna

Ravenna was another city reborn under Justinian's reign, and it experienced its greatest prosperity under his control. The art and architecture from this city provide information on the differences and similarities between Early Christian art (cf. Lesson 4.04) and Byzantine art.

Kritios Boy (ca. 480 BCE).

Recovered from the ground under the pavement of the Acropolis along with several of the Archaic Kouroi, he is well under life-sized at approximately 2' tall. He has a traditionally Greek hairstyle, and the Archaic smile is gone. What is most radical is the slight dip in the right hip, which indicates shift in weight and position that indicated real human movement. The left leg is engaged and weight-bearing while the right leg is bent at ease. The head is also slightly turned stiffly staring forward. The pose is much more natural than the stiff postures of its Egyptian predecessors and the Archaic Kouroi figures. In art, this weight shift is called contrapposto, and its use in sculpture is a key factor in separating Archaic statuary from Classical period works.

Riemenschneider- The Assumption of the Virgin

Sculpted altarpieces were also quite popular among the Germans as well. Tilman Riemenschneider (ca 1460-1531). In The Assumption of the Virgin (which is part of a larger work) by Tilman Riemenschneider (ca 1460-1531) is fluid work that brings to mind the Flamboyant Style (see Lesson 5.08) and is characteristic of German works created during this period.

Ashlar masonry

The Great Pyramids are constructed of cut limestone that was quarried in the Giza plateau using a method of construction known as ashlar masonry. Ashlar masonry is a building technique that does not use mortar to seal the bricks together. Instead, bricks or stones are cut with a precision that allows them to fit together seamlessly. The only binder to hold an ashlar masonry structure together is gravity.

High Renaissance

The High Renaissance lasted about 25 years. While both the amount of art produced during the period and its quality are remarkable, there is no one style that defines the High Renaissance. During this period, the techniques and advances of the Early Renaissance were further developed. The artistic norms established during this time directly influenced European art for the next several centuries.

Madrasa Complex of Sultan Hasan

The Madrasa (Arabic for "a place of study") complex of Sultan Hasan (ca. 14th century) is an excellent example if these works. A madrasa is a type of seminary that is a common Islamic structure. Sultan Hassan's madrasa also had a mosque, a mausoleum, a hospital, shops, and baths. These were all centered around a central courtyard with a fountain.

Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (ca. 425)

The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia is a small building constructed in 425. It is an important work in the history of architecture because it integrates the basilica plan and the central-plan church designs. It is a cross-shaped structure (from the basilican plan) with a central domed area (from the central-plan). The church has the customary plain brick exterior, except for the blind arcade1 and entablature. On its interior, however, however, are some of the best preserved examples of fifth-century Early Christian mosaics known. The lunettes, vaults, and walls of the central dome are covered in stunning mosaics created with excellent craftsmanship. An important mosaic solution comes from the lunette over the entrance is this work of Christ as the Good Shepherd.

Italian Art

arquebus

The arquebus, or harquebus, is a firearm with a long barrel created by the Spanish in the mid-fifteenth century.

Clerestory

The center section of the hypostyle hall roof was often raised to create this

Jan Gossaert

The influence of the Italian Renaissance is clearly seen in the works of Jan Gossaert (ca. 1478-1532). Strongly influenced by ancient sculpture, he was one of the first Flemish artists to represent the nude using a subject from classical mythology in an Italian manner. His forms are have a sense of mass and solidity, and the fleshy surfaces are rendered with characteristic Flemish precision. His most famous piece, Neptune and Amphitrite, is typical of the Italian school combined with typical Flemish finish and detail in its figural forms and the creation of space and light. Neptune bears his attribute, the trident, and wears a laurel wreath with a conch shell instead of a fig leaf. Both figures display beautiful contrapposto stances.

Italian Gothic

The most famous Italian work from the period is the Doges Palace in Venice. The Doges were an oligarchy of dukes who ruled the Venetian Empire. Their palace, the seat of the Venetian government, had a first level dominated by heavy columns. The central part of the structure has thinner columns, which support ogee arches that end between medallions with open quatrefoils shapes. The upper portion of the palace has cream and pink marble veneer that gives the palace a light, delicate feel. Since Milan is situated in Northern Italy, the Milan Cathedral (b. 14th century). reflects both the Northern and Italian Gothic elements. From the Northern style, there are pointed arches, pinnacles, and delicate tracery and the presence of a transept. The wider nave (similar to a basilica) and the planar facade are from the Italian Gothic style.

Jan van Eyck - Ghent Altarpiece (open)

The overall theme of the whole altarpiece is Fall of Man and the salvation of mankind through the sacrifice of Jesus Christ.

Propylaia (Image 035),the Erechtheion and the Temple of Athena Nike (both Image 035)

The project also included a grand gateway to the Acropolis known as the Propylaia (Image 035), which was completed in 431 BCE. Two later temples, the Erechtheion and the Temple of Athena Nike (both Image 035), were also in the original rebuilding plans, but they were not constructed until after the death of Pericles.

Beau Dieu or "Beautiful God"

The trumeau statue of the central doorway depicting Christ in the act of blessing (known as the Beau Dieu or "Beautiful God") is the most well-known work of architectural sculpture at Amiens. The elements of High Gothic sculpture (figural forms freed from an architectural setting, multiple drapery folds, etc.) are present.

Flying buttress

The walls of Notre-Dame were also thinner, taller, and contained more windows than previous structure, so additional support was necessary. To accommodate this need, architects added exposed, exterior arches known as flying buttresses to counter the outward force of the vaults. From this point forward, flying buttresses were a standard feature for High Gothic churches.

mihrab

There is a niche on the qibla wall known as the mihrab. Common opinion is that this niche represents the site where Muhammad sat or stood in his Medina home while leading prayers.

Byzantine Major Arts

Throughout the seventh century, the Byzantines and the Persians engaged in several conflicts that left the Byzantine Empire weak and vulnerable. The Arabs easily conquered conquered much of Byzantium , in the name of the new religion of Islam. The Islamic armies gained control of almost two-thirds of the Eastern Empire. This was a great loss of population, wealth, and resources for the Byzantine Empire.

trumeau http://www.pitt.edu/~medart/menuglossary/trumeau.htm

Vertical architectural member between the leaves of a doorway. Trumeaus were often highly decorated.

Romanesque Church characteristics

a basilica plans with transept an increased nave length extended or double side aisles an apse with ambulatory radiating chapels upper level galleries (also called tribunes) barrel vaulting and later groin vaulting compound piers segmented, vaulted interior space((as opposed to a continous, barrel-vaulted nave)

Egypt

a civilization that enjoyed remarkable continuity and stability for three thousand years. In part this is due to its geographic location. Located in the Nile River Valley, Egypt was geographically isolated and protected because it was bordered on the east by the Arabian Desert and on the west by the Libyan Desert. Like Mesopotamia, its location in a fertile river valley and its temperate climate were conducive to both farming and domesticating animals, which meant the Egyptian people had an ample food supply.

colonnaded terraces

a colonnade is a row of columns which support some sort of ceiling

Composite view

a combination of frontal and profile views

Mosaic

a picture made of tesserae, or tiny pieces of colored stone or cut glass)

diptych

a picture or bas-relief made of two panels hinged together, often an altarpiece. A diptych may also be any picture consisting of two individual surfaces, an ancient Roman or Early Christian two-hinged writing tablet, or two ivory memorial panels (from the Art Lexicon).

Pont-du-Gard

aqueduct in Nimes, France (ca. 15 BCE) is one of the finest surviving examples of Early Roman Imperial building projects that directly impacted life in the empire. Aqueducts brought water into Roman cities from great distances by incorporating a continual and gradual descent from a distant water source. The Pont-du-Gard, for example, was once over thirty miles long. This functional structure shares the same sense of balance and proportion seen in other Roman works.

Apadana

audience hall

muezzin

crier

compound piers

http://media-1.web.britannica.com/eb-media/99/65999-004-6D9ED5DB.gif

barrel-vaulted side aisles. (Church of Sainte-Foy)

http://www.bluffton.edu/homepages/facstaff/sullivanm/france/conques/stefoy/0076.jpg

Nave (Sant'Ambrogio, Milan, Italy)

http://www.brynmawr.edu/cities/Cities/wld/01240/01240c.jpg This structure does not have the height that northern churches have, and Sant'Ambrogio's nave is broader than its northern counterparts. These difference are the result of Italian architects never straying too far from the Early Christian basilican design. This difference in dimensional proportion can be used to distinguish Italian Late Romanesque and Gothic churches from the northern churches.

Temple of Minerva at Veii

http://www.ou.edu/class/ahi4163/files/arch1.html https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/f5/11/b2/f511b27c360e78405e62c61ea1bfb71f.jpg

barrel vaulting & groin vaulting

http://www.pitt.edu/~medart/menuglossary/barrel.htm http://www.pitt.edu/~medart/menuglossary/groinvault.htm

Rib vaulting (Sant'Ambrogio, Milan, Italy)

http://www.pitt.edu/~medart/menuglossary/ribvault.htm http://www.pitt.edu/~medart/image/glossary/quadrib.jpg In addition, the compound piers also continue into the vaults which create supporting arches, or ribs, running along the groin vault. This support system (rib vaulting) is characteristic of Late Romanesque architecture as well as the Gothic architecture of the following period.

Transverse arches (Sant'Ambrogio, Milan, Italy)

http://www.pitt.edu/~medart/menuglossary/transrib.htm The main vaults are higher than the transverse arches, further emphasizing the spatial rhythm or the interior.

Sant'Apollinare Nuovo

https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/268/flashcards/716268/jpg/interior_sant_appolinare_nuovo1326211404004.jpg

Church of Sainte-Foy has a typical pilgrimmage church plan.

https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/801/flashcards/405801/png/plan1305592189604.png

the westwerk from the Ottonian abbey church at Corvey

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westwork#/media/File%3aCorvey_Westwerk.png

Module 3 Slide summary

https://secure-media.collegeboard.org/digitalServices/pdf/ap/2013advances/content-area-2-ancient-mediterranean.pdf Students should be able to fully identify Images 026-029 and Images 031-047 after completing Module 3 as well as answer multiple choice and/or essay questions about these images

Polychrome

painted in color

tondo

round format

Aerial view

seen from above

columns rest on a level known as

stylobate

Kore

the feminine form

Koran (Quran)

the holy book of the Islamic religion

Paten

the large bowl or plate used for the Eucharist bread

Nave

where the altar was located

Classical vs classical

(1) In art history, Classical with a capital "C" refers to ancient Greek art of the fifth-century BCE Classical period. The term classical with a lower case "c" refers to ancient Greek and Roman art in general.

Common Era

Michelangelo: Sistine Chapel

Michelangelo considered himself to be primarily a sculptor, and the artist proclaimed sculpture as a higher art form than painting. Nonetheless, the artist is best known for his fresco paintings in the Sistine Chapel. The Sistine Chapel (Image 075) is one of the most famous painted interiors in the world. The chapel was built in 1479 under the direction of Pope Sixtus IV, who gave it his name ("Sistine" comes from "Sixtus"). The location of the building is adjacent to St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican. It was the private chapel of the Pope, and one of the functions of the space was to serve as the gathering place for cardinals of the Catholic Church to gather in order to elect a new pope. Today, it is still used for this purpose, including the recent election of Pope Francis in March 2013. The Sistine Chapel's vaulted ceiling was originally painted blue and adorned with golden stars. Frescos by different artists also decorate the walls, such as Pietro Perugino' Christ Delivering the Keys to St. Peter. In 1508, Pope Julius II hired Michelangelo to paint the ceiling of the chapel. Before this time, Michelangelo had gained fame through his work as a sculptor, working on such phenomenal works such as the Pieta and David. He was not highly known, however, for his work with painting. It is believed the reason Julius gave such a huge task to Michelangelo was because of the urging of two artistic rivals, the painter Raphael and the architect Bramante. The two hoped that Michelangelo would fall flat since he was less accustomed to painting than he was to sculpting, or that he would grow so aggravated with Julius that he would want to leave Rome forever. Michelangelo rose to the task to create one of the best-known masterpieces of Western art. The central ceiling panel is centered on several scenes from the Old Testament including the Creation of the World and the story of Noah and the Flood (Image 075). The paintings are situated such that to view them right side up, the viewer must be facing the altar on the far side of the altar wall. The narration begins with Creation, above the altar, and progresses toward the entrance of the chapel on the other side of the chapel. Michelangelo began painting in 1508 and he continued until 1512. He started by painting the Noah fresco, but once he completed this component he removed the scaffolding and looked at what he had completed. He realized that the figures were too slight to serve their purpose while viewed on the ceiling. He decided to adapt larger figures in his next frescoed scenes. As the paintings moved toward the altar side of the chapel, the figures are larger as well as more expressive and full of movement. Two of the most important scenes on the ceiling are his frescoes of the Creation of Adam and the Fall of Adam and Eve/Expulsion from the Garden. In order to frame the central Old Testament scenes, Michelangelo painted architectural molding and supporting statues down the length of the chapel. These were painted in greyish/monochromatic coloring, which gave them the look of concrete architectural fixtures. The figures between the triangles in the ceiling include two types of figures - Old Testament prophets and pagan sibyls. The people of the Renaissance would have been familiar with the role of sibyls in the ancient world, like the Delphic Sibyl (Image 075); they could foretell the coming of a savior. For Christians, this pagan prophesy was interpreted as being fulfilled in the arrival of Jesus Christ on earth. Both the prophets from the Old Testament and classical culture prophesied the same coming Messiah and are depicted in the Sistine Chapel. It has been said that when Michelangelo painted, he was essentially painting sculptural form on his two dimensional surfaces. Other figures of note are the ignudi (nude youths), which frame the Genesis panels, and the putti in grisaille, which frame the prophets and the sibyls. Michelangelo painted over three hundred figures in exhausting detail in the Sistine Chapel, each of them having a sculptural sense of mass. This is clearly the case in the Sistine Chapel ceiling, where he painted monumental figures that embody both strength and beauty. Ironically, Michelangelo did his best to refuse the commission of the painting of the ceiling as he foresaw the difficulty of the work. The chapel's ceiling covers nearly six thousand square feet, is nearly seventy feet off the ground, and is significantly curved, which would create tremendous problems in regards to perspective. Michelangelo genuinely doubted his ability to complete the comission since he had very little experience working with frescoes. Still, Pope Julius II would not be denied and work began on the monumental project in 1508. The work was completed four years later and the result was a series of frescoes, the likes of which the world had never seen.

Architecture

Ottonian architecture followed the path of Carolingian works

Peter Paul Rubens

Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) was the great master of the Flemish Baroque. He was a great intellect and an accomplished diplomat who served the Spanish governors in Flanders. Rubens' work shows the influence of the tense, figural forms of Michelangelo, the color of Titian, the theatricality of Caravaggio, and the energy and movement of Carracci along with the traditional Flemish realism. His style characterized by naturalism, color, dynamism, and sensuality, is completely his own. An important early work by Rubens is the Elevation of the Cross, a tryiptych which clearly shows the influence of his study in Italy. The Italian influences are present in the twisted figures modeled after Michelangelo, the tenebristic lighting of Caravaggio, and the striking use Venetian color. The diagonal composition is full of dynamism and animated color. Nine executioners struggle with all their strength to raise the cross in the center panel as Christ's pale body hangs. St. John, the Virgin Mary ,and a group of weeping women and children witness the horrific event from the left panel. In the right panel, a Roman officer watches on horseback as soldiers crucify two thieves in the background. The subject is spread across all three panels when open. When closed, the outside of the wings shows Saints Amand and Walpurgis on the left, and Saints Eligius and Catherine of Alexandria on the right. After a restoration in the 1980s, the talent of the confident young Rubens is more clearly visible. The intense emotion of the figures, the contrasting light and shadow, the glow of the laboring bodies, and the gleam of the armour and costly robe all speak to the artist's abilities. In 1621, the widow of Henry IV, the first of the Bourbon kings of France, commissioned a series of large canvas paintings from Rubens. Marie de' Medici wanted to memorialize and glorify both herself and her late husband. Rubens painted a series of 24 paintings that showed the life of Queen Marie de' Medici, and the sixth in the series, Henry IV Receives the Portrait of Marie de' Medici (Image 086), is one of the most revolutionary and important pieces in the cycle because of its use of allegories, female power, and the presence of Marie de' Medici herself. Here, Greek gods present Marie's portrait to her future husband and King, Henry IV. Hymenaios, god of marriage, makes the presentation, while Jupiter and Juno watch from above. Art critics of the time were angered at the painting, as they did not think that human beings should be depicted in allegory. Rubens here uses it to suggest that Marie de'Medici is almost godlike herself, and that her marriage is one made in heaven. Marie herself is the only figure staring directly at the viewer, drawing the viewer's focus. Typically, male figures held the attention of the viewer, so this is an interesting use of female power and atypical for the time. The most dynamic work of the Marie de' Medici Cycle is the Arrival of Marie de' Medici at Marseilles, which shows the queen arriving in France from Italy. Traveling by sea, she disembarks surrounded by her attendants. The proud Florentine queen receives a servile welcome from a personification of France that wears a cloak bearing the emblem of France, the fleur-de-lis. Meanwhile, both the sky (symbolized by winged and trumpeting fame) and the sea (represented by Neptune and the Nereids) welcome Marie to France. Again, the naturalism, color, dynamism, and sensuality (especially in depictions of the fleshy nude Nereids) that characterize the artist's style are all present. The Medici Cycle is regarded as the pinnacle of Rubens' career. The paintings contain many aspects that stray from established art themes of the Baroque period, which is why this cycle is so noteworthy. Rubens' had an active life as a diplomat since Europe was at war during most of his career. In his work entitled Allegory of the Outbreak of War, Rubens makes his opinions of war clear. Mars, the Roman god of war, carries a bloody sword and uplifted shield as he leaves the Temple of Janus on the left. The doors of this temple are open indicating this is a period of conflict since according to Roman custom, they remained closed during times of peace. Venus, the goddess of love, and her cupids try to restrain Mars and keep him from fighting, as the Fury Alecto pulls him forward into battle. Plague and Famine wait in the distance since they are the inescapable byproducts of war. A musician with a broken lute (harmony), a mother and child (tenderness), and an architect with his tools (civilization) fall before Mars as a result of armed conflict. Beneath the war god's feet, a book is trampled (literature and learning). The woman in black on the left is the ravaged personification of Europe that throws her hands up in despair. Rubens' message is that in the destructive path of war, nothing is sacred. The arts do not flourish, and people suffer.

Hubris

Pride

Rembrandt van Rijn

Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (1606-1669) is not only an undisputed master of the Dutch Baroque, but also one of the most well known painters in the history of Western art. Rembrandt's works have a remarkable use chiaroscuro and an intense humanity. Unlike other Baroque painters, Rembrandt rendered light and shade more delicately, creating a mood that was intentionally less dramatic than his contemporaries. He strove to establish subtle moods as well as a psychological depth of his sitters through his more natural and softer display of light. Rembrandt's style is clearly established is his early work Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp. His group portrait for the surgeons' guild is an innovative deviation from typical Dutch Baroque portraiture like Hals' Archers of Saint Hadrian. Rembrandt's figures are crowded together in a tight grouping that is more spontaneous and realistic. The focus in Rembrand't work is the diagonally foreshortened corpse that is the cadaver of a criminal. The work is an admonition to live an honest, righteous life as well as a portrait. From the cadaver, the eye of the spectator is led to the illuminated heads of the listeners, whose expressions and attitudes reflect different degrees of attention to the face and hands of Dr. Tulp, shown as a scholar absorbed in his work. Tulp uses forceps to hold the muscles and tendons of the arm that control the hand The vivid characterization of the individuals are unified in the drama of the moment to create a coherent group. Rembrandt's skillful use of chiaroscuro combined with atmospheric perspective create sculptural forms and a sense of excitement in the moment. The unity of psychological and pictorial tension create an compelling event. Rembrandt's most famous and most controversial painting was The Nightwatch. Technically, this is a daytime scene, and the dark tones of the work result from a type of varnish Rembrandt used that darkened with time. The original title was Militia Company of District II under the Command of Captain Frans Banninck Cocq based on information recorded in the still extant family chronicle of Captain Banning Cocq. The young Heer van Purmerlandt [Banning Cocq] is depicted in his rank as captain ordering his lieutenant, the Heer van Vlaerderdingen [Willem van Ruytenburch], to march the company out. This is a group portrait of another civic militia. The captain can be seen in the foreground wearing black, and his lieutenant is wearing yellow. Rembrandt's use of chiaroscuro as a dramatic device make his work unique compared to his contemporaries . The scene is essentially consists of different figural types, and it includes the entire repertoire of portrait poses and gestures from the artist's store of figures. There is inevitably a sense of celebration in the portrayal of individuals in a Dutch group painting. While Frans Hals draws together his individual participants around a banquet scene, Rembrandt once more breaks up the group so the viewer can take in the the individual characters and participants absorbed in their own actions. Each figure standa alone making this a most masterful "group" portrait. Rembrandt represented himself more than a hundred times in drawings, etchings and paintings. The series constitutes one of the most revealing and honest autobiographies ever made. Every change of fortune and the impact of time and emotion were recorded with dispassionate truth. Rembrandt often make likenesses of himself in imagined historical costumes. He appeared in his self-portraits as a soldier, a beggar, a Renaissance courtier, an exotic Oriental leader, and even Saint Paul. Here in this early Self-Portrait with his wife, Saskia (Image 087) from 1631, he and his wife are shown in historical 16th century costumes. Rembrandt is dressed in a plumed beret and a fur-trimmed overcoat while his wife wears and old-fashioned veil. Only twice did Rembrandt present himself in the style of a contemporary Amsterdam gent. This etching is also a marriage portrait, and it is the only etching Rembrandt ever made of himself and his wife together. They are seated at a table before a simple background. Rembrandt dominates the picture with his intense expression, and his wife appears smaller and contemplative behind him. Interesting, this etching is also the first time Rembrandt presents himself as an artist in his work. He holds a porte-crayon (a two-ended chalk crayon) and appears to have been drawing on the paper in front of him. Rembrandt is often thought of as the greatest etching artist in the history of art, and he was the first to make this technique a popular form of artistic expression. He created nearly 300 etchings, and his subjects included portraits, history, landscapes, still lifes, nudes, and genre scenes of everyday life among them. He typically used a soft ground that allowed him to draw freely on his plate, so his etchings seem more like drawings in their immediacy and spontaneity. He also experimented with many different kind of paper of varying weights and colors, making his etchings stand out from his contemporaries. He is also known for varying the intensity of the etching. This is evident in this picture because Rembrandt's figure is more deeply etched than his wife, making it look as if the artist is closer to us. He may even have sketched is wife first and then added himself in the front. Later in life, Rembrandt suffered many financial hardships, the death of his wife, and the decline of his career. In this later portrait, he is is 53 years old, and his expression mirrors a life saddened by personal tragedy.

Relief

Sculptures that lined the hallways of royal residences

Hieroglyphs

The Egyptians developed their own system of writing

The Mona Lisa, Leonardo Da Vinci's most famous work

The Mona Lisa, Leonardo Da Vinci's most famous work, is arguably the world's most famous painting. Much has been written on this work, and many theories exist about sitter's identity and her mysterious expression. It is commnoly believed that she was Lisa di Antonio Maria Gherardini, wife of the wealthy Florentine Francesco del Giocondo. The name "Mona" is an Italian contraction of "Ma donna" or "My lady." The figure is dressed in early sixteenth-century Florentine fashion and displays a mysterious smile in this masterpiece of chiaroscuro and sfumato. A fantastic landscape enhances the enigmatic nature and mystery of the portrait. Da Vinci completed very few works because of his obsessive perfectionism and his incredibly vast array of interests. He became increasingly involved in scientific exploration over the years, and some consider him to be the father of scientific illustration. The images in his sketchbooks show his keen interest in science and curiosity about life, as seen in Leonardo's depiction of a fetus.

Botticelli: The Birth of Venus (Image 072)

The emotion of the composition, as well as the gracefulness of the veils and the woman's hairdressing, would later become a model of elegance for many painters. Botticelli, the creator of The Birth of Venus (Image 072) and Primavera, was not only a student of Filippo Lippi's, but also a close friend and co-worker of the master's son.

Duccio

The first important Sienese artist was Duccio di Buoninsegna (active ca. 1278-1318). He created a massive altarpiece (7' x 13') known as the Maesta ("majesty"). The work's central panel is the Madonna and Child Enthroned with Saints and Angels, a work that reflects the influence of the Byzantine style in its oval faces and the pose of the Madonna. However, the sense of corporal volume and physical solidity combined with the overlapping figures' lack of rigid frontality and flowing draperies, indicate that Duccio is also looking at the advances in art happening in Italy in the 14th century.

Imhotep

The first named artist in history

spandrel http://www.pitt.edu/~medart/menuglossary/spandrel.htm

The roughly triangular wall space between two adjacent arches.

seder

a ritual meal eaten the night before the Passover festival begins.

Kaaba cont...

a sanctuary built by Abraham (Ibrahim) and his son Ishmael (Ismail) for Allah

di sotto in su

from below upwards

cella (or naos)

housed the cult statue

Sandro Botticelli (1444-1510)

is one of the most well-known painters of the fifteenth century Renaissance. He studied under Fra Filippo Lippi, who was learned from Masaccio, but Boticelli's works lack their sense of "scientific order." Botticelli's works stress grace, delicacy, and poetic beauty. Regardless of theme or subject matter, Boticelli's works have a lyricism and elegance.

plebian

lower (classes)

occulus

opening

Perspective

organization of forms in space to create the illusion of depth on a flat surface

Libations

ritual pouring of liquids

Mastaba

the standard early Egyptian tomb type, was a rectangular stone or brick structure with sloping slides and a shaft connecting the underground tomb with the outside (through which the ka would supposedly move). These early mastaba forms are the precursors for the Great Pyramids at Giza.

Value

the use of light and shadow in art

Contrapposto

weight shift and its use in sculpture is a key factor in separating Archaic statuary from Classical period works.

The Lindesfarne Gospels

were produced at a monastary on Lindesfarne Island. According to its colophon (page of the text that contains information on the book's manufacture), these gospels were written by Eadfrith, the Bishop of Lindesfarne, and dedicated "to God and Saint Cuthbert" (whose relics were held at Lindesfarne).

Weary Herakles

(original 4th century BCE; Roman copy ca.216 CE), one of Lysippos's most famous works. He portrays the great hero as in very human terms; he is completely exhausted after completing one of the painstaking twelve labors. The tension in the hero's face is palpable as he wonders how much more he will have to endure.

Haggadah

A Haggadah is a collection of Jewish prayers written to accompany a seder, a ritual meal eaten the night before the Passover festival begins. Haggadah literally means "narration" or "telling" in Hebrew, and the term refers to a command in Exodus that required the Jews to tell the story of their people and how they escaped their captivity in Egypt.

Passover

BCE

Before the Common Era

Christ's initials in Greek

Chi-Rho-Iota

Anthony Van Dyck

Flemish painter Anthony Van Dyck (1599-1641) trained under Rubens, and he eventually became the official court painter for Charles I, the English king. Van Dyck is famous for his elegant portraits of royalty, and his work set the standard for English portraiture for nearly two hundred years. In Charles I at the Hunt , the king stands in a landscape with the river Thames in the background. The overall casual feeling of the scene is balanced by the king's proud stance and expression. Charles I was small in stature, so his horse's head is down so that the king does not look small. Rubens' influence is evident in the naturalism, color, and portrayal of flesh in this work.

Meander

Greek fret

Islamic Art

Islam prohibits the use of graven images, so there is no sculpture in our study of Islamic art, nor is there much figural painting. Human or animal forms from Islamic cultures are only present in secular works, and again, these are a rarity. Islamic architecture is very advanced, which is expected given that Arabs invented algebra and the system of numbers that the world uses today. As Islam grew in power and influence, so did the size and ornamentation of its structures, with some of buildings having incredible beauty.

Romanesque Painting

Like the sculpture, the painting of the Romanesque period was highly stylized and owed much to the classical, Byzantine, and Early Medieval st

ALOE

Matthew- Angel Mark- Lion Luke- Ox John- Eagle

Middle Ages

Now we will turn our attention to the Western portion of the now-defunct Roman Empire. The term Middle Ages (or Medieval) is used to discuss the years in the West between Rome's adoption of Christianity as its official state religion and the start of the Renaissance (a resurgence of interest in the art and culture of classical Greece and Rome in the 1400's). During this approximately 1000-year period, the former citizens of Rome in the West merged with the so-called "barbarians,"1 laying the foundations for modern Europe. 1The term barbarian comes from the Latin word "barba" for beard. During the Roman Empire in particular, it was a generic term used to describe the preliterate cultures that existed on the borders of the Roman state. The men of these cultures had beards unlike the Romans, who were clean-shaven for most of their history.

voussior http://www.pitt.edu/~medart/menuglossary/voussoir.htm

One of the wedge-shaped stones used in constructing an arch.

Sculpture

Saint Michael's is also famous a pair of sixteen and a half-foot bronze doors (ca. 1015) with images from the Old Testament Book of Genesis on the left and episodes from Life of Christ. The figural composition has the the manuscript illuminations we have studied with the characteristic energy of the age.

Gospels

The Gospels are the first four books of the New Testament, and they contain information about the life, teaching, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Each of the Four Evangelists (the writers of the four Gospels- Matthew, Mark, Luke, and john) has his own particular iconographic symbo, and these are remembered by using the acronym ALOE.

Northern Renaissance in the Netherlands

The Netherlands in the sixteenth century were politically, religiously, and culturally divided. This period of disunity had little effect on the Flemish school that had developed in the fifteenth century. During the sixteenth century, Flemish art shows an increased sensitivity to nature and the influence of Italian Renaissance innovations.

chi-rho-iota symbol

The chi-rho-iota symbol, which is the monogram of Christ, is present on a soldier's shield. This work clearly stresses the unity between the state and church in Byzantium. The positions of the figures expresses formulas of rank and precedence.

Islamic Luxury Arts

The furnishings of Islamic mosques and palaces all reflect a use of rich materials and intricate decorative patterns. Most luxury art production occurred in the courts of Muslim caliphs and sultans where both luxurous materials and royal patronage were easily available. Islamic luxury arts took many diverse forms. As with architecture, Islamic art created for religious purposes does not contain figural (human or animal) forms, instead relying on calligraphy, vegeta formsl, and geometric patterning. Figural art does exist in the Islamic world, but a clear distinction exists in the use of this imagery, and subsequently between religious and secular texts. In secular works, such as illuminated manuscripts and decorative pieces, figural imagery is plentiful. Subject matters include narrative works, such as the histories of kings and heroes, as well as illustrations of works of literature and poetry.

tympanum of the Last Judgment on the western facade of the Church of Sainte-Foy (Image 058) http://www.bluffton.edu/homepages/facstaff/sullivanm/france/conques/stefoy/tympanum.html

The tympanum of the Last Judgment on the western facade of the Church of Sainte-Foy (Image 058) is frequently studied because of its excellent state of preservation as well as its size and lively presentation of the subject matter. This imagery is based on Matthew 25: 31-46, which explains the separation of the blessed and the damned as well as their fates. The tympanum is divided into three registers separated by banners with inscriptions in Latin. The design is further compartmentalized into approximately twenty sections that correspond with the limestone slabs used to create the tympanum.

Campanile (Cathedral complex at Pisa)

a baptistery, cathedral, and freestanding bell tower

impluvium

a collecting pool

vault

an arched roof or covering of masonry construction - made of brick, stone, or concrete (from the Art Lexicon).

Mud brick

an easily accessible medium in the river valley

Narthex

an entrance hall

Thermae

baths

Courses

laid in rows

Kouros

masculine for "youth"

oculus

round central opening in a dome

trillionths

three-stone constructions

post-and-lintel construction

two stones would serve as posts and one as a cap, or lintel. In art history, we called this type of arrangement

tabernae

which was flanked by shops

The rock (image 185)

which was the site of the miraj (Muhammad's ascension into heaven).

Pax Romana

"Roman Peace"

Kaaba

"cube" in Arabic and located in Mecca

Archaic

"early" in Greek

furta sacra

("holy theft" or "holy transfer")

Sexpartite (Saint-Etienne in Caen, France) https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/698/flashcards/4033698/jpg/83-142B658917F3EEC22CE.jpg

("sex" is Latin for "six") vaulting. In this form, branching ribs split the vault into six sections, all supported by alternating compound piers in the nave. Sexpartite vaulting also allows for the insertion of clerestory windows, thus creating a three-story nave elevation.

amphitheater

(literally "double theater") owes its origins to the Greek theater, but the Greeks could never have built such a structure because they had no way to support a freestanding structure of this size. Greeks built their theaters on a hillside and used nature as a support, while the Roman technology of concrete arches allowed them to build stadiums easily and in any location. Pompeii's amphitheater had a seating capacity of just over twenty-thousand and is in a state of stunning preservation. Visitors who walk around the outside of the structure or through its tunnels will be struck by its similarity to modern football stadiums and arenas.

Ottonian Art

After Charlemagne's death, his kingdom fell into disarray. A period of internal conflict and foreign invasions left Europe in disorder. When the Ottonians came to power (named after its founder Otto I), order was again restored. Under the Ottonians, classicism experienced another resurgence.

Caravaggio: Calling of Saint Matthew

An early masterpiece by Caravaggio is the Calling of Saint Matthew (Image 085) (cf. Mark 2:13-17) from the Saint Matthew cycle he painted for the Contarelli Chapel in San Luigi dei Francesi in Rome. This cycle includes three large-scale canvases: over the altar in center, an image of Saint Matthew writing his Gospel (The Inspiration of Saint Matthew); on the right, the Calling of Saint Matthew; and on the left, The Martyrdom of Saint Matthew. The setting for The Calling of Saint Matthew is a commonplace tavern with unadorned walls. Christ is in the painting, but cloaked in shadow, only recognizable by a vague halo. The tax-gatherer Levi (Saint Matthew's name before he became an apostle) is seated at a table counting the day's proceeds with his four assistants. Christ has entered with Saint Peter and stands in the shadows. the powerful, compelling gesture of his right hand summons Levi, who is surprised by the intrusion. In response to Christ's gesture, Levi draws back points toward himself as if to say, "Who, me?" The two figures on the left are oblivious to Christ's arrival because they are so focused on counting the money. Symbolically, their focus on financial matters over Christ's presence speaks to the short-sightedness of money and greed. Their inattention to Christ deprives them of the opportunity he offers for eternal life, and thus they are condemned for eternity meaning they have no promise of anything after death. The two boys in the center do see Christ, and their postures indicate they are responding to his presence. The younger one moves closer to Levi seeking his protection, and the swaggering armed older boy leans forward to defend the table. Saint Peter gestures firmly with his hand to calm the boy's potential resistance. The drama of the picture is stems from the fact that no one does anything. Christ's appears so unexpectedly and his gesture is so commanding that time seems to stop for the figures at the table, who are trying to figure out how to respond. The particular power of the picture is in this cessation of action and drama as a beam of light that streams through the window and illuminates Levi (Saint Matthew) indicating that he has received his divine calling. In the seconds that follow, Levi will rise up and follow Christ, and Christ's feet are already turned to leave the room. Since the medium of painting is fundamentally static, it effectively conveys the characteristic human indecision that follows a challenge or command and comes before a reaction. The stage-like lighting and commonplace setting work with figures who are realistic and approachable in both expressions and poses to establish an overall feeling of drama. The differences in costumes reinforce the contrast between the standing figures on the right and the group at the table. Levi and his subordinates are men of this world wearing the contemporary style of dress. In contrast, the barefoot Christ and Saint Peter appear in timeless cloaks as they call Levi to another life and a spiritual world. The two groups are also separated by a void, bridged literally and symbolically by the hand of Christ, which like Adam's in Michelangelo's Creation, unifies the two parts of the painting both formally and psychologically.

Orvieto Cathedral (ca. 14th century)

As we have seen, the Gothic style in England and Germany is distinct from the French Gothic. In Italy, the Gothic style was so different that some scholars claim it is not Gothic at all. One example of the Italian Gothic is the west facade of the Orvieto Cathedral (ca. 14th century). The pointed gables over the doorways, the rose window, the pinnacles, and the tripartite division of the facade are all familiar Gothic elements. The facade is on a single plane and has both painted and carved ornamentation reminiscent of an altar screen. These are elements are particular to the Italian Gothic style.

Parisian courtly style

Both scenes are framed by an architectural setting similar to the canopies seen over the sculpture jamb figures on cathedral exteriors. This work is also characteristic of the so-called Parisian court style, which is reflected in the figures' refined features, delicate hands and hair, and graceful proportions and gestures. The other page from the Scenes of the Apocalypse (Image 061) is a folio from the text of the Bible. Here, you can see pairings of the Old Testament and New Testament scenes accompanied by explanatory texts. These literary and visual readings would combine together to convey a moral.

Quadro Riportato

Carracci arranged the scenes based on Ovid's Metamorphoses in illusionistic, decorative frames using a technique known as quadro riportato. This innovation was highly influential and was incorportaed throughout the seventeenth century.

Dirk Bouts- Last Supper

Dirk Bouts' Last Supper was the first Northern painting to have a single vanishing point.1 Located slightly above Christ's head in this work, the vanishing point and where our eyes are naturally drawn (please review the vocabulary on perspective below). Originally the central panel of a large altarpiece, this work is the first Northern painting in which the figures have the same sense of scale as their surrounding environment. It is also thought to be the first Flemish depiction of the Last Supper.

Greek Temple Elevation

Divided into three sections from the ground up (listed below)

Architraves

Doric architraves were left plain. Ionic architraves were divided into three bands or fasciae.

The Frieze stood above the architrave

Doric friezes were comprised of alternating triglyphs (a projecting, grooved section) and metopes (open area between triglyphs often used for architectural sculpture). Ionic friezes were left open primarily for continuous sculptural reliefs.

3rd century Rome

During the 3rd century, Roman civilization began a steady course of decline due to several factors. Germanic groups to the North and the Parthians in the East were attacking Rome at its borders, while at home, trade and agriculture were stagnant and inflation rampant. In addition, Christianity had gained a foothold in the Roman world, challenging traditional Roman beliefs and state religion. As a result of this time of great upheaval, old artistic norms were rejected and replaced by new ideas.

Pylons

Egyptian Pylon temples were dedicated to gods, rather than pharaohs. Pylons are large stone structures with sloping walls used to create the monumental entrances of these structures.

Moralized Bibles from the Parisian Court

Gothic manuscript illumination showed the same level of development as seen in the architectural sculpture of the period. The influence of stained glass windows can be seen in the rich jewel tones used as well as the formatting of imagery. Some of the finest Gothic books belonged to the French monarchy, who could afford to patronize these works.

Symposium

Greek banqueting party

mesopotamia

Greek for "between the rivers"

buttresses & minarets

Huge buttresses1 were eventually attached for support, and minarets were added when the church was converted into an Islamic mosque after the fall of Constantinople to the Turkish Muslims. buttress - A mass of masonry or brickwork used as a support or brace counteracting the outward (lateral) thrust of an arch or vault (from the Art Lexicon).

orthogonal

If lengthened these lines will meet at a point along an imaginary horizontal line representing the eye level. Each such imaginary line is called an orthogonal.

Abraham presides over Heaven http://www.bluffton.edu/homepages/facstaff/sullivanm/france/conques/stefoy/0064.jpg Saint Foy: http://www.bluffton.edu/homepages/facstaff/sullivanm/france/conques/stefoy/stefoy.jpg

In the panel to the left of the door to Heaven (above the left door into the church), Abraham presides over Heaven with figures that represent Old and New Testament Law. Saint Foy also makes an appearance on the Blessed side of the portal, bowing to the hand of God below the portion of the inscription that reads "joy in heaven." On the other side (Christ's left, but the viewer's right), there is a square door (in the post-and-lintel style) that represents the entry into Hell. At this entrance, a demon violently pushes a sinner into the mouth of Hell with a mallet where a monster awaits to eat the sinners who are being damned for eternity.

Chartres Cathedral, Chartres, France

It was very expensive to produce these windows, and the window patronage reflects a sense of communal society in the Gothic period. Take a minute and examine this rose window from the north transept. The wealthy royalty (in this case, the Queen of France) financed huge rose windows like these, and lesser nobles and members of clergy funded the lancets. The cathedral's massive rose window is over 40 feet in diameter and is built around the centerpiece showing the Virgin and Child. The rose window is accompanied by five huge lancets featuring Saint Anne (middle lancet) and Old Testament saints. The majority of the smaller remaining windows were sponsored by laboring class guilds of the town of Chartres. These are some of the first examples of a rising urban working class as patrons of art.

Theotokos

Mary holding the infant Christ is referred to as a Theotokos ("Throne of Wisdom") in Greek as she holds the wisdom of salvation (Jesus Christ).

Pericles

Mid 5th Century BCE. the Athenians employed this wealth to rebuild their acropolis complex that was razed in 480 BCE. So, the construction project is really a by-product of tyranny and abuse of power, although it is usually treated like the glorious fruit of Athenian labor.

bay

Nave bay units are further defined by the compound piers (designated on the plan by the black dots) on the corners of each bay. The ambulatory and radiating chapels (apsidioles) on the apse end further accomodated the large crowds of pilgrims and the viewing of relics with minimal interruption of the mass service.

Parthenon (447-438 BCE) (Image 035)

The crowning jewel of the rebuilding project on the Acropolis was the Temple of Athena Parthenos, the patron goddess of Athens after whom the city was named

Norman Romanesque Architecture in France and England https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normans

The northern coast of France became a Viking stronghold in the tenth century. These warriors we known as the Normans, and they developed a Romanesque style that would lay the foundations for the French Gothic style, which we will study a little later in Module 5.

Central-Plan

The other common design type for Early Christian buildings

islam

The term "Islam" is Arabic for "submission to God." A person of the Islamic faith is called a "Muslim" (Arabic for "one who submits").

hypostyle hall

This area was covered by a roof comprised of stone slabs that rested on lintels and crowded with columns. The lintels were supported by impost blocks that rested on the columns.

Akkadian work of importance is the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin (ca. 2300-2200 BCE)

This imposing stele stands almost seven feet tall and depicts Naram Sin, the grandson of Sargon I, vanquishing his enemies and dominating the scene in hierarchical scale. One foe begs for mercy while another pulls a javelin from his throat. All the while, Naram Sin stands tall with his weapons in hand and his gaze fixed on the heavens. The absolute power and position of the king emanate from this work.

Didactic and Polychrome

Throughout the Church of Sainte-Foy are over 200 columns with capitals decorated with relief carvings. Some of these are simply decorative, featuring images of plant motifs, while others are historiated and tell Biblical stories as well as stories from the life of Sainte-Foy. These capitals functioned as didactic pictures for both the monks and the pilgrims, and traces of paint indicate they were once polychrome.

Early Sixteenth-Century Venetian Art

Venice in the sixteenth century faced external pressures. All of Western Europe, including the Papal states, was allied against her. The Turks were also pressing her from the East. Venice gradually surpassed Florence in artistic preeminence in the 16th century, and the Venetian school of artists became a a vibrant influential force in European art.

Colosseum (also known as the Flavian amphitheater) (Image 044).

Vespasian built this great public work as gift to the people of Rome soon after he became emperor in an attempt to appease the disgruntled Roman citizenry. The site selected for the structure was also a clever political move.

acroteria

a figure or ornament placed usually at the top or edge of the ranking cornice

sacrum

a flat bone at the base of the spine

Krater

a vessel in which water and wine were mixed together (like a punch bowl). As for the decoration, the rendering of the forms on the Niobides Krater shows considerable advance and the influence of Polygnotos, who work was on display across Athens and Delphi during this time. Athenian potters began to incorporate revolutionary compositional formats, placing figures on different ground levels instead of sharing a common ground line. Breaking from earlier works, human forms interacted in and with landscape elements in postures and poses that broke from traditional frontal and composite views. The goal was to create images that were true windows on the world, not just surface designs. Note the slain male form who has fallen on a rocky outcropping which partially hides his body and the 3/4 views of his face. Scholars still debate what exactly the imagery on the other side of the krater represents. They have identified the figure of Athena, who is surrounded by heroes in arms including, Herakles (shown wearing a lion skin and carrying his club). It is possible this is a scene from the Argonauts.

Tarquinia

another great Etruscan city. There were no tumuli here, just subterranean tombs. Several of the Tarquinian tombs were painted with magnificent frescos, but they did not carve virtual homes.

composite capital

combination of Corinthian and Ionic elements

Composite view

combines profile views of his head, legs, and arms with frontal views of his eye and his torso

Eclectic

composed of elements drawn from various sources

Twisted perspective

composite view of the animal that combines profile view and frontal view

Ionic Columns

comprised of a base, shaft, and capital. The capital was a spiral volute under an abacus.

Frontal view

conceals most of an animal's form

Early Christian Period

includes both Christian and Jewish works created under during the late Roman Empire. This time period and its artwork is significant because it lays the foundation for Medieval art and architecture produced during the Middle Ages. While Early Christian works are similar in appearance to the art of Late Roman Empire, there is a significant difference is subject matter. Early Christians first worshipped in converted homes, so not much survives from these first religious sites. The majority of the works that survive from the period comes from the early Christian cemeteries (catacombs).

pinakotheke

picture gallery

Votive figures

represent mortals, not deities, and they can range in size from 9" to 30" tall. These figures are shown both seated or standing.

wudu

ritual washing

roundels

round panels

Abrasion

rubbing or sanding the surface

Canon

rule

Light Wells

shafts for letting in light and air

Loculi

shelves

Three-quarter view

shows neither the front or side of an animal fully

Profile view

shows the head, body, tail, and all four legs

Volume

space which mass organized

muqarnas

stalactite-form stucco decorations

forum

the Roman version of the Greek agora

the fixed morally binding customs of a particular group; 2: moral attitudes; 3: HABITS, MANNERS (from the Merriam-Webster Dictionary).

The Forum of Trajan (Image 045)

the largest Rome had ever seen. In fact, it was larger than the fora of Julius Caesar, Augustus, and Nerva put together. The architect responsible for the forum's plan was Apollodorus of Damascus, Trajan's chief military engineer. Trajan's forum promoted Trajan's victory over the Dacians, and it included a vast colonnaded plaza, a massive basilica, libraries, and a monumental column. When Trajan died, a temple for the deified emperor was built at the end of the forum as an addition to the original design.

Iconoclasm

"image breaking" After the devastating losses to the Muslims, Byzantine emperor Leo III believed that God was punishing them for their use of icons and images in their worship. Idolatrous behavior is expressly forbidden in the Second Commandment of the Law of God (cf. Exodus 20: 4-6). In 726, the emperor decreed the use if images was forbidden, and this began a great age of iconoclasm ("image breaking"). At its height, people who possessed religious images were jailed or tortured or even executed. Needless to say, not much art survives from this period since it was anti-images.

"Toreador Fresco"

(ca. 1500 BCE) from Knossos, a young man is engaged in the ritual of bull-leaping, a ceremonial sport of the Minoans. The scene is full of motion and energy while simultaneously being dignified and graceful. Unlike other art we have examined that includes animals in the subject matter, in the Minoan work, man and beast are not engaged in a violent battle.

The Chimera statue

(ca. 4th century BCE) found near the Italian city of Arezzo is another well-known later Etruscan bronze. This figure is a composite monster from Greek mythology. Like the she-wolf, it is also fierce and defiant, although the goat's head has been mortally wounded by the Greek hero Bellerophon. It reflects the power, movement and energy of typical of Etruscan art.

Column of Trajan (Image 045)

(including its podium) stands over 125 feet high, and a bronze statue of Trajan originally stood on the top. The statue was destroyed in the Middle Ages, and the column is now topped with a statue of Saint Peter. Low reliefs of captured Dacian weaponry decorate the podium, and after Trajan's death, his ashes were placed inside. A giant laurel wreath surrounds the base of the column to symbolize Trajan's victory over the Dacians. The column itself is decorated with 650 feet of spiraling continuous narrative reliefs recounting Trajan's two Dacian campaigns. These reliefs were once painted in great detail as well. The one hundred and fifty different scenes unfold around the column, from the base to the top, in a completely unprecedented manner. Some scholars have suggested that the this innovative spiral presentation was intentionally used to mimic the unrolling of a scroll, an idea that may some credence since the column once stood between the two in the rear plaza libraries. While the reliefs on the columns are not carved as deeply as the scenes from the Arch of Titus, the reliefs do vary the levels of depth in the carving in order to create a sense of space and incredible detail. A similar use of light and shadow to produce a sense of motion is utilized. In this detail, Trajan is presented with the heads of the enemy by Roman soldiers in a scene that is extremely animated. The Dacian heads dangle loosely from the arms of the Roman soldiers. This image from the column's reliefs presents Trajan's soldiers on a march. Here, especially, we can see the amazing detail that went into every scene, such as the folds in the soldiers' uniforms, the designs on their shields, and the curls in their beards. The varying levels of relief are once again used to create depth and a sense of movement.

The Kaaba

(meaning "cube" in Arabic) is located in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, and it is a Pre-Islamic monument that is now the holiest shrine in Islam. The Kaaba is a cube-shaped structure, and its four corners correlate with the cardinal points on the compass. Situated in the center courtyard (Image 183) of the al-Haram Mosque (which was actually built around the Kaaba), the structure has a solid gold door (added in 1982) and it is covered with a black curtain with calligraphic inscriptions in gold and silver thread known as the kiswa(h). According to the Koran, the Kaaba was a sanctuary built by Abraham (Ibrahim) and his son Ishmael (Ismail) for Allah. In pre-Islamic times, the Kaaba contained the Black Stone (which supposedly given to Abraham by the archangel Gabriel) and statues of pagan gods.

tympanum (pl. tympana) http://www.pitt.edu/~medart/menuglossary/tympanum.htm

(plural, tympana): The basically semicircular area enclosed by the arch above the lintel of an arched entranceway. This area is often decorated with sculpture in the Romanesque and Gothic periods.

chiaroscuro

(pr. kee-ahr'oh-scyoo"roh) - a term borrowed from Italian ("light and shade" or "dark") referring to the modeling of volume by depicting light and shade by contrasting them boldly. This is one means of strengthening an illusion of depth on a two-dimensional surface, and was an important topic among artists of the Renaissance (from the Art Lexicon).

The presence of the Panathenaic imagery on the Parthenon communicates several things:

1) the importance of their patron goddess, Athena, 2) the importance of the festival, and 3) the importance of the Athenian people, which is elevated by their presence on temple of Athena. In this way, the Parthenon honored not only Athena, but also the Athenians themselves.

Paintings in the Catacomb of Saints Peter and Marcellinus in Rome

A common Early Christian cubiculum ceiling fresco can be seen in the Catacomb of Saints Peter and Marcellinus in Rome.Jesus Christ as the Good Shepherd is featured in the center medallion. Semicircular frames (lunettes ) display important scenes from the Old Testament Book of Jonah. Figures with their arms raised in a gesture of prayer (orants) between the lunettes are probably portraits of the individual family members buried in this cubiculum. The composition has a thematic unity focused on salvation that is commonly seen in Early Christian works. Christ the Good Shepherd has rescued a lamb that had gone astray, and has the central position in the fresco program. This representation of a youthful shephers as Jesus refers to Christ's role as Savior (cf. John 10:10-12) who rescues the "lost sheep" of his Christian "flock" and leads them away from sin. The prophet Jonah is considered an Old Testament account of salvation, or a prefiguration of Christ. Like Christ, Jonah was presumed dead for three days. Christ rose from the dead and left the tomb after three days thanks to the power of God, and God saved Jonah from a certain death after three days in the belly of a whale.

Fret

A fret is a decoration, usually in bands, consisting of interlocking geometric lines. Highly stylized, unrefined figures eventually appeared in the designs, but they exhibited unnatural proportions.

Manuscript Illumination

Saint John the Evangelist from the Gospel Book of Abbot Wedricus (ca. 12th century) http://home.psu.ac.th/~punya.t/Romanesque/Rom8e.jpg

A great number of well-preserved illuminated manuscripts were produced during the Romanesque period. The illustrations have the typical characteristics of linear partitioning of the drapery, elongation of figures, and extremely bright coloring. This image of Saint John the Evangelist from the Gospel Book of Abbot Wedricus (ca. 12th century) combines the gold background of the Byzantine style with a border of the Early Medieval animal style. The linear and compartmentalized drapery, elongated figure, and the angular movement make the work Romanesque.

1linear perspective

A system of drawing or painting in which the artist attempts to create the illusion of spatial depth on a two-dimensional surface. It works by following consistent geometric rules for rendering objects as they appear to the human eye. For instance, we see parallel lines as converging in the distance, although in reality they do not. Stated another way, the lines of buildings and other objects in a picture are slanted inward making them appear to extend back into space. If lengthened these lines will meet at a point along an imaginary horizontal line representing the eye level. Each such imaginary line is called an orthogonal. The point at which such lines meet is called a vanishing point(from the Art Lexicon).

jamb column http://www.pitt.edu/~medart/menuglossary/jamb.htm

A vertical element of a doorway or window frame

Septimius Severus

After Commodus was assassinated, Septimius Severus gained control of the Roman state, and the Severan dynasty. Septimius Severus had two sons, Caracalla and Geta, who ruled together briefly after their father died. Caracalla, jealous of his brother and greedy for power, had Geta killed. Then Caracalla had the Senate declare damnatio memoriae (essentially, they damned his memory and removed him from Roman history), and then he removed all images of Geta and took over the empire. In this wooden tondo (round format) portrait of Septimus Severus and his family from Egypt, you can see where the image of young Geta has been destroyed. The arm of the Roman emperor had a very far reach. In the Late Imperial period, portrait sculptors continued to create images that showed the "inner man," as this bust of Caracalla demonstrates. Caracalla was cruel, resentful, and paranoid. The knotted brow, piercing eyes, and clenched jaw reflect his personality.

Michelangelo & Popes

After Julius II died, Michelangelo returned to Florence to complete a commission for the Medici Pope Leo X, who wanted the artist to sculpt the tombs of his younger brother, Giuliano, and his nephew, Lorenzo. Neither tomb was completed, but they nonetheless interesting. The two tombs are twin compositions and face each other. Michelangelo idealized the Medici portraits and portrayed them as Roman officers. Each tomb also has personifications of time places on top of the sarcophagus. Giuliano, upright in a heroic posture holds a baton (signifying power), represents the active life. Lorenzo, in a more relaxed posture that shows him as deep in thought, symbolizes the contemplative life. Both depictions have the deep psychological intensity that is characteristic of the Michelangelo's style.

Dome Aurea

After a fire destoyed public buildings and apartments in 64 CE, Nero (Vespasian's predecessor) built himself a great palace known as the Domus Aurea ("Golden House"). This palace was extensive and even had its own artificial lake. Needless to say, the decision not to rebuild the public buildings did not help Nero's popularity with the people of Rome. Learning from Nero's failures, Vespasian scaled back the Domus Aurea tremendously and drained the lake. In its place, he built the Colosseum (Image 044), thus giving the "public" land back to the people. Vespasian died before the work was completed, however, his eldest son, Titus, dedicated the Colosseum in his father's honor. To celebrate its inauguration , Titus sponsored one hundred straight days of gladiatorial spectacles, including a mock naval battle involving thousands of men and the flooding of the arena.

Dutch Baroque

After severing ties with the Spanish in the sixteenth century, the Dutch Republic was a formally recognized nation during the Baroque period. The Dutch were extremely prosperous in both trade and colonization, and the Dutch Republic was the financial center of 17th century Europe. The Dutch school of art was prolific in developing a style and subjects different from other regions of Europe. Dutch artists preferred scenes of everyday activities (genre works), history paintings, landscapes, portraits, and still lifes over the religious works created by their Italian, Spanish, and Flemish contemporaries. The change in subject matter is indicative of the patronage from a new segment of society, prosperous middle-class merchants and businessmen. In other parts of Europe, art was commissioned by the church or an absolute ruler wanting to establish his divine right to rule. In addition, Protestant northerners had concerns about religious commissions, as the exchange of religious art for favoritism was a major shortcoming of the Catholic Church in their eyes.

Russia: The Third Rome

After the fall of Byzantium, Russia became the seat of Eastern Orthodoxy and the champion of the Byzantine artistic style. In fact, the Russian rulers, called tsars (derived from the Latin word "caesar"), considered their empire to be "the third Rome." Russian paintings were patterned and extremely linear, using sharp, contrasting colors to make the works more "readable." This icon showing the three angels who appeared before Abraham (cf. Genesis 18: 1-15) was created by the master Andrei Rublyev. The linear nature can be easily seen in the drapery on the central angel. The Late Byzantine architectural style of multiple domes and extended drums was taken to extremes in Russian structures as well, as seen in the famous Cathedral of Saint Basil the Blessed in Moscow (ca. 1550).

early Gothic Elevation

Early Christian Art in Rome

After the legalization of the Christian religion, there an emerging need for churches. The Roman emperor Constantine, attributing his victory over his rival Maxentius to Christ, was the first major patron of Christian churches. Constantine built both basilicas and mausoleums in Rome and Constantinople as well as sacred Christian sites like Bethlehem (birthplace of Jesus) and Jerusalem.

Albrecht Durer

Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) is considered both the founder and the greatest master of the German Renaissance. His work demonstrates a powerful, expressive mastery of line. Durer was a keen observer of the natural world, but he never completely managed to succeed at the Italian mode of figural representation. Innovations in proportion and perspective of the Italian masters fueled his work, and Durer was the first artist outside of Italy to achieve international acclaim. Durer elevated the graphic arts to a high art form, and he excelled at printmaking as well as painting. He found that panel paintings were not very profitable, so much of his early work was as a printmaker designing woodcuts and making engravings. For woodcuts, the artist draws a design on a block of wood. These marks indicate which areas are carved away, and these open spaces appear white in the prints. The actual cutting was done by another craftsman, and then, the wooden block was inked and printed. Woodcuts are simple, direct, outspoken, and emotional, marked by an economy of line. Engraving worked in the opposite manner. The lines are cut away from the copper plate, and the open areas appear black in the prints. The artist engraved the design himself instead of having another craftsman execute the work. The engraved plate was then inked and wiped, leaving the ink in the grooves for printing. Durer excelled at this technique since he had worked as a goldsmith in his father's workshop.

Ara Pacis Augustea (continued)

Along the sides of the Ara Pacis, relief carvings show two figural groupings. The north frieze shows a procession of senators. Augustus requested the images of the senators intentionally. It was important to Augustus that he was seen as the first among equals instead of as a dictator, and including the members of the senate indicated his respect for their status. The south frieze is comprised of a procession of members of the Imperial family, including Augustus and Livia themselves. The processional frieze of the Imperial family shows the idealized figures typical of Augustan art. Children are shown in the procession, which was unusual for the art of the period, and their presence speaks to Augustus's political agenda. The emperor was concerned about a decline in the birth rate among members of the nobility. The children are included in the procession to encourage the upper classes to have large families to compensate for the losses incurred during three generations of bloody civil war. The layout of the sculptural decoration on east side (the back) of the enclosure mirrors what is seen on the front with the acanthus tendrils in the lower panels and figural reliefs in the top panels. One panel features the goddess Pax ("Peace") and the other has the goddess Roma. In the relief of the goddess Pax, Pax is shown as the central figure of the image surrounded by the stalks of wheat, animals and infants that symbolically refer to the fruitfulness and prosperity of the Augustan Peace. On either side of Pax are personifications of the sky (left) and the sea (right) resting in a refreshing breeze. As previously mentioned, the lower regions are decorated with acanthus tendrils in relief, symbolizing the fruitfulness of Augustan Peace. The presence of Classical Greek influences on this work were intentionally included. The Ara Pacis was meant to convey that under the rule of Augustus, Rome would enjoy a golden age of her own just as the Parthenon conjured images of the golden age Athens enjoyed under the control of Pericles.

Pontormo

An excellent example of early Mannerism is The Entombment of Christ (Image 078) by Jacopo da Portormo (1494-1557). The absence of balance, proportion, and harmony are characteristic of this later Renaissance style. This work is broadly considered to be the Pontormo's only surviving masterpiece, and it is located above the altar of the Capponi Chapel at the church of Santa Felicita, in Florence Italy. The painting suggests a complicated compositional choreography of the grief-stricken at the death of Jesus. They occupy a shallow, flattened space, comprising a sculptural congregation of brightly separated colors. The spiral of the composition drops down towards the limp body of Jesus off center and on the left, leaving an empty space in the middle of the canvas. Those lowering Christ appear to demand our assistance in sustaining both the weight of the body, which is the burden of both their sin and their grief. There is no cross visible, and the natural world also appears to have nearly vanished. A lonely cloud and a shadowed patch of earth provide sky and space for the mourners. The sky and earth have lost all color, the mourners are vibrant. Bright swatches of pink and blue engulf the palate of the painting and a limp, lifeless Christ.

Christ the Good Shepherd from the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (ca. 425)

An important mosaic solution comes from the lunette over the entrance is this work of Christ as the Good Shepherd. When compared to the catacomb frescoes, the Savior's appearance is older and more regal (dressed in the colors gold and purple like an emperor). The sheep are divided in two groups of three (recall that both the numbers two and three have iconographic significance). This work still has ties to the Classical tradition with its use of landscape elements (the plants and rocks) and the blue sky. The forms of Christ and the sheep have a sense of three-dimensionality from the use of modeling in light and shadow (although its execution has its flaws). Rocks and landscape elements will continue to be incorporated in Christian art, but their forms will become more stylized with time as art moves away from the naturalism of the Classical period and toward religious dogma and mysticism in the Middle Ages.

tympanum of the Last Judgment http://www.bluffton.edu/homepages/facstaff/sullivanm/france/conques/stefoy/0123.jpg http://www.bluffton.edu/homepages/facstaff/sullivanm/france/conques/stefoy/0060.jpg

Angels also fill the uppermost portion of the tympanu, some blowing their trumpets to signal the Second Coming of Christ and others carrying a huge cross that symbolizes the crucifixion in the Passion of Christ. Hierarchical perspective is used to indicate Christ is the most important (and therefore, the largest) figure on the portal.

Saint-Pierre, Moissac, France

Another extensive sculptural program can be found at the early 12th century church of Saint-Pierre in Moissac, France. In the tympanum of the south portal, Christ is rendered in hierarchical scale in the center as the ultimate judge of the world. He is surrounded by the symbols of the Four Evangelists, who are flanked by two angels with scrolls that symbolically account for the recorded deeds of man. The remaining figures are the twenty-four elders who accompany Christ in His high priestly office (cf. Rev. 4:1-4). There is a range of figural shapes in the work, from the elongated angels to the squat, "bobble-headed" figures of the elders. This variety of form is characteristic of Romanesque sculptural compositions. Directly below the tympanum on the right face of the trumeau, there is an elongated figure of an Old Testament prophet believed by scholars to be either Jeremiah or Isaiah. In his hand he holds the record of his prophecy. The prophet is has a cross-legged pose and is dressed in linear drapery (which was characteristic of the age). His melancholic expression reveals the contemplative life of a man of God. Around the prophet six roaring lions on the front face of the trumeau complete the composition, and seemingly reflect the influence of the Early Medieval animal style.

purse cover (ca. 625)

Another famous Warrior Lord work is a purse cover (ca. 625) found at the Sutton Hoo burial site near Suffolk, England. At this site, a whole ship was buried to carry the deceased to the afterlife along with treasure and personal objects to enjoy the afterlife. It was created using cloisonné, a popular method of decoration in the Early Middle Ages that uses metals strips (called cloisons) and glass paste. Four groups of figures fill the lower row in a symmetrical arrangement. A man wrestles two beasts on each end, while in the center, ducks are attacked by eagles. The forms are so integrated into a single abstract design. In the upper row, there are three geometric designs with flat, interlaced patterning (design work that appears to be woven). The outer forms are linear, and the inner form consists of and interlace design that morphs into animal forms. This combination of interlacing and animal forms is a uniquely Early Medieval style.

Chartres Cathedral, Chartres, France

Another fire in 1194 destroyed everything except western 12th century façade and the crypt with the Virgin's tunic. The survival of the tunic added credence to the power of the holy relic and also encouraged the bishop of Chartres to rebuild again with even greater glory, so work began immediately. We turn our attention to the portals of the west facade (Image 060)of the Chartres Cathedral in Chartres, France for our first look at Early Gothic sculpture. These portal sculptures are the most magnificent extant examples of Early Gothic sculpture, and they are unified by a common theme: the power and majesty of Christ. The left tympanum shows Christ's Ascension into Glory; the right, Christ in the lap of the Virgin Mary (the sedes sapientiae or "Throne of Wisdom"); and the middle, Christ in Majesty at the Second Coming. In the detail of the central portal, we see a familiar composition: Christ surrounded by a mandorla and flanked by the symbols of the Four Evangelists, while the twenty-four elders occupy the lintel below. The capitals on the columns over the jamb figures, however, are probably the most interesting facet of the portals. They show scenes from Christ's life in a continuous friezelike presentation. Below the capitals, the jamb statues depict Old Testament kings and queens, who were Christ's earthly ancestors and served as shadows of Christ's kingly office. Certainly, the figure representations were influenced by the Romanesque style, given the elongated bodies and linear patterns. Yet, the figures are more naturalistic, have more individualized expressions, and stand out further than their Romanesque counterparts. These traits will develop throughout the Gothic period, ultimately culminating in the Renaissance with a complete return to the naturalistic, classical style.

Gian Lorenzo Bernini: The Rape of Prosperina

Another important early work is Bernini's depiction of Pluto's abduction of Proserpina, commonly called The Rape of Proserpina. Bernini develops the twisting pose of Mannerism and infuses it with a sense of vital energy. The figures struggle and reach out in amazing realism. The details of the work are amazing and carefully sculpted. Upon closer examination, Proserpina's hand actually moves Pluto's skin, while the god's fingers sink into the flesh of his victim. Bernini also creates unity in a masterly way by balancing the dragging and repulsive movements of the figures. Furthermore, when seen from the left, the piece shows Pluto taking a fast and powerful stride and grasping Proserpina. From the front, he appears triumphantly bearing his trophy in his arms. From the right we see Proserpina's tears as she prays to heaven, the wind blowing her hair as Cerberus, the three-headed dog of Hades, barks at Pluto's feet. Thus, the various moments of the story are summed up in a single sculpture, and the viewer must walk all the way around the work to take in all the elements. In this way, the viewer is engaged and must interact with the work itself.

the Book of Kells (ca. 800 CE)

Another important illuminated manuscript is the Book of Kells (ca. 800 CE), which is considered by many to be the masterpiece of the age. Let's look at the first page of the Gospel of Matthew. Christ's initials in Greek (Chi-Rho-Iota) take up most of the page1 (for a detail of this page, click here). Notice again the use of flat, interlaced patterns of the Vikings, but it has now been merged with a Christian subject matter to create a work that reflects the Hiberno-Saxon style.

An ivory panel featuring the Archangel Michael (EBA)

Another important work, an ivory panel featuring the Archangel Michael, was is also half of a diptych. In this ivory panel, the angel holds the orb (a symbol of the world) a characteristic seen in portraits of Roman emperors. In this Byzantine work, the earth is now topped with a cross, signifying Christian triumph. While the use of classical drapery and expression is evident, there is a noticeable lack of naturalistic representation in regard to setting. The angel's feet seem to float over the steps, which are clearly out of proportion. Furthermore, the upper portion of the angel's body is in front of the columns, while his lower half is behind them. This lack of attention to spatial relationships will soon become a defining characteristic of Byzantine art.

Sluter

Another project of the Duchy of Burgandy was the Carthusian monastery near Dijon. The Duke commissioned Claus Sluter (active ca. 1380-1406) to sculpt a large fountain over a well within the cloister of the monastery. The Well of Moses has a base with six Old Testament prophets. A crucifixion group (a common theme in Christian iconography of this time period) topped the well. The six figures on the well's base are reminiscent of Gothic jamb statues, but they are far more realistic and naturalistic thanks to Sluter's careful observations. Sluter's form wear heavy drapery that has the appearance of different textures. As realistic as Sluter's figures are, they still lack a sense of naturalism.

Marcus Aurelius and equestrian statue http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Marcus_Aurelius_equestrian_2d.jpg

Another second-century break with tradition is evident in the famous bronze equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. This work well-preserved equestrian bronze survived from antiquity because it was mistakenly identified in the Middle Ages as a statue of Constantine, first Christian emperor of Rome. Had it been identified as a "pagan" emperor, the work would have been melted down and used for weaponry. Originally located outside, it was replaced by a replica and moved inside the Capitoline Museum in 1997 to protect it from further exposure to pollution. At first glance, there are certain aspects of this imperial work that are familiar. The emperor asserts as sense of he display authority using the oratorical gesture of the outstretched arm. The work emits power and authority with an oversized figure of the emperor that is disproportionately larger than a normal man would be in relation to his horse. In the tradition of Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius is portrayed as bearded. The expression of the emperor is completely new. Instead of the appearance of an idealized Greek god or the brutal verism of Republican works, his expression communicates who he is and his true personality. The many foreign wars, revolts, and personal disappointments Marcus Aurelius experienced during his reign appear to have taken a toll on him given his disquieted and wearied (maybe even melancholic) expression. Regardless of his troubles, however, when duty calls, the emperor presses on. In 180 CE, Marcus Aurelius died of natural causes, and Commodus, his son and successor, commissioned a monumental column in his honor. The Antonine line ended with Commodus, whose reign was filled with chaos and instability, an omen of things to come.

Antoine Watteau and Francois Boucher

Antoine Watteau The greatest master of the Rococo was Antoine Watteau (1684-1721). His work L'Indifferent is a light and delicate. The playfulness and frivolity of the composition is characteristic the period. The softness and gaiety combined with the gentle, shimmering colors and feathery brushwork are also typical of the Rococo style. Watteau is believed to have created the fete galante, a genre of Rococo painting that depicts outdoor leisure activities and merrymaking of nobility. A fine example of a fete galante painting is the artist's Embarkation for Cythera. The delicacy, intimacy, elegance, grace, and muted colors are all characteristic of the stylistic period. Francois Boucher After Watteau, sensuality became a major aspect of the Rococo along with the other stylistic characteristics we have identified. Francois Boucher (1703 -1770) was important later Rococo painter. He is a master painter of female nudes in the history of Western art. In the artist's Cupid a Captive, the frivolity and elegant superficiality of the Rococo as well as Boucher's sensual mastery are evident. The muses playfully hold Cupid captive, dangling his sheath of arrows over him. He clearly prefers their captivity to his freedom in this playful scene. The subject matter, tone, setting, and colors are all indicative of the Rococo.

Antonio da Correggio: . The Assumption of the Virgin

Antonio da Correggio is another important sixteenth-century figure despite not receiving as much attention as Da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael. Corregio's use of light and shadow, colors, perspective, and movement had a profound impact on Baroque period artists in the seventeenth-century. Not much is known about Correggio's early training, but his work was clearly influenced by the styles of Mantegna (Lesson 6.04) and Leonardo (Lesson 6.08). Correggio is recognized for this sensual figures and his disruption of Renaissance compositional symmetry (as seen in the pyramidal composition) in favor of naturalism. The Assumption of the Virgin fresco in the dome of the Parma cathedral marks the culmination of his career as a mural painter as well as anticipates the Baroque style. This dramatically illusionistic ceiling painting is created by treating the entire architectural surface as a single unit of vast proportions. The dome of the church is rendered as the vault of heaven. The figures in the clouds realistically seem to invade the viewers' space via Correggio's audacious and astounding use of foreshortening.1

Gian Lorenzo Bernini: Apollo and Daphne

Apollo and Daphne, the last of Bernini's important early works, was commissioned by the Borghese family, who were also the patrons of David and The Rape of Proserpina. The chaste nymph Daphne transforms into a laurel tree to escape Apollo's advances as he pursues and almost captures her. The amazing details of her transformation are captured meticulously as her fingers sprout leaves and turn into branches and her toes begin to root into the ground. The drama, balanced movement, and multiple perspectives are characteristic of the artist's style, as well as the Baroque in general.

Architecture & Sculpture

Architecture John Balthasar Neumann, who was also a military engineer, was one of the greatest architects of the Rococo. His most famous work is the Kaisersaal in Wurzburg, Germany. Here, he completely merges painting, sculpture, and architecture in the mature Rococo fashion. Multiple shapes and contours weave rhythmically throughout the work, while delicate, curving stucco tendrils and sprays of foliage create the sense of a lively, "growing" nature creeping up the wall surface. When compared to the Baroque Galerie des Glaces at Versailles, Neumann's Rococo work is clearly softer and more delicate. Sculpture The liveliness, sensuality, and intimacy of Rococo paintings are also present in small scale sculptural works from the period. Claude Michel, called Clodion (1738 - 1814), was one of the more popular sculptors during the Rococo. The open, vivid, and dynamic forms in Nymph and Satyr Carousing are clearly influenced by Bernini. The piece exudes sexuality, and it is generally more intricate and delicate, placing it firmly in the Rococo period.

Art of the Warrior Lords

As Rome's power declined, competition for political authority occurred among tribal groups that had once been under the control of the Roman Empire. European territory became divided among these groups, and the perpetual state of armed conflict left little time for the production of art or architecture. Few works of art from the Early Medieval period in the West survives for this reason as well as the nature of their materials (primarily wood, mud, and stone). What art does exist comes in the form of small personal items such as brooches, fibulas, pendants, belt buckles, swords and the like, and most of these were recovered from burial mound (tumulus). In general, the surviving arts of the Warrior Lords (people such as the Huns, Vandals, Ostrogoths, Merovingians, Celts, Anglo-Saxons, etc.) consist of small functional objects with decorative abstract patterns combined with animal forms (known as the animal style).

Donatello- David3

As for his youthfulness, Donatello has gone back to the early life of David from the bible to depict him, rather than his later life as a king. It is as if Donatello is trying to associate David's youth with certain innocence. David looks so young here that his muscles have barely developed enough to hold the large sword, making his victory Goliath all the more impossible. Could David's triumph have been attained without divine intervention? Donatello's work seems to imply that the answer is no, the victory was God's rather than that of man. Donatello's David is a classic Renaissance sculpture, given its Judeo-Christian subject matter modeled on a classical sculptural type. It was revolutionary for its time, but its style was not copied immediately. The idea of the life-sized nude in-the-round evidently took some time to catch on and become an acceptable sculptural type.

Italian Romanesque Architecture

As previously discussed, Italian Romanesque architects did not stray far from the traditions of the Early Christian period and its basilican structures. Romanesque Tuscan architecture can be seen at the Cathedral complex at Pisa, Italy, which consists of a baptistery, cathedral, and freestanding bell tower (also known as a campanile). The cathedral, which was started in 1063, certainly shows the influence of Early Christian churches with its timber roofing, rhythm of Roman columns, and emphasis on horizontality over verticality. The Romanesque style can be seen in the cathedral's plan, which has a five-aisle design, galleries, and numerous rounded arches. The alternating use of green and cream colored marble is particular to the regional style of Tuscan Romanesque. An architectural characteristic unique to Italy is the freestanding bell tower. The Tower of Pisa (as it is commonly called) leans because its foundation did not settles at an angle. There is another famous Italian Romanesque work in Florence, Italy that dates to the 11th century: the Baptistery of San Giovanni (St. John). This works shows the influence of classical mausoleum design and the Early Christian central plan, and its form can be traced to Santa Costanza in Lesson 4.03. Again, the Tuscan Romanesque design uses green and cream marble ornamentation as a veneer. The baptistery also has a tripartite (divided into thirds) nature: three levels, three arches for each bay, three entrances, etc.

the chryselephantine Athena Parthenos by Phidias

At 38-feet tall, the Parthenon was actually designed around her in order to accommodate her huge size. The virgin goddess was fully armed with her helmet, spear, and shield. She held a personification of Nike (the female winged personification of victory) in her extended right hand as an allusion to the Greek victory over the Persian "barbarians" in 478-479 BCE. Additional references to this victory can be found on the statue itself: scenes of centauromachy (Greek vs. centaurs) on the soles of her shoes, high reliefs of Amazonamachy (Greeks vs. Amazons) on the exterior of her shield, and painted images of gigantomachy (Greek gods vs. giants) on the interior of her shield. Each of these mythological contests was a metaphor for the victory of civilization over barbarism, reason over chaos, and Athens over Persia. Unfortunately, this work has been completely lost and is only known to us through written descriptions and scholarly reconstructions.

La Madeleine, Vezelay, France https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/02_Basilique_Ste-Marie-Madeleine_de_V%C3%A9zelay_-_Tympan.jpg

At the church of La Madeleine in Vezelay, France (ca. early 12th century), the tympanum shows the ascended Christ in hierarchical scale and position. He instills the Holy Spirit into the Apostles (cf. Acts 1:4-9), who must carry on the work of the church. The the power and energy of the ascended Christ is shown in the deep, angular, swirling lines of his drapery. The lines coming from Christ's hands represent the emission of the Holy Spirit. The Apostles (positioned below Christ) clutch their Gospel books, about which they preach to all nations. Various representations of the unsaved of the world fill the eight compartments surrounding Christ and the Apostles, who will attempt to share the Good News of Christianity and the promise of salvation with them. Once again we see the variety of figural forms, use of elongation and linear patterns, and sense of angular movement typical of the Romanesque period.

Review of Romanesque and Gothic Sculpture trumeau figure from Moissac). http://www.paradoxplace.com/Photo%20Pages/France/West/Moissac_&_Around_Agen/Moissac/Images/800/Full-Figure-Oct07-D0095sAR700.jpg figures from the Royal Portal (west portal) of Chartres Cathedral https://www.oneonta.edu/faculty/farberas/arth/Images/ARTH212images/Gothic/Chartres/RoyPort_jamb2.jpg the jamb figures from Reims Cathedral http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/kbentz/images/Question%202%20Images/05%20Reims%20Cathedral%20Jamb%20Figures%20resized.jpg

At this point, we should review the characteristics of Romanesque and Gothic sculptures: Romanesque sculpture: low relief; elongated figures; angular movement and stiff, linear drapery (see the trumeau figure from Moissac). Early Gothic sculpture: figures are freed from architectural framework, but their overall shape is still defined by it (i.e., the jamb figures still have a columnar appearance); more naturalistic expressions and movements; drapery only moderately linear (see the figures from the Royal Portal (west portal) of Chartres Cathedral). High Gothic sculpture: figures are completely free from the architectural framework; expressions are individualized;, poses and gestures are almost fully natural; drapery is "soft" and fluid (see the jamb figures from Reims Cathedral).

Nicola Pisano

Before starting discussing the importance of fourteenth-century Italian art, we need to look at the work of two late thirteenth-century sculptors who influenced later artists. Th first is Nicola Pisano. His most important work is a hexagonal marble pulpit which was carved for the Pisa baptistery in 1260. The pulpit has elements of both the Gothic style (eg. trefoil arches) as well as an apparent interest in classical form. Its rectangular panels bring to mind Roman sarcophagus reliefs because Nicola Pisano had access to and studied these objects.

the Archangel Michael and a demon are weigthing souls http://www.bluffton.edu/homepages/facstaff/sullivanm/france/conques/stefoy/0061weighing.jpg http://www.bluffton.edu/homepages/facstaff/sullivanm/france/conques/stefoy/0054cropped.jpg

Below Christ in the center, the Archangel Michael and a demon are weigthing souls to determine their future before sending them to Heaven or Hell. Once their fate has been determined, the souls are sent to the level below where there are figures passing through one of two doors. The rounded door on the left in the image (which is Christ's right) resembles the entrance to Sainte-Foy, and it is used to admit the blessed into the Kingdom of Heaven. The blessed are greeted by an angel who takes their hands and ushers them into Heaven.

Gian Lorenze Bernini: Cornaro Chapel in Santa Maria della Vittoria

Bernini's mature style is best seen in his commission for the Cornaro Chapel in Santa Maria della Vittoria (Image 089), in Rome. The focus of this work is the Ecstasy of St. Theresa (Image 089), and Bernini presents a depiction of a mystical experience of the great Spanish Carmelite reformer Theresa of Ávila that is electrified with drama and energy. Bernini's sculpture represents an episode from the saint's life that was recorded in her spiritual autobiography. She describes an angel carrying a fire-tipped arrow of divine love that he uses to pierce her heart repeatedly, an action that sends her into a state of spiritual rapture. The sculptured group, showing the transported saint swooning in the void, covered by cascading drapery, is revealed in celestial light within a niche over the altar, where the architectural and decorative elements are richly joined and articulated. Bernini showed great technical prowess in rendering the difference in texture among the the clouds, the cloth of the nun's habit, smooth flesh, and feathered wings- all of which are carved from the same piece white marble. A hidden high window of yellow glass casts a glowing hue over the scene, magnifying the divinity and rapture of Teresa's experience, while her physical body seems dematerialized under the twisting folds of fabric that energize the scene. On the sides of the chapel, Bernini has carved images of the Cornaro family, who serve as witnesses to the divine event. The Cornaro Chapel commission takes Bernini's concept of a three-dimensional picture to its height. The figures of St. Theresa and the angel are sculptured in white marble, and natural daylight falls on the figures from a hidden source above that is physically manifested in the gilt rays behind the sculpture. This work is not just an independent piece, but it is the focal point of an entire complex that brings together sculpture, painting, and architecture, all designed by Bernini. The dark marble columns and niche in which Saint Teresa rests make the scene more bright and dynamic. The entire chapel is charged with tension, and Bernini clearly called upon his knowledge as a playwright and stage designer to give the entire building a theatrical feel. This, coupled with the sensory impact of the design, was critical to working toward the Counter-Reformation goal of helping people to develop a personal relationship with God.

Taj Mahal cont

Between the adjoinging elements of the complex, herringbone inlays of different colors are used to define the spaces. Contrasting colors are used to create complex and contrasting patterns on the walls, floors, and walkways. The expensive materials used in decorations (i.e. yellow marble, jade, and jasper) add to overall sense of wealth and splendor. This building has many elements that should now be familiar to you: a central dome resting on a square base, pointed arches, and minarets. All of these elements are completely harmonious, balanced, and symmetrical. The white marble and surrounding reflection pools create a dreamlike effect and an impression of paradise on earth.

Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564)

Born in a small village outside of Florence, Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) considered himself a Florentine, despite spending the majority of his adult life working for the popes in Rome employed. Michelangelo was arguably the most powerful force in the sixteenth-century Renaissance. Without question, his works are some of the most spectacular and recognizable in all of Western art. In the Renaissance spirit, Michelangelo was accomplished in many fields. He was a sculptor, painter, architect, engineer, and poet, although he considered himself a sculptor. According to Michelangelo, " Every block of stone has a statue inside it, and it is the task of the sculptor to discover it." He believed that the more a painting looked like a sculpture, the better it was, and the more a sculpture looked like a painting, the worse it was. As a result, regardless of medium, Michelangelo's forms have a sculpted quality that shows his close attention to musculature and human anatomy.

Pieter Bruegel the Elder2

Bruegel's Hunters in the Snow (Image 083) is one of five surviving paintings (in a series of six) that depicted the labors of the months and seasonal changes. The series came out of one of Bruegel's most famous projects, a Books of Hours, which depicted seasons and peasants (cf. Tres Riches Heures from Lesson 5.16). Representing January and February, the painting was produced during the harsh winter of 1565, and the human figures are locked in the cold landscape. Exhausted hunters and their dogs return to their snow-covered village with only one rabbit, while women build a fire and skaters enjoy the frozen ponds. While the painting may at first seem to be a natural view of the landscape, there is more at play. Bruegel uses two dominant cool colors, the white of the snow and the pale green of the sky. People, trees, dogs, and birds are all dark or black, contradicting the color of the setting. The landscape develops smoothly and is optically accurate, drawing the viewer into it through the use of the jutting diagonals. The composition presents a proportionally accurate, rolling landscape that is diagonally arranged (characteristic of the artist's style). Line, shape, and tonal harmony all unite to make this one of the great landscape paintings of Western art.

Dome of the Rock

Caliph Umar I captured Jerusalem in 638. While he left the Christian structures unharmed, he still desired to create a shrine that would surpass them all. He decided to build on Temple Mount, the location of the Jewish temple (which was destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE, and the site traditionally believed to be the burial place for Adam as well as Abraham's attempt to sacrifice his son Isaac and the Jewish temple. The shrine, known as the Dome of the Rock (691-692 CE) (Image 185), is the earliest large-scale work of Islamic art. The structure is built around the rock (Image 185) which was the site of the miraj (Muhammad's ascension into heaven). The building's central plan design was likely inspired by Constantine's Church of the Holy Sepulchre (built in the fourth century over the tomb of Christ) which had a plan resembling that of Santa Costanza. This design was allowed for pilgrims to circumambulate (walk around) the rock in an orderly way. The dome is the most impressive feature of the shrine. It was originally covered in gold leaf, but this has now been replaced by anodized aluminum. This is an Islamic structure, though, because the dome dominates the external appearance of the building, and Roman and Byzantine domes did not. Tiling done in abstract geometric designs covers the lower portion of the structure. Initially, the exterior was covered in glass mosaic, and this tilework dates to the sixteenth century. The use of patterns like these are another characteristic of Islamic art since Islam prohibits any representation of human or animal forms in sacred places.

Other Italian Baroque Painters

Caravaggio did not have any pupils, but he had many followers, who are collectively referred to by scholars as Caravaggisti. One of the most well-known of the Caravaggisti is the female painter Artemista Gentileschi (1593-1653). Her work is clearly influenced by the drama, theatricality, naturalism, and tenebrism of the Baroque master. Her version of Judith Slaying Holofernes is taken from the Catholic (not Protestant) Book of Judith described an attack on the Jews by the army of Holofernes, Nebuchadnezzar's general. Judith, a Jewish widow of great beauty and piety, takes it upon herself to enter the enemy camp to save her city. She gains the favor of Holofernes, who hopes to seduce her. Judith beheads him while he is drunk and returns to the city with his head, thus encouraging the Jews to defeat the enemy. Caravaggio also painted a version of this story in 1599. The Renaissance style did not disappear during the Baroque period. Bolognese painter Annibale Carracci (1560-1609) was trained in the "classics" (i.e., the Renaissance masters) and his style reflects this. Carracci's most famous work, however, is the ceiling of the gallery of the Palazzo Farnese in Rome. Illusionistic ceiling paintings were executed in the Renaissance by Mantegna, Michelangelo, and Correggio, but they had a new level of popularity in the Baroque. As expected, Baroque ceiling frescoes are highly dramatic. Palazzo Farnese frescoes, collectively known as The Loves of the Gods, were tremendously influential for nearly two centuries. Carracci arranged the scenes based on Ovid's Metamorphoses in illusionistic, decorative frames using a technique known as quadro riportato. This innovation was highly influential and was incorportaed throughout the seventeenth century. Another master of ceiling painting and perspective was Fra Andrea Pozzo (1642-1709). His finest work, the Glorification of Saint Ignatius, is a ceiling fresco for the Church of Sant'Ignazio in Rome. The typically Baroque composition is full of motion, energy, drama, and theatricality. The artist has painted an illusionistic continuation of the church's architecture to support the illusion that that the church's roof has been lifted off and that the very heavens are opening up over the heads of the congregants below. Christ waits for the ascending saint in the center while figures representing the four corners of the world observe the glorious event.

Caravaggio: Conversion of Paul Entombment

Caravaggio's Conversion of Paul, which hangs in Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome. The artist gives us a remarkable representation of the moment of Saint Paul's conversion (cf. Acts 9:1-19). Saul the Pharisee, soon to be Paul, falls to the ground from his horse while on his way to Damascus to persecute Christians. He is temporarily blinded by a burst of light and hears the voice of Christ saying to him, "Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me?" Caravaggio's interpretation of this event mirrors the verses from the Bible. The horse is there being held by a groom, but the drama is internalized inside Saul's mind. He lies stunned on the ground, dazzled by the brightness of God's light fills the frame as it falls across the white part of the horse. The light has a divine origin, but it is clear only to the believer. Again, Caravaggio illuminates the drama of the moment with the theatrical lighting and staging. The scene is brought into the viewer's space by the low horizon line and foreshortened perspective that makes it seem the Saint Paul could fall out of the canvas at the viewer's feet. Caravaggio's Entombment (cf. John 19:38-42), which now hangs in the Vatican's art gallery, is arguably his most monumental work. Its strikingly real presentation of the figures, especially that of Nicodemus, who holds Christ's legs distinguishes Caravaggio's Baroque history paintings from the art of the Renaissance. Caravaggio refused to portray human beings as sublime, beautiful and heroic. His figures are bent, cowering, reclining, or stooped wearing common dress. They do not enjoy a sense of elevation in either pose or social status. The self confident and the statuesque forms of the Renaissance have been replaced by humility and subjection in Caravaggio's Baroque. Caravaggio brings the viewer into the dark, wretched scene by means of the stone slab which dramatically invades our space with its jutting corner. Furtrhermore, the arm of Christ that hangs down and seems to fall into the viewers space, confronting the viewer with his wounds from the cross.

Jan van Eyck - Ghent Altarpiece (open)- Central Panel; Adoration of the Lamb

Central panel: Adoration of the Lamb Upper center: the Lamb of God (Christ) bleeds into a chalice on a sacrificial altar surrounded by angels blowing trumpets and holding the symbols of His Passion Lower center: Fountain of Life (cf. Revelation 22:1) Lower right: Twelve Apostles and the martyrs (indicated by their red robes) Upper right: Maiden Martyrs (holding palm fronds, also a symbol of martyrdom) Upper left: Confessors of the Church Lower left: Prophets

serdabs

Chapels with small chambers. The serdab housed a statue of the deceased in order to give the ka somewhere to "live" if its mummy totally decayed. Chambers were also added to the mastabas to store the deceased's worldly possessions.

Amiens Cathedral

Chartres Cathedral set the standard for High Gothic Churches. Amiens Cathedral followed the Chartres model (i.e., rectangular bays, quadripartite rib vaults, flying buttress, etc.), it was a much more elegant and elaborate structure than its predecessor. The architects of Amiens sought to greatly surpass the height of Chartres as well as increase the size and the numbers windows in the clerestory and triforium.

Catacombs

Christian Cemeteries. The catacombs were expansive underground grave sites carved out of tufa bedrock.

Cimabue

Cimabue (ca. 1240-1302) is another artist who impacted fourteenth-century Italian artists. While his works show the influence of the Byzantine tradition, they also demonstrate volumetric depth and naturalism. He created a massive altarpiece (nearly thirteen feet high) that features the Madonna1 enthroned with Child, angels and prophets (from left to right, Jeremiah, Abraham, David and Isaiah). A striking naturalism is present in both the figural poses and individual expressions of the figures. Cimabue strives to create illusionistic depth, which is evident in the architectural structure of the throne, the overlapping of figures, and the concave portion of the throne's base.

The Court of the Gayumars folio (ca.1522-1525) (Image 190)

Commissioned by Shah Tahmasp and created by Sultan Muhammad, The Court of the Gayumars folio (ca.1522-1525) (Image 190) shows another episode from a 742-page version of the Shanama which was given to the Ottoman sultan Selim II as a gift. The use of ink and opaque watercolor on gold paper reinforces the important status of both the patron and the recipient of the text. The subject of this page is the legendary first king of Iran, Gayumars, who is shown presiding over his court (who are all wearing leopard skins) from the mountaintop. The artist uses a broad palette dominated by cool colors, a precise rendering of intricate details, and a landscape setting full of lush, leafy vegetation. The scene is populated with countless figures that spill out into the margins, but does not impede reading the image or the text. The work combines the arts of painting, design, and calligraphy with a level of detail so intense it is impossible to absorb everything on the page.

Cubicula

Comprised of chambers. varied in shape from circular to polygonal; square-shaped chambers were the most common. These chambers were used for burials (i.e family vaults, special tombs for martyrs, and mortuary chapels), but they were not places of worship. There are small prayer altars in the catacombs, but no areas for communal gatherings.

Old Saint Peter's (extant early 4th to early 16th centuries)

Congregants entered Old St. Peter's via a large peristyle court, or atrium (similar to the open section of the Roman home plan). Next, they passed though an entrance hall (narthex). Typical of early Christian churches, Old Saint Peter's had a simple brick exterior and a highly decorated interior with frescoes, mosaics, and rhythmic series of alternating arches and marble columns that were spolia (recycled or repurposed building materials) from pagan temples, which supported the interior walls. Clerestory windows in theupper portions of the nave walls allowed light into the nave. A large four-columned canopy, or baldacchino, stood over the tomb of Saint Peter.

Architecture in the Age of Constantine http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/RomeConstantine%27sArch03.jpg

Constantine finished a great basilica in the Roman Forum that was 300 feet long and over 200 feet wide known as the Basilica Nova. Coffered barrel vaults covered the side aisles, and groin vaults with clerestory windows created the open space of the central nave as this cutaway plan shows. The interior was highly ornate and covered in marble revetment as this reconstruction of the interior indicates. The Colossus of Constantine was housed inside.

Old Saint Peter's (extant early 4th to early 16th centuries)

Constantine's greatest project was the basilica of Old Saint Peter's. Started in 319, it was built just outside the city of Rome on Vatican Hill on the burial site of Apostle Peter (whose name translates as "rock"). The site was symbolic for the Christian faith as it echoed the words of Christ in Mathew 16:18 which states, "And I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it." At 368 feet long, the building could accommodate as many as four thousand congregates. Early Christian churches were based on the plan of the Roman basilica (as seen at Trajan's Forum). The basilica design was also used for symbolic and practical reasons. Christians wanted to distinguish themselves from other religions, so they chose not to build sacred buildings that resembled the pagan temples.

Lucas Cranach3

Cranach's work continued later to entail Protestant theological concepts. His most famous, the 1529 Allegory of Law and Grace (Image 079), was produced as both a woodcut print and a panel painting. Cranach divides the print in half using a strategically placed tree. On the left, it shows the fate of the believer under the Catholic interpretation of the scriptutes in the Bible and religious law. A demon and a skeleton force a naked believer into the gates of hell as Moses, surrounded by other Old Testament prophets, points towards the 10 Commandments in the lower right section next to the tree. In the background, Christ sits in judgment of Adam and Eve as the commit the first sin at the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. This interpretation reflects Cranach's Protestant sympathies as it correlates Catholicism with law, death, and damnation. On the right side of the tree, Cranach presents the Protestant interpretation of religion that God is merciful. The naked man's attention is directed to the Crucifixion and the risen Christ by John the Baptist. The miracle of the Resurrection and God's mercy will save his soul on judgment day, not a tally of the laws he followed or the deeds he committed. This Protestant view is one of hope, grace, and ultimate salvation.

Last Supper cont..

Da Vinci's Last Supper demonstrates that belief that figures should express emotional and psychological realism. The Apostles are arranged in four groups of three with Jesus Christ in the center. Christ as the focal point in perspective and in the form of a triangle is symbolic of the Trinity and provides calmness and stability. The movement and facial expressions of the Apostles conveys their sense of astonishment. The dominant position of Christ is emphasized by the empty space around him. The doorway frames his figure as his hands point silently to the bread and wine. Leonardo provides the space before the Lord as a symbol of the sacred action Jesus is ready to accomplish - offering himself as a sacrifice in the form of bread and wine. Christ's placid demeanor is a counterpoint for the swirling emotions of the Apostles. Da Vinci depicts the moment when Christ calmly announced that one of the disciples will betray him (cf. Matthew 26:21). While the Apostles react in an incredible range of emotions (anger, sorrow, disbelief), Christ presides peacefully over the table, an eye of calm stability amid a hurricane of emotion. Christ is the focus of the work in Da Vinci's use painting techniques as well. Christ's head serves as the vanishing point for the linear perspective, and the open window in the back of the room frames his head and simultaneously gives a sense of even deeper space. The Last Supper was a very powerful Biblical event, in which Jesus and his disciples gathered for one final dinner together. Both Leonardo da Vinci and Jacopo Robusti, known as Tintoretto, took upon the challenge of recreating the Last Supper. While Last Supper by da Vinci and Last Supper by Tintoretto are very similar in subject matter, they differ in composition, symbolism, and the choice of the narrative moment.

Donatello- David2

David is shown at a victorious moment from the biblical story of his battle with Goliath. According to the story, after David struck Goliath with the rock from his slingshot, he cut off his head with Goliath's own sword. We see the moment just after this event as David stands in a pensive pose with one foot on top his enemy's severed head. David wears boots and a shepherd's hat with laurel leaves, which may refer to his victory or maybe to his role as a poet and a musician. Before this work, David was usually depicted as a king, given his status in the Old Testament. This is a severe change in the way David is depicted. Not only is he shown in the nude, but he is also young. In the Middle Ages, nudity was not used in art with the exception of certain moral contexts, such as depictions of Adam and Eve or the condemning of souls to hell. In the classical world, nudity was often used in a different context, and it was a common mode for rendering figures who were gods, heroes, or athletes. Donatello seems to be suggesting the type of heroic nudity of old, since David is depicted at triumphant point in the biblical story.

Master of Calamarca (La Paz School)

Depictions of androgynous angels carrying guns began in the 17th century in Peru and were produced through the 19th century. Images like Angel with Arquebus, Asiel Timor Dei (Image 090), were widespread throughout the Andes. They were created after the first missionary orders aimed to terminate the practice of pre-HIspanic religions and enforce Catholicism. Firearms did not exist in the Americas before the Spanish conquests, so indigenous people likely saw guns as supernatural manifestations. Paintings of angels with guns were possibly representative of both the power of the Spaniards over indigenous people and protection offered to faithful Christians. The angels represented celestial, aristocratic, and military beings all at once. The arquebus, or harquebus, is a firearm with a long barrel created by the Spanish in the mid-fifteenth century. The Master of Calamarca, identified as José Lopez de los Riós, or his workshop made a well-known series of paintings depicting these angels with arquebuses. Asiel Timor Dei indicates the name of the angel, Asiel, and the quality "fears God." The painting was found alone, but was likely part of a larger series that included angels performing other activities such as drumming or holding lances. The Catholic Counter Reformation held a militaristic idea that showed the church as an army and the angels as its soldiers. This armed angel protects faithful Christians. The angels were also depicted as aristocrats. Asiel Timor Dei is dressed in combined contemporary European fashion and the dress of indigenous noblemen. While colonial gentlemen were aware of fashion trends in Europe through the prints, they invented ensembles that came from Spanish America, such as the overcoat with large balloon-like sleeves. The excess of textile in Asiel Timor Dei indicates that the wearer had a high social status. In Catholic teachings, angels explained the spiritual function of the cosmos, and thus could easily stand in for sacred indigenous beings. The Aymara and Quechua peoples in the Andes may have associated the harquebus-bearing angel with Illapa, the Andean deity associated with thunder. Catholic angels were also linked to Inca tradition through the creator god Viracocha and his invisible servants, beautiful warriors known as huamincas. The Latin inscriptions in the upper left corner of the painting Asiel Timor Dei are approximates of the original names of angels, and were related to the names of planetary and elemental angels in indigenous religions.

trumeau http://www.paradoxplace.com/Photo%20Pages/France/West/Moissac_&_Around_Agen/Moissac/Images/800/Full-Figure-Oct07-D0095sAR700.jpg six roaring lions http://www.paradoxplace.com/Photo%20Pages/France/West/Moissac_&_Around_Agen/Moissac/Images/Trumeau-Oct07-DE9947sAR.jpg

Directly below the tympanum on the right face of the trumeau, there is an elongated figure of an Old Testament prophet believed by scholars to be either Jeremiah or Isaiah. In his hand he holds the record of his prophecy. The prophet is has a cross-legged pose and is dressed in linear drapery (which was characteristic of the age). His melancholic expression reveals the contemplative life of a man of God. Around the prophet six roaring lions on the front face of the trumeau complete the composition, and seemingly reflect the influence of the Early Medieval animal style.

Donatello (ca. 1386-1466)

Donatello (ca. 1386-1466) was a very important Early Renaissance artist known for his use of classical idealism. His work shows a his wide range of portrayals and innovations in naturalistic illusionism, as seen in his bronze relief The Feast of Herod, created for the baptismal font of the Siena Cathedral. The scene depicts the martyrdom of John the Baptist as recorded in Mark 6:17-29. In this image, King Herod of Isreal has granted his daughter Salome's devious wish for the head of John the Baptist presented on a platter. The reliefs shows the moment at which John's head is presented to King Herod by the executioner. The drama in this piece is exceptional, as the everyone at the dinner recoils in horror, including the King. Donatello presents a composition using perfect scientific perspective to give the two-dimensional surface the perception of three-dimensional space. It is incredibly realistic and rationally illusionistic in a way that surpasses the illusionism of classical antiquity.

Bramante https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/SaintPierre.svg/2000px-SaintPierre.svg.png

Donato d'Angelo Bramante (1444-1514) was an important Renaissance architect who was chosen by Pope Julius II for the most important project of the period: the construction of a new Saint Peter's Basilica. The plan he developed for the structure would be altered considerably prior to the basilica's completion in the seventeenth century. Bramante's created a small, circular shrine on the spot where Peter was believed to have been crucified. The so-called Tempietto (Italian for "little temple") borrows from the classical past, particularly the tholos design of the base and the Doric columns of the peristyle. All of Bramante's works demonstrate the essence of the High Renaissance style: proportion, harmony, and balance.

Later Islamic Architecture

Due to Mongol invasions in the thirteenth century, the center of the Islamic world shifted to Egypt from Iraq. Under the leadership of Genghis Khan, the Mongol army conquered a large portion of the Muslim territory in the East. The leaders (called Sultans) of Egypt were former Turkish slaves who were converts to Islam. As rulers, they were aggressive builders who filled with their capitol of Cairo with new architectural projects.

Oil Painting

Durer's The Four Apostles was his last major work. The artists created it as a gift for his native city of Nuremberg instead of completing it for a particular patron. Durer wished to donate a work art to the town hall as was common in many Italian cities. John the Evangelist stands on the far left. He reads the first verses of his gospel from an open New Testament. Peter stands behind hi, holding the golden key to the gate of heaven. The Evangelist Mark (who actually was not an Apostle) stands in the background of the right panel holding a scroll. Paul holds a closed Bible and leans on the sword on the far right, a reference to his execution. This piece reveals Durer's support of the Lutheran movement. Peter, symbolic of the Pope, stands in the background behind John, whose gospel stressed the importance of Christ over the papacy. Peter is reading John's Gospel as Protestantism emphasizes the authority of Scripture, rather than the authority of the Papacy (the readable text, John 1:1 is also symbolic). Durer included passages from each of the four writers on the panels' frames. These were extracted from Luther's German translation of the New Testament. The chosen selections are significant, each offering warnings about those who would distort God's word, which according to Luther was the Roman Catholic Church's greatest offense.

Engraving1

Durer's engraving of Adam and Eve (Image 074) is another of his most famous works. Also known as the Fall of Man, the engraving is influenced by his four-year study of the the human body and its proportions. Durer studied and implemented Italian innovations in both proportion and perspective. Dürer's primary interest was to introduce the German public to Italian Renaissance advances. The biblical story of the Fall of Man was a perfect vehicle to render classically inspired nude forms in an acceptable way. Since Durer knew his audience was not ready to accept classical nudity, so he set his figures in a religious environment and included many symbolic icons. The idealized figures of Adam and Eve are the focal point of the work, but the inclusion of additional iconography creates additional visual interest throughout the work. Every detail is important to the symbolic impact of the piece. The ibex (mountain goat) positioned at the edge of the cliff in the upper corner symbolizes unbelieving and is a perfect tie to Adam and Eve, the first to break a divine commandment

Engraving4

Durer's greatest achievements in printmaking were the three engravings of 1513-14: Knight, Death and the Devil(also known as The Rider), St Jerome in his Study, and Melancolia I. Knight, Death and the Devil tells an allegory on Christian salvation. Unmolested by Death in front of him with his hourglass and the Devil behind him, a knight in armor travels along a narrow road with his faithful hound. The subject alludes to the steady route of the faithful, who must pass through all of life's snares to reach the God and the kingdom of heaven, which are represented by the castle in the background. The dog symbolizes faith and fidelity, and the lizard represents religious zeal. The horse and rider, like other preliminary studies made by Durer, are reminiscent of a classically-inspired equestrian monument. The knight and his mount are derived from the canon of proportions created by Da Vinci.

Woodcuts

Durer's had great success with a series of woodcuts called The Apocalypse. A set of 15 large prints illustrate passages from the Bible's Book of Revelations that tell of the end of the world and the coming of the Kingdom of God. The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse is the best known of the series, and its subject is the most well-known passage from the story of the Apocalypse. The four Horsemen enter the world and bring plague, war, hunger, and death to mankind after the first four seals have been broken (cf. Rev. 6:1-8). The four horsemen are personifications of Conquest (aiming a bow), War (wielding a sword), Famine (holding a pair of scales), and Death (riding a sickly pale horse). Accompanied by an angel overhead, the group of riders thunder across the earth as agents of divine wrath, trampling anyone in their path. Their momentum is so intense that they hardly make contact with the ground as they ride. Hades travels alongside the Four Horsemen. He is depicted as a hellish creature with large jaws that swallows the carnage that Death, the final rider, leaves in his wake.

The Church of Saint Michael in Hildesheim, Germany (1001-1030)

During the Ottonian period, monumental church architecture resumed. The Church of Saint Michael in Hildesheim, Germany (1001-1030) has a double transept plan with a slender nave and flanking side aisles. The structure clearly shows a basilican church design. The nave's width is much smaller in proportion with its height as we can see from this detail of the interior.

Romanesque Architectural Sculpture Typical plan of a Romanesque church: http://kenney-mencher.com/pic_old/romanesque_gothic/diagram_romanesque_church_portal.jpg

During the Romanesque period, there was also a revival of monumental sculpture that was likely inspired by remnants of Roman monumental carvings throughout the former empire. The subject matter, of course, was quite different, focusing on important Christian subjects and symbols instead of the feats of emperors. Following in the tradition of Early Medieval ivories, illuminated manuscripts, and other such luxury items, the purpose of the art was to promote the Christian faith and transmit its doctrine. Sculpture appeared on the exterior of Christian churches for the first time in hundreds of years during the Romanesque. These architectural sculptures decorate many different parts of Romanesque churches, but they are most commonly found in the large stone portals through which congregants had to pass in order to enter for worship. Click here to see a typical plan of a Romanesque portal.

Gloucester Cathedral choir (ca. 14th century)

Early English Gothic churches never reached the heights of the great French cathedrals, but later English Gothic structures did. Later English Gothic churches also create interior space dominated by verticality, known as the Perpendicular style, as seen in the choir of the Gloucester Cathedral (ca. 14th century). Its vaulting also springs directly from the floor, emphasizes the choir's vertical character. The web-like vaulting is purely decorative, serving no structural purpose. In fact, the ribs here simply disguise a barrel vault, another element used in the Perpendicular style. The Perpendicular style is also present in the Chapel of Henry VII in Westminster Abbey in London (ca. early 16th century). The linear ribs have come to resemble delicate, lace embroidery, known as "fan" vaulting.

Perpendicular Style

First, the Temple of Hera (ca. 550 BCE) is a large Doric structure with a surviving peripteral colonnade. The columns give the impression of swelling towards their middles

Entasis

Red figure technique

Essentially the opposite of black-figure technique, the artist would outline the composition and then color the background, leaving the red clay for the figures. In the early days of red-figure painting, vases were painted with the same composition on both sides with one version in black-figure technique and the other in red-figure. These works, called bilingual vases by art historians, were made famous by the Andokides Painter. They were only produced for a short time due to the popularity of the red-figure technique.

Filippo Brunelleschi: the dome of the Florence Cathedral

Filippo Brunelleschi was a significant figure in initiating the Italian Renaissance and promoting its ideas. Brunelleschi is credited with developing the system of scientific linear perspective that revolutionized painting and relief sculpture in the early fifteenth century. As the one the best known and most accomplished architects of the Renaissance era, scholars think of Brunelleschi as the father of rational architecture. His most famous work is the dome of the Florence Cathedral, a project that challenged the architect because the vast area that needed to be spanned by the dome had never been previously attempted. Brunelleschi not only created a new building technique, but he also invented the necessary machines to construct the dome. Brunelleschi's construction plan consisted of raising the center of the dome in order to reduce the outward thrust on the dome's base. To lessen the overall weight of the structure, Brunelleschi designed a thin double shell for the dome. The outer shell is defined by eight massive ribs, and the inner shell defined by sixteen smaller ribs. Horizontal buttresses connected the supporting ribs between the shells. Brunelleschi combined a desire for spatial clarity, harmony, and proportion with his extensive study of Roman architecture to solve the problem of the Florence Cathedral dome.

Woodcuts and Engraving

For woodcuts, the artist draws a design on a block of wood. These marks indicate which areas are carved away, and these open spaces appear white in the prints. The actual cutting was done by another craftsman, and then, the wooden block was inked and printed. Woodcuts are simple, direct, outspoken, and emotional, marked by an economy of line. Engraving worked in the opposite manner. The lines are cut away from the copper plate, and the open areas appear black in the prints. The artist engraved the design himself instead of having another craftsman execute the work. The engraved plate was then inked and wiped, leaving the ink in the grooves for printing. Durer excelled at this technique since he had worked as a goldsmith in his father's workshop.

Northern Renaissance in France3

Francis I's court was quite fond of the Mannerist style. The king commissioned Florentine Mannerists Rosso Fiorentino (1494-1540) and Francesco Primaticcio (1504-1570) to decorate his royal palace at Fontainebleau. They created a gallery crowded with a combination of painting, fresco, and stucco sculpture arranged in characteristic Mannerist style. Francis I and his court also built several chateaux during the sixteenth century that were used as country homes and hunting lodges. The Chateau de Chambord demonstrates an interesting mix of Italian Renaissance style with French Gothic. The lower levels have a balance and symmetry of the finest Italian palazzi. The floors are separated by a continuous molding and perfectly aligned windows. The uppermost level incorporates crowded mass of dormers, ornamented chimneys, turrets2 and lanterns3 that are typical of the French Gothic style.

The Morgan Madonna (small, wooden statuette of the Virgin and Child (ca. late 12th century)) http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/16.32.194/

Freestanding statuary was still rare in the Romanesque period due to adherence to the Second Commandment's prohibition against making idols. Small scale images of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and the saints were frequently used as altar pieces, like this small, wooden statuette of the Virgin and Child (ca. late 12th century), known as the Morgan Madonna. This particular type image is known as a sedes sapientiae ("Throne of Wisdom") because Christ, the embodiment of Holy Wisdom, sits on the lap (or "throne") of the Virgin Mary. It is the western equivalent of the Byzantine concept of the Theotokos.

Parthenon (Image 035)

Generally regarded as one of the greatest works of architecture in the world. The structure was designed by architects Iktinos and Kallikrates, and the artist Phidias was responsible for its sculptural decoration. Over seventy-five yards long and higher than a five-story building, the Parthenon is the largest Doric temple ever completed. Its peripteral colonnade is still standing today, serving as a symbol of Athens as well as the classical world.

Georges La Tour and Louis Le Nain

Georges La Tour Religious art was prominent in France during the Baroque since the monarchy and the majority of the people were Catholic. One of the more important painters of religious themes was Georges de La Tour (1573-1652). His Adoration of the Shepherds shows Caravaggio's influence on the artist's use of dramatic chiaroscuro and the plebeian nature and realism of the figures. The serenity and calm of the work is more classical than Baroque and characterize La Tour's style. Louis Le Nain French Baroque artist like Louis Le Nain (1593-1648) also painted genre scenes. These works were often still and somber due to the miserable condition of the French peasantry during this period instead of being light-hearted and lively like Dutch genre works. In Peasant Family, Le Nain portrays the profound gravity in the peasant soul. This solemn work shows the sense of dignity that a harsh life of hard work can create.

Gerritt van Honthorst and Frans Hals

Gerritt van Honthorst Gerrit van Honthorst's (1590-1656) Supper Party is an example of a Dutch genre scene. The subject is a casual gathering of ordinary people in a tavern setting in typical Baroque fashion. Van Honthorst studied in Italy and was influenced by the work of Caravaggio as seen in his use of harsh chiaroscuro. Frans Hals Dutch portraiture was much more relaxed and less formulaic than in the rest of the European schools. Dutch sitters were middle-class patrons, not kings or popes, so the conventions for portraying them in portraiture needed to be different. One of the most renown seventeenth-century Dutch portrait artists is Frans Hals (ca. 1581-1666). His group portraits are spontaneous and intimate, particularly in capturing the individual personalities of his sitters. The Archers of Saint Hadrian depicts a group portrait of a Dutch civic militia group, and it is one of Hals' finest works. The spontaneity of the work and the remarkably individualized portraits reveal the different personalities of the sitters.

Madonna Enthroned

Giotto created the panel painting entitled Madonna Enthroned in the early 14th century. The work stands over ten feet tall and is over six feet wide. The Madonna in this work has a sense of substance and solidity. Giotto has translated the dimensionality of sculpture into the painting.

Giotto

Giotto's application of value and use of light and shadow create a balance and an order that will be studied intensely by Renaissance artists. The two crouching figures in the front and the two bending figures in the center are modeled in light and shadow to create both depth and give the figures a sense of corporal volume. Take a few minutes to examine the panels from the Arena Chapel (look under Giotto) so you will be familiar with Giotto's style.

The Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel

Giotto's true mastery as an artist is evident in his frescoes in the Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel (Image 063) in Padua. The structure includes 38 scenes (Image 063) in three registers. The first level has scenes from the life of the Madonna and her parents Anna and Joachim; the middle displays images of Christ's life; and the lower presents Christ's Passion, Crucifixion and Resurrection. The compositionon the west wall depicts the Last Judgment. Giotto also painted decorative frames around each scene, imitation marble veneer, and various other illustrations. He also painted the chapel's barrel-vaulted ceiling a deep blue that is represents heaven, and he uses the same blue color as the background for the wall panels as well to give an overriding sense of unity to the chapel's various compositions.

Giovanni Pisano

Giovanni Pisano, Nicola's son, also sculpted a pulpit, but his work is considerably different from his father's idealized classical composition. In the panel relief detail of the Massacre of the Innocents (Matthew 2:13-18) is a stark contrast from Nicola's peaceful, angular composition. Figures are randomly placed and deeply carved with bodies that twist, bend, and recoil. What results is a swirling, curvilinear composition with a heightened emotional content. This move towards naturalism will have a tremendous effect on later artists. Giovanni's naturalistic tendencies combined with the classical elements of Nicola's work serve as the very foundation of fourteenth-century Italian art as well as the Renaissance itself.

Hagia Sophia cont.. https://chnm.gmu.edu/worldhistorysources/analyzing/mcobjects/Resources/goodfloorplan.jpg

Hagia Sophia is a massive building, and for nearly a millennium, it was the largest church on earth. The structure is 270 feet long by 240 feet wide. The dome of Hagia Sophia rises 180 feet above the floor and is itself 180 feet in diameter. Now, take a moment to review the plan (Image 052). At the east and west ends, there are half circles, culminating in semidomes (with five windows), each of which has three smaller semi-domes (with five windows), culminating in three apses. The north and south ends have five arches along the side aisles and seven arches in the galleries above with 12 windows in the lunettes (in two rows: one of seven, and one of five). Obviously, these numerical arrangements were symbolic (see Lesson 4.02). As we saw in our study of Early Christian architecture, the plain exterior is contrasted sharply with the rich interior. However, the present external view of the structure is quite different from its original appearance.

Eglise de Dome, Church of the Invalides

Hardouin-Mansart's masterwork, Eglise de Dome, Church of the Invalides in Paris, served as the church of a war veteran's hospital. This influence of the Italian school as well as the refined drama of the French Baroque are both present in the structure. The ornate dome and drum with paired columns remind us of Michelangelo's dome of Saint Peter's and the two story, pedimented facade with a protruding center and clustering columns are reminiscent of Maderno's Santa Susanna. Hardouin-Mansart's architectural design concentrated on the soaring and commanding height of the dome over a typically Baroque ostentatious display.

Spanish Art in the Americas1

Having encountered the remarkable art producing cultures of the Aztec Empire, the first Spanish viceroy of New Spain, Antonio de Mendoza, commissioned native scribes and painters to produce an illustrated manuscript. The Codex Mendoza (Image 081) told the history of the Aztec empire that Cortes had conquered and reviewed the customs of the indigenous people. The intended audience was King Charles I of Spain, but the king never saw it because the French intercepted the ship that carried it. Although it was produced on European paper for Spain, it reflects the style and format of other Aztec illustrated manuscripts of the day.

Chartres Cathedral, Chartres, France

High Gothic architects did not expand the size and numbers of the windows to create well-lit churches. Their primary goal was to saturate the interiors of the churches with a mystical colored light that streamed through the stained glass. The windows are historiated, and they can read them like read like manuscript illuminations. The wealth of subject matter includes Biblical stories, lives of saints (often same saints commemorated in sculptures outside), religious parables, months of the year, zodiac signs, epic stories (i.e. Charlemagne window), episodes from the cathedral's history and construction, and images of medieval daily life.

Tenebrism

His style has a sense of theatricality that is typical of the Baroque, but Caravaggio's methods for achieving these elements were innovative. He uses sharp contrasts of light and dark to create scenes of intense drama, which art historians refer to as tenebrism (from the Italian word "tenebroso," meaning "shadowy"). Caravaggio's also used unidealized common people as models, which was very different from Renaissance figures. Caravaggio developed a unique style that greatly influenced all of Europe. He was criticized for looking down on the classical masters, even called "the anti-Christ" of painting, but he still received many commissions and artists emulated his innovations. He infused naturalism into his art, thereby reducing great classical and religious paintings into human dramas that reflected the dirty settings of his own time and place.

Lucas Cranach2

His work took on a new path, however, with the onset of the Protestant Reformation. Serving in the court of Luther's protector and becoming friends with the young reformer personally, Cranach became a purveyor of Protestant thought and reform through his many paintings and woodcuts. The woodcut prints in particular adorned many of the treatises published by the Wittenberg reformers and functioned as visual tie in for their theology. The first woodcut, in a 1519 leaflet, showed a contrast between the chariot to heaven and the chariot to hell. On 1521, The most famous woodcuts by Cranach were printed in Luther's German translation of the scriptures. Cranach's images took on a crucial function though their representation of biblical passages in the Luther Bible.

Hyacinthe Rigaud

Hyacinthe Rigaud Portraiture during the French Baroque was quite different from the Dutch due to France's established nobility and supreme monarch. This famous portrait of King Louis XIV by Hyacinthe Rigaud (1659-1743) is regarded as the epitome of the absolutist ruler portrait, but it represents more than just power, pomp and circumstance. The luxurious red and gold drapery in the background is an emblem of dignity, and its sumptuous folds function as a framing device. A monumental marble column on a high plinth is draped in such a way that it take attention away from the height of the figure. Louis is presented in an elegantly angled pose wearing an ornate, ermine-lined robe. He is positioned well above the standpoint of the spectator, and he seems to turn his attention graciously while keeping the stability of his stance. Rigaud's mastery of portraiture is evident in her depiction of the king's facial expression. He has an aire of distanced unapproachability. This is a ruler who is neither good nor evil, but beyond all moral categories since he rules by divine right.

Middle Byzantine Art

Iconoclasm fell from favor by the middle of the ninth century, and the use of images in religious worship was restored. Under the rule of Basil I (who saw himself as the rebuilder of the Roman Empire like Justinian) Byzantine culture was revitalized during the Middle period. Repairing and restoring works of art damaged by the iconoclasts was a primary goal during this period, and Hagia Sophia received the a great deal of attention. Hagia Sophia received a new apse mosaic of the Theotokos and Child (since the original had been destroyed) in 867. Based on the flat, frontal figures on a gold background, it is evident that this is a Byzantine work. In particular, the wrinkles of Christ's garment are so flat they appear to be stripes instead of folds of fabric (note especially how flat the folds of Christ's garment are). In contrast, the throne displays a sense of illusionistic depth that brings to mind the classical past.

High Crosses

Important surviving works of Hiberno-Saxon sculpture are high crosses. These monuments stand at burial sites throughout the British Isles. Some are as tall as eighteen feet high. Early versions of the high cross contain abstract designs, while later varieties have human figures in their panels. The High Cross of Muiredach from Monasterboice, County Louth, Ireland (ca. 923) has a four-sided on a sloping base that is typical of a high cross. In our detail of the central panel, there is a depiction of the Crucifixion. Again we see the characteristic combination of the Early Christian figural style with the Early Medieval animal style in the designs around the Celtic circle.

Michelangelo's David

In 1501, the wool merchants guild in Florence commissioned Michelangelo to sculpt a giant piece of marble that had been abandoned by an earlier artist. The subject of the sculpture would be "David," so Michelangelo studied the figures of David by both Donatello and Verrocchio in his preparations to execute the work, . Michelangelo's composition for David was completely original. This is not the traditional image of a triumphant David standing over the head of the giant Goliath, but a young warrior just minutes before battle. David has a focused glare, tense musculature, and swelling veins to enhance the drama of the moments before he throws the stone in his left hand. It is evident that this work was inspired by classical statuary. The use of contrapposto and "athletic" tension, are reminiscent of the Late Classical period (cf. Lesson 3.07), while the deep carving, twisting pose, and sense of emotional and psychological depth is similar to works created in the Hellenistic period (Lesson 3.11 ). At the same time, the work is a testament to Michelangelo's genius. Placed in front of the Palazzo Vecchio (the town hall of Florence), Michelangelo's David was the first publicly displayed large-scale nude since classical antiquity. It remained there for hundreds of years, but after it was damaged in a labor riot, it was moved to a museum.

Lucas Cranach4

In 1538, he fashioned what would become a well known Protestant image, Christ Blessing the Children. The painting emphasized both the importance of faith within Protestant theology and the affirmation of infant baptism against the Anabaptists (who were Christians of the Reformation of 16th century Europe who believed in delaying baptism until the candidate could confess their faith).

Hagia Sophia

In 532, Justinian put down a devastating revolt in which nearly half of Constantinople was destroyed. The emperor then entered into an ambitious building program in order to restore the churches of the ravaged Byzantine capitol. One of these works was the Constantinian Basilica of Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom), which had been completely burned to the ground. The emperor envisioned an entirely new sort of church, and that is exactly what he received. Justinian's Hagia Sophia (Image 052) is the greatest building of Byzantine architecture, and it is also one of the most important structures in the history of architecture. Accordingly, you should spend some time studying the model, cross-section, and plan of this building, as well as its external and internal images (052) .

Vespasian

In 69 CE, a powerful general named Vespasian took control, beginning the Flavian Dynasty (Flavius was the general's family name). A simple career army man, Vespasian focused on distancing himself from his predecessor for the good of his career and Roman morale. Vespasian's portraits show a definite break from the Augustan sculptural tradition, which strive to present the emperor as a mythological hero or god. As seen in this portrait, Vespasian is realistically portrayed with his receding hairline, furrowed brow, and the weathered complexion of a warrior. The use of deep carving, especially around the eyes, gives a striking sense of verity to the work with its impressive use of light and shadow.

Carolingian Renaissance

In 800 CE, Charles the Great (otherwise known as Charlemagne) was crowned emperor of Rome by Pope Leo III in Saint Peter's Basilica. Charlemagne, a king of Frankish background, considered himself the heir to the late Roman Empire in the West. He was given the title Holy Roman Emperor as he unified much of Europe through diplomacy and military victory. His state was also referred to as the Holy (Christian) Roman Empire. Under Charlemagne's rule, Late Roman Empire and the Early Christian periods were combined and reborn in what is known as the "Carolingian Renaissance."

Old Saint Peter's (extant early 4th to early 16th centuries)

In addition, the rectangular shape of the structure directed attention to the terminating apse at the end of the building and provided a large, uninterrupted interior space for worship. This is where the mass ritual took place, therefore, it was the most sacred part of the church. A closer look at the plan of Old St. Peter's shows that the church had a wide nave that ended in an apse (where the altar was located) and had double side aisles. Another aisle (the transept) perpendicularly intersected the basilica between the nave and the apse. This is where worshippers could see a display of the (alleged) relics1 of Saint Peter. In later periods, the transept is will be expanded so that the church plan of a Christian church would resemble the Cross of Christ.

Arena Chapel's Lamentation scene (Image 063)

In the Arena Chapel's Lamentation scene (Image 063), the dead Christ is mourned before his entombment. Grief-stricken angels fill the sky, while below, Mary holds her dead son, John the Beloved makes a gesture of disbelief, and Mary Magdalene quietly examines Christ's wounds. The composition reflects the artist's incredible painting skills. Giotto creates illusionistic depth by a large, diagonal rock to the background. This rock directs the eye of viewers to the focal point of the scene: the dead Christ. A cluster of mourners on the left and the two mourners in the foreground with their backs turned to the viewer create a sense of deep space on the flat surface. As seen in his painting of the Madonna Enthroned, Giotto creates figures that possess both a volume and a solidity which has not been seen since classical antiqutiy. The poses, facial expressions, and movement of the figures are engaging and naturalistic, making them a far cry from the flat, frontal, static Byzantine figure of Saint Francis by Berlinghieri.

Nicola Pisano

In the detail of the Nativity (Luke 2:1-10), the composition is tightly packed, but it still emits a sense of serenity. The poses and the deep carving of the beards and hair also reflect a classical influence. The linear and angular drapery folds combined with the stiff sense of motion ultimately define the work as Late Medieval. Most importantly, this carvings on the pulpit establish a rend towards classicism that will gain momentum in the subsequent two centuries.

French Baroque Painting

In the seventeenth century, the French monarchy tightened their control over the country. The reign of King Louis XIV, and absolute monarch, had particularly stringent policies that ultimately led to the French Revolution in 1789.

tympanum of the south portal: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Abadia_de_Saint-Pierre_de_Moissac_-_Portalada_Sud_de_Moissac.JPG

In the tympanum of the south portal, Christ is rendered in hierarchical scale in the center as the ultimate judge of the world. He is surrounded by the symbols of the Four Evangelists, who are flanked by two angels with scrolls that symbolically account for the recorded deeds of man. The remaining figures are the twenty-four elders who accompany Christ in His high priestly office (cf. Rev. 4:1-4). There is a range of figural shapes in the work, from the elongated angels to the squat, "bobble-headed" figures of the elders. This variety of form is characteristic of Romanesque sculptural compositions.

Jan van Eyck - Man in a Red Turban

Independent portraits, an art form that had been more or less nonexistent since ancient times, had a resurgence in fifteenth-century Flanders. Man in a Red Turban is a famous example of secular portraiture painted by Jan van Eyck during this period. The work is also noteworthy because it contains no religious themes or iconography. This work, like Van Eyck's others, incorporates incredible realism and detail. The bloodshot eye, stubble, wrinkles, and other aspects of the sitter's appearance is rendered in painstaking detail. The sitter engages the the viewer, looking directly at him or her for the 1st time since classical antiquity, regardless of the viewing angle, notice how his sitter's eyes seem to "follow" you.

Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus - Hagia Sophia (532-537 CE) exterior, interior, and plan (Image 052)

Interestingly, the builders were not experienced architects, but rather the famous mathematicians Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus. As these men were not rooted in the architectural tradition of the age, Anthemius and Isidorus were perfectly suited for Justinian's "new" work. The result of their efforts was an ingenious combination of the two major traditions of Early Christian architecture: the longitudinal plan of the basilica with the vertical orientation of the central-plan structure.

Hiberno- Saxon art

Ireland was never officially conquered by the Romans, but it did exist in the Roman Empire's sphere of commercial and cultural influence. Ireland was the most distant European outpost, so Christianization of the are did not begin until the 5th century. By the end of the 7th century, however, Christianity was thriving in the region, and Irish monastaries were well-established and functioning as centers of knowledge and artistic production. Early Medieval art produced in the insular communities of Ireland (whose ancient name was Hibernia) and Britain (whose primary ethnic group was the Saxons) is labeled as Hiberno-Saxon. During the seventh and eighth centuries, Hiberno-Saxon arts flourished in the Christian monasteries of the British Isles, most commonly in the form of illuminated manuscripts. Stylistically, Hiberno-Saxon art combines the emphasis on linear patterning seen in Viking and Warrior Lord art with Christian themes and subject matters.

Basin (ca.1320-1340 CE) (Image 188)

Islamic artists were also very skilled at metal working, as seen in Muhammad ibn al-Zain's Basin (ca.1320-1340 CE) (Image 188). The basin was used for washing hands at official ceremonies, so its intended function combined with the expensive materials and great skill used in its creation indicate royal patronage. Made of brass and inlaid with gold and silver, the whole surface of the vessel is decorated inside and out with court scenes, battles, and hunting expediitons laid out in 3 friezes. The narrow friezes on the top and the bottom of the exterior depcit beasts of the hunt, and the wider central frieze has images of horsemen in rondels that intersperse a procession of diginitaries. The iconography of the work is complicated, and art historians are still trying to determine what exactly is being shown. It has been suggested that the figures on the rondels may be personifications of furusiyya (good horsemanship).

Italian Painting Before the Fourteenth Century

Italian painting was dominated by the Byzantine style before the 14th century, and this influence can be seen in the Saint Francis Altarpiece by Bonaventura Berlinghieri (ca. early 13th century). Saint Francis is always identified by the stigmata, wounds resembling those Christ received during the crucifixion, so images of the saint usually have piercing wounds on his hands and feet. In this work, the figures of Saint Francis is entirely flat, frontal, and floating as seen in his form and his feet, which hover above his podium. These stylistic elements combined with the gold leaf background show the influence of the Byzantine style. The scenes surrounding the central figure of St. Francis on the altarpiece are depict episodes of the saint's life. The strong influence of Byzantine style in Medieval Italian painting makes the progression of fourteenth-century Italian art toward a rebirth of the classical style all the more amazing!

14th century Italian Art

Italy went through a period of transition in the fourteenth century. Politically, the Italian city-states became independent republics thanks to lucrative trade. The rest of Europe was ruled by feudal monarchies. Socially, the plague swept through the region during this time period and further disturbed the established Medieval order by indiscriminately killing peasants, nobility, and clergy alike. The Great Schism impacted religion life, splitting the church into competing factions. In some cases, priests were more interested in church politics than ministering to their congregants. Finally, use of the vernacular language (i.e., the common spoken tongue, as opposed to Latin) took hold in literary circles. As a result, authors like Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio began writing their works in Italian.

Jan van Eyck - The Arnolfini Portrait

Jan van Eyck also painted portraits with the same remarkable sense of realism and detail. His most famous work of portraiture is The Arnolfini Portrait (Image 068), which depicts Giovanni Arnolfini and his wife. Arnolfini was a silk merchant who represented the Medici family in Flanders. In Van Eyck's portrait, Arnolfini pledges fidelity to his wife. There is a plethora of symbolism in the everyday objects in the room that reinforce his gesture:

Christ's Passion

Jesus Chris underwent horrible persecution and suffering at the hands of the Romans (cf. Matt 27:11-54). This brutal period at the end of Christ's life is known as the Passion (derived from the Latin verb to suffer). The elements of Christ's Passion are used as symbols of his suffering. It is Christ's suffering that makes the salvation of Man possible.

cathedral at Reims ca.13th century https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Reims_Kathedrale.jpg

Like Amien, the cathedral at Reims is also impressive due to its increase in height and the proliferation of windows. At Reims, the traditionally stone tympana have been replaced with stained glass. The architectural sculpture of Reims is no less impressive, as seen in our selection of the meeting between Elizabeth (mother of John the Baptist) and the Virgin Mary, an event known as the Visitation (cf. Luke 1:39-45). The jamb statues are completely freed from their architectural setting and bear naturalistic poses, graceful gestures, and fluid drapery. The pose of Mary reflects the S-shaped curve so popular with Late Gothic sculptors. The Gothic artists were attempting to reestablish contrapposto, but the figures do not show true weight shift. It will not be until the Renaissance that statues "stand" as naturally as they did during classical times.

The Islamic Mosque

Like Byzantine architecture, most of the structures we study in Islamic architecture are houses of worship, known as mosques. These structures do vary in form and building materials, but they all follow a similar plan that is similar to Muhammad's house in Medina. Since Islam does not have the same liturgical requirements as Christianity, a mosque is usually a large open space used for prayer. Early prayer halls used a large number of columns to support a roof over the open floor plan, similar to the Apadana in Persepolis (Image 030) from Lesson 2.10. Other versions of mosques have a large central space unencumbered by columns that is usually covered with a dome. The orientation of the mosque, or qibla, faces Mecca. Muslims must face the qibla wall while they worship and direct their prayers to Mecca. There is a niche on the qibla wall known as the mihrab. Common opinion is that this niche represents the site where Muhammad sat or stood in his Medina home while leading prayers. In addition, there is a stepped pulpit (minbar), on which the imam ("teacher") recites the khutba ("sermon"). Some mosques also have exterior auxiliary towers known as minarets, which are used by a muezzin ("crier") to call the faithful to prayer five times a day.

Raphael: Madonna of the Meadows

Madonna of the Meadows is an example of the artist's maturing style. The work shows the influence of Leonardo in its pyramidal figural composition and the subtle use of chiaroscuro to model the figures. The twisted poses shows the influence of Michelangelo. Raphael's figures occupy a bright, defined landscape different from Leonardo's settings because Raphael was more concerned in the clarity of form than with creating an atmosphere of mystery. Raphael's figures lack the intensity and tension of Michelangelo's, because his main focus was creating a sense of ease in the composition. These elements combined with serenity, grace and harmony characterize Raphael's body of work.

Masaccio: Holy Trinity

Masaccio painted a very important fresco, The Holy Trinity, in Florence's Santa Maria Novella. The Holy Trinity is depicted in a chapel with a coffered, barrel vault: God the Father (behind the cross), God the Son (on the cross), and God the Holy Spirit (represented as the dove just above Christ's head). Mary and John the Beloved are positioned at the foot of the cross to function as interceding figures for the work's donors, who are present outside of the architectural framework. In the lower portion of the fresco, there is a depiction of the remains of Adam in his grave , which is meant to remind the viewer of the reason for Christ's sacrifice. This work is not unique for its subject matter, but rather for its technical skill. Masaccio positions the vanishing point of this piece at the foot of the cross, which in Santa Maria Novella, is at eye-level. This creates the illusion that the upper portion of the fresco (the chapel) recedes, while the lower (the tomb) portion advances. In fact, the linear one-point perspective is so precisely calculated that it is possible for art historians to calculate the chapel's dimensions and know its exact "size" if it were to be a real structure.

Matthias Grünewald

Matthias Grünewald (ca. 1480-1528) was truly one of the great Northern Renaissance artists. His most important work is the Isenheim Altarpiece (Image 077), which was painted for the church of a hospital. Grünewald painted this amazing altarpiece between 1510 and 1515 for the monastery of St. Anthony at Isenheim, in the Elzas near Colmar. The monastery hospital treated people suffering from ergotism, a painful skin disease caused by a fungus on rye that was more commonly called "Saint Anthony's Fire." It was thought that the beauty of the art and the image of Christ's suffering would help the patients of the day find comfort. The altarpiece has two sets of folding wings, bringing the number of viewing options to a total of three. Today, the separate components of the altarpiece are displayed at the Colmar Museum.

Caravaggio

Michelangelo Merisi (1573 -1610), called Caravaggio, is considered the most famous and innovative of the Italian Baroque painters. Despite leading a troubled life and the harsh reviews from critics, Caravaggio was an extremely popular and influential artist in his own time as well as in subsequent periods. His style has a sense of theatricality that is typical of the Baroque, but Caravaggio's methods for achieving these elements were innovative. He uses sharp contrasts of light and dark to create scenes of intense drama, which art historians refer to as tenebrism (from the Italian word "tenebroso," meaning "shadowy"). Caravaggio's also used unidealized common people as models, which was very different from Renaissance figures. Caravaggio developed a unique style that greatly influenced all of Europe. He was criticized for looking down on the classical masters, even called "the anti-Christ" of painting, but he still received many commissions and artists emulated his innovations. He infused naturalism into his art, thereby reducing great classical and religious paintings into human dramas that reflected the dirty settings of his own time and place.

Miguel González

Miguel González, along with his brother, Juan, is considered the foremost painter of enconchados, or shell-inlaid paintings. His image of The Virgin of Guadalupe (Image 095) shows the Virgin on top of an eagle perched on a cactus, connecting Christianity to Mexico City's legendary coat of arms. This points to the rapid Creolization of the cult of the Virgin of Guadalupe in the latter half of the 17th century, and her increasing association with a local sense of identity. According to Catholic accounts, a maiden appeared to the native American peasant named Juan Diego in 1531. In his native language of Nahuatl, the maiden identified herself to him as the Virgin Mary and asked him to build a church in her honor on the site where she revealed herself. She appeared twice more to Juan Diego. The second appearance she healedl his uncle to give proof of her identity. The third apparition, she commanded him to gather flowers in location and at a time of year that were normally barren. He found Castilian roses, which were not indigenous to the region, and brought them to the Virgin. She arranged the the flowers for him in his tilma (cloak), and when he opened the cloak the flowers fell out and an image of the Virgin remained on his tilma. From that time forward, the Virgin of Guadalupe and Juan Diego's tilma were both the subjects of veneration. In González's work. the Virgin is surrounded by four roundels depicting her three apparitions to Juan Diego in 1531 and the moment when her image on the tilma was unveiled by Juan Diego before Bishop Juan de Zumárraga. Each roundel is supported by an angelic figure that adds a playful element to the composition. Another important element of the work is the elaborate shell-inlaid frame that combines floral motifs with the symbols of the Litany of the Virgin. Enconchado painting often include ornate frames that are considered an inherent part of the work. Inspired by Japanese Nanban Lacquer work, painting and frame represent a fusion of Eastern and Western artistic traditions.

Muhammad cont..

Muhammad began to preach his message to others in Mecca. The prophet was not well received at first, and he was forced to flee to Medina around 620. Around 629-630, Muhammad returned with a sizable army, captured the city of Mecca, and converted the population. Islam spread rapidly in the seventh and eight centuries, taking hold in the Middle East, North Africa, Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, the majority of Spain, and into the Indus River area. With the exception of Spain, Islam remains the dominant cultural force in these areas today. To read more about Islamic culture and beliefs, click here.

Muhammad and the Muslims

Muhammad, the founder of Islam, was born in Mecca in Saudi Arabia around the year 570. His family lineage could be traced back to the Hebrew prophet Abraham via the patriarch's son Ishmael. Muhammad began received revelations from Allah (Arabic for "the God") around age 40 (610 CE). These revelations are recorded in the holy book of the Islamic religion, the Koran (Quran). The framework for the Muslim faith are the 5 Pillars of Islam: 1) Shahadah (Testimony of Faith, 2) Salat (prayer 5 times daily facing Mecca), 3) Zakat (giving alms to the poor), 4) Sawm (fasting during the month of Ramadan), and 5) Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca once in a lifetime (if able)). Muhammad began to preach his message to others in Mecca. The prophet was not well received at first, and he was forced to flee to Medina around 620. Around 629-630, Muhammad returned with a sizable army, captured the city of Mecca, and converted the population. Islam spread rapidly in the seventh and eight centuries, taking hold in the Middle East, North Africa, Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, the majority of Spain, and into the Indus River area. With the exception of Spain, Islam remains the dominant cultural force in these areas today. To read more about Islamic culture and beliefs, click here.

Events that affected the fate of Byzantine (11th & 12th Century)

Muslim Turks gained control over Anatolia (modern Turkey). The Byzantine Orthodox Church split from the Roman Church. Western Crusaders passed through the region on their way to battle the Muslims in the Holy Land. The influx of greedy Crusaders (who could not help but notice the wealth of Constantinople) would later prove disastrous for Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire. In 1204, Constantinople was sacked by invaders from the West, reducing Byzantium to three small, disconnected independent states. Byzantium never had the strength and power of its former self, and it eventually fell to the Muslim Turks in 1453. The fall of Byzantium signaled the end of the long history of the Eastern Empire.

Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain

Nicolas Poussin The most recognizable feature of the French Baroque was the use of classical elements. In Et in Arcadia Ego by French Baroque master, Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665) is an image of shepherds in an idealized Aracdian landscape at a grave site. They are trying to decipher the phrase, "Et in Arcadia ego," which is inscribed on a tomb. A female figure, possibly the spirit of death or the deceased, looks on unnoticed by the shepherds. The phrase is from the Roman poet Vergil, and it was used in seventeenth-century Italy to express the humanistic sentiment: "Even in Arcadia I (i.e. Death) am to be found." In other words, there is no escape from death, even in the pastoral beauty of Arcadia. Poussin spent most of his life in Rome, and his work shows the influences of Titian's color and Raphael's rendering of form. Poussin influencedlater French artists like David, Ingres, and Cezanne (all of whom you will study in the next module). Claude Lorrain Claude Lorrain (1600-1682) is another important French Baroque painter. He was a master of idealized landscape paintings, as seen in Landscape with Dancing Figures. His view of nature is more beautiful and harmonious than nature itself. The quality of this beauty is governed by poetic rendering of light and classical concepts, and Lorrain often includes classical ruins and pastoral figures wearing classical dress. He was influential in mid-eighteenth to the mid-nineteenth century English landscape painting as well.

The Workshop of Robert Campin- Annunciation Triptych (Merode Altarpiece)

Not all of the great works of the period were intended for public display. With the clergy involved in the politics of the Great Schism and the papacy, Christians began to worship on their own at home to meet their spiritual needs. As a result, many private devotional works were commissioned. These small-scale private altarpieces are striking (and at times odd) combinations of the religious and the secular realms. One of the most famous triptychs of is the Merode Altarpiece (Image 066), which was created by the workshop of artist Robert Campin (who is also known as the Master of Flemalle). In the center panel there is an Annunciation scene which takes place in an typical 15th century Flemish home. This altarpiece is a small portable object because it was used for worship in a private home. It is very different from the large-scale altarpieces for churches and cathedrals, which reflects a change in religious patronage. There are three scenes: the Annunciation in the center panel, Joseph in his workshop on the right wing, and the donors (patrons) looking in the center scene in the left wing. The use of an ordinary Flemish home for the setting of the work helped the worshipper better connect to the events in the panel as the setting and elements of the scene were familiar. The use of oil paint as a medium allowed for a closer attention to detail of the objects in the space as well. The elements of everyday domestic life also serve as iconographic symbols throughout the work. Some of these symbols in the central panel

Annunciation for San Lorenzo in Florence.

One of Lippi's earliest works is a panel painting of the Annunciation for San Lorenzo in Florence. While Lippi borrows Masaccio's illusionistic depth and use of chiaroscuro, The shifting levels and odd shapes in the architecture are unique to Lippi. The decorative draperies, use of color,and the psychologically intriguing and engaging expressions of the Madonna and the angels are also examples of Lippi's personal style.

Il Gesù

One of the earliest structures exhibiting elements of the Baroque style is the church of Il Gesù (Image 082), which was the mother church of the Jesuit order. This church is really a transitional work, since technically it was built a little early to be considered Baroque work (it was started in the mid-sixteenth century). Its facade and exterior ornamentation, however, feature elements which will be fully-developed during the Baroque period. The interior decoration includes a ceiling fresco which is stylistically consistent with the Baoque and does date to the period since it was executed in the latter part of the seventeenth century. The Jesuits were formally recognized by the pope in 1540, and quickly became allies in supporting the Catholic church. They needed a new building to reflect their new reputation, and since Michelangelo was late in turning in his designs, they turned to Giacomo Della Porta, who also designed the dome of St. Peter's. The design of the church shows the importance of ritual, with a single great hall for large processions and an almost theatrical setting to accommodate large crowds (Image 082). The façade had a great influence on later church designs. The horizontal pillars and columns build to the central bay, and the façade bays fit into the nave-chapel system behind them. Many 17th century Roman church facades are variations of this design. Again, although the church is classified as Late Renaissance, it was so influential that it is also noted as one of the most significant monuments for the development of Italian Baroque church architecture.

Inigo Jones and Christopher Wren

One of the more important English Baroque artists was Inigo Jones (1573-1652). As official architect for English kings James I and Charles I, his buildings set the standard for English architecture for nearly two centuries. Jones studied in Italy and was heavily influenced by the writings and works of Palladio. One of the architect's more famous works is the Banqueting Hall at Whitehall in London, and it has the clarity and order characteristic of Palladio. Classically inspired superimposed column orders, the alternating segmented and triangular window pediments, and the continuous roof balustrade recall the Italian classical style as well. England's most famous Baroque architect was Christopher Wren (1632-1723). A brilliant mathematician, Wren was a chaired professor at Oxford at the age of twenty-nine. He executed over 50 churches in a span of over 40 years, the most famous of them being Saint Paul's Cathedral. The original church was destroyed by the Great Fire of London in 1666. This 17th century structure combines the influence of several different styles, and this fusion then became a style of its own. The upper portions of the towers resemble Borromini's lantern on Saint Ivo, and the lower portions recall Palladio The porticos with paired columns are similar to classically-inspired east facade of the Louvre, which Wren had visited.

Merode Altarpiece (Image 066)

One of the most famous triptychs of is the Merode Altarpiece (Image 066), which was created by the workshop of artist Robert Campin (who is also known as the Master of Flemalle). In the center panel there is an Annunciation scene which takes place in an typical 15th century Flemish home. This altarpiece is a small portable object because it was used for worship in a private home. It is very different from the large-scale altarpieces for churches and cathedrals, which reflects a change in religious patronage. There are three scenes: the Annunciation in the center panel, Joseph in his workshop on the right wing, and the donors (patrons) looking in the center scene in the left wing. The use of an ordinary Flemish home for the setting of the work helped the worshipper better connect to the events in the panel as the setting and elements of the scene were familiar. The use of oil paint as a medium allowed for a closer attention to detail of the objects in the space as well. The elements of everyday domestic life also serve as iconographic symbols throughout the work. Some of these symbols in the central panel include: small image of Christ with his cross coming in through window on a beam of light and headed to Mary's womb book - Bible (open to Isaiah 7:14) lilies - a symbol of Mary's purity smoking candle - the Incarnation (cf. Isaiah 42:3) copper basin and towel - washing away of sin (Christ as Savior) The left panel shows the donors inside a walled garden, which is another symbol of Mary's purity. The flowers filling the garden are related to the iconography of the Virginia Mary. The right panel is a view inside Joseph's workshop, which contains tools of his trade as a carpenter, such as an ax, a saw, and a rod, all of which relate again to the prophecy of Isaiah (10:15). Joseph is working on crafting a mousetrap, which refers to Christ as the bait to catch the devil. Again, in works like these, there is an compelling combination of the domestic and the divine.

Isenheim Altarpiece4 (Image 077)

Opening the second set of wings revealed the innermost portion of the altarpiece, which is a combination of both painted and sculpted images. Grunewald painted the wings with images of St. Anthony, the patron saint of diseases. On the left wing, he is visited by St. Paul the Hermit, and the two have a conversation in a fantastic universe of mixed vegetation that contrasts the tranquility of the meeting itself between the two reclusive saints. On the right wing, St. Anthony is attacked and tortured by demons that have the symptoms of ergotism, such as the distended and swollen stomach of the creature in the lower left corner. The painted wooden sculptures in the center portion and the predella were created by Niclaus of Haguenau. In the predella, a depiction of Christ and the Apostles at the Last Supper. In the center, Saints Augustine (Left), Anthony (center), and Jerome (right) are depicted in hierarchical perspective with smaller sculptures of offering bearers at their feet. When the altapiece was fully opened to reveal this portion of the work, worshippers were meant to focus their veneration on St. Anthony, the healer of the disease St. Anthony's fire.

Bibles Moralisees (ca.1225-1245) (Image 061)- Dedication page with Blanche of Castile and Louis IX of France, Scenes from the Apocalypse

Our selections come from a series of moralized Bibles known as the Bibles Moralisees (Image 061), which were commissioned by Blanche of Castile, mother of Louis IX (also known as Saint Louis- see Lesson 4.14 for an Islamic work he was believed to own). These works were designed for the personal use of Louis IX and the royal family to teach French kings religion as well as morality. The first folio we will examine does not show Old and New Testaments scenes, as it is the introductory page. In this dedication page (Image 061), we see Blanche and Louis enthroned in the upper panel, and below, we see a monk and a scribe. Blanche (who was Louis IX's regent until he came of age to rule France) instructs a young beardless Louis IX just as the monk instructs the scribe in manuscript illumination. Both scenes are framed by an architectural setting similar to the canopies seen over the sculpture jamb figures on cathedral exteriors. This work is also characteristic of the so-called Parisian court style, which is reflected in the figures' refined features, delicate hands and hair, and graceful proportions and gestures. The other page from the Scenes of the Apocalypse (Image 061) is a folio from the text of the Bible. Here, you can see pairings of the Old Testament and New Testament scenes accompanied by explanatory texts. These literary and visual readings would combine together to convey a moral.

Jan van Eyck - Ghent Altarpiece (open)- Outside panels; Representation of the four cardinal virtues (Temperance, Prudence, Fortitude and Justice)

Outside panels: Representation of the four cardinal virtues (Temperance, Prudence, Fortitude and Justice) Outer left: judges (Justice) Inner left: knights (Fortitude) Inner right: hermits (Temperance) Outer right: pilgrims (Prudence)

Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic

Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic. These terms are derived from Greek: "paleo" (old), "meso" (middle), "neo" (new), and the word for stone, "lithos"; in other words, the Old Stone Age, the Middle Stone Age, and the New Stone Age.

Palladio2

Palladio's later works are an intersection of classical and Mannerist styles. This combination of classical order and Mannerist emphasis on artifice (and even disorder in some cases) is evident in the west facade of San Giorgio Maggiore. The architect has unified the high nave and the low side aisles with two overlapping Corinthian temple porticos. The taller portico corresponds to the nave and has colossal engaged columns, while the shorter one aligns with the side aisles and is defined by pilasters. The varying degrees of carving in the facade create illusionistic depth and a sense of color through the interaction of light and shade.

The Ionic frieze around the interior structure was created in mid to low relief, and scholars assume its subject matter is the

Panathenaic festival procession. This festival occurred every four years, and included a sacrificial procession that began at the Dipylon Gate, passed through the agora (central square), and ended on the Acropolis. Once at the final destination, the Athenians placed a new peplos on an ancient wooden statue of Athena that stood in the original temple which the Persians had destroyed in 480 BCE (this image likely looked like the Lady of Auxerre). On the frieze, the procession begins on the western side of the Parthenon (side facing the gateway to the Acropolis) with marshals gathering and Greek youth mounting their horses. The procession moves in parallel on the north and south sides of the building. The sculptors create a sense of acceleration in these segments as the figures move to final destination in the center of the eastern side over the entrance into the cella that house Phidias's Athena Parthenos.

Parmigianino

Parmigianino (1503-1540) is another artist that successfully combined the sensuous style, classical elegance, and the distortion of Mannerism. The Madonna of the Long Neck demonstrates the artificial grace and elegance that later Mannerist artists sought to achieve in their works. The small head and exceptionally long body of the Madonna combines with the extremely elongated neck, limbs, hand, and fingers to give her a sense of delicate grace, even though it is somewhat awkward. The entire piece juxtaposes the softness, polish, and gentility of the Renaissance with the imbalance, crowding, and aberrance of Mannerism. The group of angels to the left are gentle beings in a crowded environment. Manneristic distortions and abstractions include the pose of the angel in the front, the column with no capital on the right, and the miniature figure with a scroll standing in an ambiguous distance on the lower right. This work is a striking contrast to the proportional composition and rational perspective of Leonardo's Madonna of the Rocks.

Pieter Bruegel the Elder1

Pieter Bruegel the Elder is considered the greatest Flemish painter of the sixteenth century. He was a landscape painter, but he always had human activities at the center of his landscapes. His characters and their escapades dominate the landscapes in the majority of his paintings. Bruegel was a skilled draftsman and etcher as well as a painter. While he used a delicate line to define his figures, his figures are lively, solid, and stubby in proportion. Bruegel's color and his feel for landscape vistas is incredibly sensitive. He diagonal lines and S-curves in his works to create a sense of rhythm while the planes of the landscape unfolds into the distance.

Antonius Pius http://ssmith.people.ysu.edu/ecbyzwebpage/antoninus_pius_relief.jpg

Pius's reign was largely uneventful. After his death in 161 CE, his adopted sons Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus built him a memorial column of pink marble that no longer exists. The podium of the monument, however, is still extant and covered with ornamentation. On the front showed of the podium is and image of the apotheosis (ascent into heaven) of Antonius Pius and his wife. Many classical (1) elements can be identified, such as the single groundline, well-proportioned figures, and divine personifications (the male in the lower left is Campus Martius, an historic section of Rome, and the female is Rome itself). The back side contained a dedicatory inscription to the deceased emperor. The most unusual aspect of this are the reliefs on its the sides depicting the decursio (the ritual of circling the emperor's funeral pyre). The figures in these images have short, squat proportions and do not share a common baseline, instead floating in space on individual patches of turf. This break with the classical tradition of depicting the human form and utilization of an abstract concept of space would soon become the norm.

Pontormo's mannerist

Pontormo's mannerist abstractions have been interpreted as intending to express fixed and uncontrolled melancholy scenes. The Virgin, larger than the other figures, leans sideways inviting the support of those in the background. The story goes that Pontormo set himself as a self-portrait at the right of the canvas. Ultimately, the most compelling and empathic figure in the composition is the crouching man in the foreground, whose expression measures the weight of the emotion. Overall, the scene is a complete rejection of the Renaissance. It is crowded, lacking enough space for the head painted above Christ to have a body. It is also random, especially in the glances and poses of the figures. The clash of colors is striking, and the distinct void in the middle of the work rejects the Renaissance use of the center as a focal point for the viewer. The figural composition of the figures in the foreground is that of an upside down pyramid. The figures themselves are out of natural proportion as well with their smallish heads, elongated limbs, and distorted poses.

Michelangelo

Pope Paul III commissioned Michelangelo with several important building projects. One was transforming the Capitoline Hill (Campidoglio) in Rome. During the days of Ancient Rome, the Capitoline Hill was the site of the most important temple of Jupiter, and it was the "de facto" spiritual center of the Roman world. Pope Paul III wanted to claim the site for the Christian church, which was a challenging task because any architect would have to incorporate two pre-existing structures from different time periods (the Palazzo dei Senatori dates from the twelfth century and the Palazzo dei Conservatori dates from the fifteenth) as well as the odd, eighty-degree angle formed by the two buildings. Michelangelo's plan called for adding a third building (the Palazzo Nuovo) across from the Palazzo dei Conservatori and at an eighty-degree angle from the Palazzo dei Senatori in order that the architectural group would have a sense of balance and symmetry. Michelangelo also placed new facades on the two older buildings to further unify the architectural complex. The inclusion of the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius was specifically ordered by Pope Paul III (despite Michelangelo's objections) to symbolically represent Christian triumph over paganism. Michelangelo received his last major project from Pope Paul III In 1546, which was to take over building the new Saint Peter's. Since Bramante's death, the project had passed through a series of other architects, but it had not advanced much. Michelangelo admired Bramante's original central-plan design, but he modified this plan it in order to create a greater sense of spatial unity. He also unified dome with the support drum at its base in an architectural sculpture in High Renaissance fashion. Michelangelo died before the work St. Peter's, but his work on the structure and his legacy as an architect would impact future generations.

Doryphoros (Image 034)

Probably the most copied original Greek work was the Doryphoros (Image 034), or Spear Bearer, created by the master Polykleitos. Polykleitos sought a perfection in statuary based on a mathematical formula, just like Iktinos and Kallikrates were searching for "mathematical perfection" in the field of architecture ( which will be discussed in 3.08). Polykleitos wrote a treatise that outlined the ideal proportions of the human body, and produced the Doryphoros as a companion piece to illustrate his ideas. The figure's extremely pronounced contrapposto and perfectly ordered "movement" are achieved by the use of chiastic (cross) balance in Doryphoros. The right arm and left leg are relaxed, the flexed left arm and right leg are tense and engaged. As the head turns to the right, the hips turn to the left. The result is a work which is perceived as flexible and "moving" despite being created in stone.

Raphael: Galatea

Raphael created another epic fresco in the home of Agostini Chigi, an important figure in the papal court of Julius II. The subject of the work is Galatea, a story from classical mythology. The composition is both beautiful and harmonious, incoporating a graceful sense of movement thanks to the artist's masterful arrangement of figures. The work depicts beautiful sea nymph Galatea fleeing from the cylcop Polyphemus (pictured in another panel) on a seashell pulled by dolphins. Cupids swirl above her and a variety of sea creatures surround her. Raphael skillfully combined strength with beauty and power with grace. In contrast, Boticelli stressed only grace, and Michelangelo's figures were far more powerful than graceful. The movement is created by careful placement of the cupids at the top of the composition to create a circular, swirling motion that is echoed in the positions of the sea creatures to the left and right of Galatea. Raphael was also an accomplished portrait painter, as seen in his portrait of his friend Count Baldassare Castiglione, an important literary figure in the Renaissance. Raphael uses a half-length, three-quarter view pose, which had been popularized by Leonardo (cf. Mona Lisa). He offers the viewer an honest, gentle, and elegant depiction of the sitter that captured his personality and character.

Reliquary of Saint Foy

Reliquaries (receptacles used to keep sacred relics) were another common form of Romanesque metalworking. The Reliquary of Saint Foy (Image 058) consists of an enthroned statuette of a martyr. The figure's body is a wooden core, and its oversized head is a reworked Roman parade helmet. The entire sculpture is covered with gold leaf and silver gilt to create a magnificent container to preserve and protest the saint's relics. The figure of Saint Foy is covered with jewels and cameos from different time periods that were left as donations from pilgrims and patrons over the years. The throne on which the figure sits has an engraved image of a crucifixion to create a parallel between her martyrdom and the martyrdon of Jesus Christ.

Rococo

Rococo is a style of art and architecture that emerged in France around 1700 and spread throughout the rest of Europe in the eighteenth century. After the controlling nature of Louis XIV, the French nobility were once again free to leave Versailles and live in Paris. The aristocracy owned over 90% of the wealth in France, and they led lives of leisure, reveling in luxury, which contrasted sharply with the lives of most in France at this time. The Rococo style is an art of the French aristocracy, and it is characterized by lightness, grace, playfulness, and intimacy. The Rococo was concerned with colorful and delicate decoration and frivolous, trivial subject matter. The term "rococo" was coined by later art historians to refer to the taste that was fashionable under Louis XV. Like many other stylistic labels, it began life as a term of abuse much (cf. labels "Gothic" and "Baroque"). Over time, the word has become lost its derogatory meaning, and art historians now use "Rococo" in an objective sense. The Rococo style grew out of the Baroque, but it was also reaction against, the weightier 17th-century style. Rococo shares the Baroque love for complex forms, but Rococo works stress delicacy and elegance over mass and grandeur. In painting, white and light-infused pastel colors, such as light pinks, greens, and blues, replaced the dark colors, harsh lighting, and heavy gilding of the Baroque. In architecture, the light palette, asymmetrical and curving forms, and attractive decorative forms made the Rococo style more suitable for interior decoration. The tide of taste began to turn against the style in the 1760s. In France, the much more serious Neoclassical style replaced the frivolous Rococo as the country entered a period of political turmoil and class struggle that resulted in the French Revolution and the overthrown of the monarchy in 1789.

Roman Architecture

Roman civilization was multicultural, and as a result, the art of the Romans is has an eclectic (1) character. The Romans were extremely practical, so some of the greatest works of Roman art also have utilitarian functions. Politics were very important in ancient Rome, therefore much of the artwork functions as propaganda that promotes the agenda of the Roman Empire or a particular emperor or both. The Roman desired to control and harness their environment can be seen in much of their art. The ideas and art of ancient Rome has amazing longevity.

Sculpture in the Age of Constantine

Roman public art always carried a propagandistic message, and the Arch of Constantine is no different. By repurposing reliefs from the works of Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius, the new emperor wanted Romans to identify his reign with those of the greatest Roman emperors. The Constantinian artists certainly had the ability to create original works using classical norms, they simply preferred to work in a new style. Their world contained an entirely new set of values, based largely on a rejection of those of the classical world, so they chose to work with the values of their own age. It is important to remember that the art of the Constantinian period was not of a lesser quality than earlier Roman works, it was just different.

Cathedral complex at Pisa, Italy https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/1517/flashcards/762610/png/cathedral-complex.png

Romanesque Tuscan architecture can be seen at the Cathedral complex at Pisa, Italy, which consists of a baptistery, cathedral, and freestanding bell tower (also known as a campanile). The cathedral, which was started in 1063, certainly shows the influence of Early Christian churches with its timber roofing, rhythm of Roman columns, and emphasis on horizontality over verticality. The Romanesque style can be seen in the cathedral's plan, which has a five-aisle design, galleries, and numerous rounded arches. The alternating use of green and cream colored marble is particular to the regional style of Tuscan Romanesque. An architectural characteristic unique to Italy is the freestanding bell tower. The Tower of Pisa (as it is commonly called) leans because its foundation did not settles at an angle.

Early Christian Mosaics

Romans were very practical, and they used mosaic "painting" because of its durability, so Roman mosaics were generally limited to floors and areas involved with water (e.g. baths, pools fountains). Mosaic painting was a perfect medium for the flat, smooth walls of Early Christian buildings. The use of mosaics also connected with the theme of perpetuity and endurability - for as the Bible endures, so the images that present its content. The highly reflective surfaces of the tesserae allowed for the interiors of Christian structures to be showered with both light and color as opposed to the dark marble of the Roman temples.

Sculpture in the Age of Constantine

Rome under the rule of Constantine saw the decline of the pagan state religion in favor of Christianity. The art of the period is a strange conglomeration of classical ideals and those of the new "anti-classical" styles of late antiquity. This combination of old and new is clearly seen on the Arch of Constantine, which was built adjacent to the Colosseum. It has a triple passageway like the Arch of Septimus Severus. The relief panels that decorate the arch were actually taken from the monuments of former Roman emperors Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius, and then the heads of the old emperors were refashioned to make them resemble Constantine. Originally, this scene now located on the the attic story of the Arch of Constantine depicted Marcus Aurelius receiving triumphal honors, but thanks to sculptors, it is Constantine who now receives the honors. We know this panel comes from an earlier work due to the presence of proportional bodies, natural poses and "loose" drapery. The stylistic differences are even more apparent when we compare the Aurelian panel with decorative scenes dating from the age of Constantine. As expected, the figures have cubic heads, squat bodies, and rigid frontality that were typical of the Late Imperial period.

Saint-Etienne in Caen, France (ca. 1120) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Abbaye_aux_Hommes01.jpg/280px-Abbaye_aux_Hommes01.jpg

Saint-Etienne in Caen, France (ca. 1120) is the most-well known of the Norman Romanesque churches. The design of the west facade is highly influenced by Ottonian architecture, resembling the westwerk from the Ottonian abbey church at Corvey. Four buttresses have been placed along the divisions of the nave and side aisles, diving the facade into three sections. The twin towers also show a tri-partite division with increased piercing of the wall surface at each higher level. Saint-Etienne's nave utilizes sexpartite ("sex" is Latin for "six") vaulting. In this form, branching ribs split the vault into six sections, all supported by alternating compound piers in the nave. Sexpartite vaulting also allows for the insertion of clerestory windows, thus creating a three-story nave elevation.

San Vitale cont..

San Vitale is most well-known for the sixth-century mosaics covering its interior (Image 051) . These mosaics are considered masterpieces of Early Byzantine art. Christ at the Second Coming dominates the dome of the apse. He holds the scroll of the seven seals while the four rivers of paradise flow under him (cf. Rev. 5). Christ is dressed in purple, and he sits on the orb of the world as an angel introduces the church's patron saint Vitalis on Christ's right. On the left, another angel introduces Bishop Ecclesius (who began building the church in 526), who is offering a model of San Vitale to Christ.

Sant'Ambrogio, Milan, Italy https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/967/flashcards/427967/jpg/sant%27ambrogio__milan_%28italy%291353471284619.jpg

Sant'Ambrogio in Milan, Italy (ca. late 11th century) shows the continued innovation in vaulting. The main vaults are higher than the transverse arches, further emphasizing the spatial rhythm or the interior. In addition, the compound piers also continue into the vaults which create supporting arches, or ribs, running along the groin vault. This support system (rib vaulting) is characteristic of Late Romanesque architecture as well as the Gothic architecture of the following period. This structure does not have the height that northern churches have, and Sant'Ambrogio's nave is broader than its northern counterparts. These difference are the result of Italian architects never straying too far from the Early Christian basilican design. This difference in dimensional proportion can be used to distinguish Italian Late Romanesque and Gothic churches from the northern churches.

St. Peter's Cathedral

Shortly after the completion of Santa Susanna, Pope Sixtus V commissioned Maderno to finish Saint Peter's in Rome. Maderno's facade for St. Peter's looks like an expanded lower level of Santa Susanna. The facade of Saint Peter's lacks the compactness and verticality of Santa Susanna for reasons outside Maderno's control, but it does incorporate the use of undulating columns and the projection of the central portion that usher the viewer toward the central axis of the structure. Maderno had the challenge of working behind several other architects and centuries of plans. In addition, the plan of Saint Peter's had been changed from a central-plan to a longitudinal plan because 1) seventeenth-century church officials wanted the new structure to cover all of the consecrated ground of the site of Old Saint Peter's and 2) church officials felt the central-plan was too heavily associated with pagan structures. The change in plan meant Maderno could not incorporate the verticality of Michelangelo's dome in his facade. He modified his facade design to fit the pre-existing structure, but the dome, which both dominated and unified the elevation of the building, is unfortunately buried behind Maderno's facade. Lastly, two clock towers were added at either end of the facade by a later architect.

Sienese School

Siena was another important city-state in fourteenth-century Italy. The Sienese school of painting was popular between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries. The style of the artists in this school had its foundations in the Byzantine tradition, but it was also influenced by other styles.

15th Century Northern Art

Similar to the fourteenth century in Italy, the fifteenth century in Northern Europe was a time of great disorder for several of the same reasons. In the fifteenth century, the Duchy of Burgundy was a wealthy, powerful political entity, located between France and the Holy Roman Empire. The dukes of Burgundy also had a keen interest in the arts and consequently sponsored many projects.

San Vitale cont... https://s3.amazonaws.com/classconnection/187/flashcards/3549187/png/interior__san_vitale__ravenna__526-47_ce1350870756728-1495D7CEE7F5411C666.png

Similar to the ivory relief of Michael the Archangel, the figures are flat and frontal. Their positions in space are uncertain since they are not fully modeled and do not cast shadows. Instead, the figures float above the ground weightlessly against a gold background that denies any sense of deep space and completely lacks an indication of a naturalistic setting. This presentation has a basis in theology and creates a Byzantine aesthetic that is very different from Late Roman Imperial and Early Christian art. No longer are the bodies squat and cylindrical, but instead they are tall and angular. Byzantine art rejects the material world and material values (thus the lack of landscape elements) and instead seeks to stimulate a spiritual setting through the use of a gold background.

Church of Sainte-Foy

Situated on one of the main pilgrimage routes to Santiago de Campostela, the site was an attractive retreat from the outside world for both its original founders and the pilgrims who visited. The Church of Sainte-Foy has a typical pilgrimmage church plan. It consists of a nave with six barrel-vaulted bays flanked by barrel-vaulted side aisles. Essentially, the nave is a continuous barrel vault that is divided into bays by piers that rise through the tribunes (also known as galleries) and over the barrel vault. These piers are large stone blocks that have been laid horizontally and then covered with either four pilasters or four half-columns.

Giorgio Vasari

Sixteenth-century art historian who was the first to use the term "Gothic" to describe the art and architecture of the Late Medieval Period. In his opinion, Late Medieval art was barbaric, or Gothic (referring to the "barbarian" ethnic group, the Goths to whom he attributed the style). While the descriptor "Gothic" was firt used as a derogatory term, today it is used specifically to refer to the European art of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The Gothic period, however, began and ended at different times in different regions, and there is regional variety in the style as well.

Sculpture and the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus

Some wealthier Christians commissioned marble sarcophagi for their remains instead of being placed on the loculi. These burial containers shared The style and the subjects of the catacomb frescoes. The most well-known of these Early Christian sculptural works is the sarcophagus of Junius Bassus (ca. 359), who was an affluent Roman official. On the front of this sarcophagus, ten scenes from the Old and New Testaments are carved in relief in two registers featuring an image of a youthful and triumphant Jesus Christ at the center. There is no depiction of Christ's crucifixion, which is also characteristic of Early Christian art. Portayals of Christ's death do not appear until the fifth century, and their occurrences were rare. Other than sarcophago, sculpture was uncommon in Early Christan art because the early Christians did not want to be confused with pagan religions cults carved idols and architectural sculptures.

Spanish Baroque

Spain had become the largest, most powerful nation in the world during the sixteenth century, but its power and prestige was fading quickly by the beginning of the seventeenth century. Kings Felipe III and Felipe IV were serious patrons of the arts, probably in part hoping to use visual imagery to help preserve the waning power of the Spanish. Spanish painting made many advances during the Baroque with very little influence of their greatest painter to date, El Greco. Jose de Ribera (ca. 1588-1652) was an important link between Spanish and Italian painting, as he emigrated to Naples (then a Spanish possession) in 1616. His most famous work is the Martyrdom of Saint Bartholomew. He presents the saint being hoisted up, just moments before his horrible death in which he was flayed (skinned alive). Ribera's style was likely influenced by Caravaggio, as seen in is use of dramatic themes, naturalism, and unidealized models.

Engraving5

St Jerome in his Study focuses on the contemplative life of Christianity rather than its more active aspects. In this engraving, the saint sits in a cozy room at his lectern deep in thought illuminated by sunlight streaming through the window. St. Jerome's faithful lion and dog rest in the foreground. A skull on the windowsill and an hourglass above the saint symbolize the transience of life. Durer focused on the subtle differences among the material objects, carefully treating surfaces to create a sense of real textures. He also incorporates laws of central perspective, and the orthogonals in the work converge in the space to the right of the saint. He also uses a degree of calculated distortion in this works (and others) because the vanishing point is placed closer to the margin than the center.

Fifteenth-Century Northern Manuscript Illumination

Stained glass art had a significant impact on manuscript illumination well into the fifteenth-century. Over time, Northern illuminated manuscripts increased in size, intricacy, and brilliance, as seen in the Les Tres Riches Heures du Duc de Berry ("The Very Fine Hours of the Duke of Berry"). This work was created for Jean, the Duke of Berry, who was also the brother of the French king by the Limbourg brothers. A book of hours is a type of prayer book that was popular in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. These texts included a religious calendar, and were extremely popular among the nobility, replacing the psalter as the favorite liturgical book of the upper class. The illuminations of the months of the year in Les Tres Riches Heures are considered the most magnificent of all manuscript illumination.

greek cross plan

Started in 1063, the current structure is modeled after Justinian's Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, which is no longer extant. It has a Greek cross plan consisted with a large central domes. Four smaller domes sit in each arm. The gold background and floating, frontal figures are clearly Byzantine as well as the complex, compressed, vertical interior space created through the use of multiple domes, pendentives, piers and barrel vaults. Much of the exterior decoration belongs to the later Romanesque and Gothic periods, but the interior decoration and the architectural forms are distinctly Byzantine.

jamb figure http://www.pitt.edu/~medart/menuglossary/jambfig.htm

Statues carved on the jambs of a doorway or window. Jamb statues were often human figures- either religious figures or secular or ecclesiastical leaders.

Lochner- Madonna of the Rose Garden

Stephan Lochner (ca. 1400-1451) was a great German painter of the fifteenth century who created works known for their naturalism and use of color. In his work Madonna in the Rose Garden, Mary sits in a walled garden (symbolic of her chastity) that is filled with roses (symbolic of her purity). God the Father and God the Spirit (represented by a dove) look down upon Mary holding God the Son and a choir of angels. The naturalistic figures and drapery recall the Flemish style, while the gold background and ornate halos are reminiscent of Byzantine art.

Islamic Secular Architecture: The Alhambra in Granada, Spain

The Alhambra (Image 065) is a Muslim fortress and palace built palace in Granada, Spain. Although a small fortress was established in the 9th century, the complex as it is known today was built by the court of the Nasrid Dynasty from 1354-1391 CE. It is an excellent example of secular Islamic architecture in its final European stages.

Niobides Krater (Image 033)

The Athenian red-figure technique was still popular, as seen in the Niobides Krater (Image 033), which gets its name from the imagery decorating its exterior. On one side, the (unknown) potter presents the story of the fate of the children the Niobides (the children of Niobe). Niobe had many children, and she foolishly boasted that made her superior to the goddess Leto, who was the mother of the gods Apollo and Artemis. To punish Niobe for her hubris, Leto sent her children to kill all of Niobe's, and the scene here shows Apollo and Artemis shooting arrows and slaying the Niobides.

Early Byzantine Art- Barberini Ivory

The Barberini Ivory is the first work we will examine from the Early Byzantine period. The subject of this diptych leaf is Justinian on a rearing horse. This image is based in classicism (cf. the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius from 3.21), and it shows the emperor as royal and powerful. Justinian is surrounded by a cowering barbarian behind him, a winged figure of Victory in the upper right corner, and a personification of a fruitful earth below his horse. In the left center panel, a soldier holds an additional figure Victory in the form of a statuette of Victory. Unfortunately, the right center panel has been lost. In the lower panel, barbarians, both conquered and humbled by the power of Justinian, bring tribute gifts. IN the upper panel, Christ is centered between two angels giving the traditional gesture of blessing Justinian, thus endorsing Justinian and his rule. Overall, the Barberini Ivory is a combines of the imperial imagery of classical Rome and the religious piety of Early Christian art, and this fusion of styles makes the work entirely Byzantine.

Baroque Style

The Baroque began in Italy as a response to the Reformation movement and then spread across Europe. Each country will have a slightly different take on the style, but overall, the Baroque style across Europe emphasized a sense of unity among the arts while simultaneously seeking to incorporate the viewer into works themselves. With technical brilliance, painting, sculpture, and architecture were unified and worked together to create new spatial relationships, both real and illusionary. In painting and sculpture, artists created images with a highly developed sense of naturalistic illusionism. The use of dramatic lighting and massive scale created a heightened sense of a theatricality, energy, and movement. Architecture took on the fluid, plastic aspects of sculpture with its undulating curves and deeply carved facades that departed from the classically-inspired canon of the Renaissance. This combination of elements resulted in spectacular visual effects. Keep in mind that the restrained, classically-inspired works of many French and English Baroque artists have a very different appearance than the passionate, dramatic works of central and southern Europe and in the New World. Regardless, both trends in Baroque art tend to engage the viewer, both physically and emotionally.

Baroque in Italy

The Baroque in Italy functioned as a tool to give visual form to the Papacy's aggressive seventeenth-century campaign to re-establish its power and authority. The Catholic Church had lost many members to the Protestant Reformation, and it sought to bring the faithful back into the fold, engaging them through art and architectural projects that would encourage their return. In many ways, the art of Baroque Italy was a religious propaganda campaign to win back congregants. While this push began in the sixteenth-century, beginning with Pope Sixtus V (r. 1585-1590) and his ambitious successors, the Papacy commissioned works at an unprecedented level during the period, and Rome is as much a city of the Baroque as it is of Classical Antiquity and the Renaissance.

The Birth of Venus (Image 072)

The Birth of Venus (Image 072) is undoubtedly one of the world's most famous and admired works of art. Painted it between 1482 and 1485, it has become a landmark of 15th century Italian painting because it is so rich in meaning with many references to antiquity. Venus is shown nude on a shell by the seashore, her iconic pose of Venus certainly influenced by the classic sculpture of Venus Pudica, covering her private parts shyly. Botticelli did not seek perfection in perspective or proportion (note, for instance, the length of Venus' neck, the steep decline of her shoulders, and the odd arrangement of her left arm). Instead, the lines of this work stress the delicate beauty and graceful harmony engendered in this new creation of the sea. The west wind (Zephyrus) gently blows Venus ashore onto her sacred island of Cyprus after she has been spontaneously generated by the sea. Chloris (wife of Zephyrus) showers her with violets, a known symbol of love, while the nymph Pomona rushes to cover the goddess.

The Great Mosque (Masjid-e Jameh) in Isfahan, Iran

The Great Mosque (Masjid-e Jameh) in Isfahan, Iran (Image 186) is a grand congregational mosque which has been reconstructed, renovated, and expanded from the 8th through 20th centuries, so it shows the influences of various styles of Iranian architecture. This is one of the oldest mosques still standing in Iran, and it was created using 4 iwans (vaulted open rooms) (Image 186) connected by a large open-air courtyard (Image 186) that functions as a quiet escape from the busy activity of the city. The shallow pool in the courtyard allows Muslims to perform wudu, or ritual washing, in preparation for saying their formal prayers. After washing in the courtyard, Muslims would enter large prayer halls extending off the two-story arcades of the central courtyard on each side. The prayer hall areas (Image 186) were covered by a roof that is supported by brick piers and columns to leave open areas that could accomodate the city's entire population for Friday prayers. The direction of prayer is indicated by the quibla iwan on the southern side of the courtyard, which is the only iwan flanked by minarets. The quibla iwan also functions as the entrance into one of two domed chambers in the mosque. The domed chamber off the quibla iwan has colorful tile decoration and muqarnas (stalactite-form stucco decorations) like the other 3 iwans, but the domed interior itself was reserved for the ruler and allowed entrance into the mosque's main mihrab.

Mannerism

The High Renaissance in Italy lasted only a brief period, and it is traditionally dated from the execution of the Last Supper fresco (Image 073) by Leonardo (ca. 1495) to the death of Raphael in 1520. The High Renaissance style did not abruptly stop in 1520. Later Renaissance art differs considerably from the High Renaissance ideals. This later Renaissance style, given the name Mannerism by twentieth-century scholars, is characterized by a reaction against the ideals of the High Renaissance, namely balance, proportion, and harmony. Mannerist artists intentionally created unbalanced, distorted, and crowded compositions populated by strangely elegant figures with elongated body parts and contorted pose. They focused on creating a sense of artifice in their work instead of trying to create works that reflected and imitated the natural world.

San Marco

The Middle Byzantine style is apparent in the Venetian church of San Marco. Venice and Ravenna are close geographically (only about 80 miles apart) and were bound together politically during the Early Byzantine period. When Ravenna fell to the Lombards in 751, Venice became an independent state. Venice kept ties with Byzantium after gaining their freedom and functioned as an important link between East and West for trade. Venice was not ruled by a single man, but instead by a collection of dukes (or doges) who were great patrons of the arts. Many works were commissioned throughout the city, the most famous being San Marco (it is believed the remains of the Saint Mark are buried here). Started in 1063, the current structure is modeled after Justinian's Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, which is no longer extant. It has a Greek cross plan consisted with a large central domes. Four smaller domes sit in each arm. The gold background and floating, frontal figures are clearly Byzantine as well as the complex, compressed, vertical interior space created through the use of multiple domes, pendentives, piers and barrel vaults. Much of the exterior decoration belongs to the later Romanesque and Gothic periods, but the interior decoration and the architectural forms are distinctly Byzantine. (1084-1117)

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Alhambra_-_Patio_de_Leones_-_Status_2012.jpg

The Palace of the Lions is next to the Comares Palace, and it is known for its open court, the Court of the Lions (Image 065), which features a fountain with a large basin that rests on 12 lion sculptures. The fountain sits at the intersection of two water lines that run on a hydraulic system that carries water throughout the complex to all of the buildings and the gardens. The Hall of the Sisters from the two large marble flagstones that are part of the room's floor. This rooms contains a small fountain that carries water to the Court of the Lions.

Pyxis of al-Mughira (ca.968 CE) (Image 057)

The Pyxis of al-Mughira (ca.968 CE) (Image 057)is a product of the Spanish Umayyad court during the rule of Caliph Abd al-Rahman III. Pyxides (pl. form of pyxis) were produced in other cultures (cf. Athenia pyxis (ca.430-420 BCE)), and they tend to be lidded boxes that are cylindrical in form. In Islamic cultures, the lid of the pyxis was usually hemispherical (dome-shaped). Pyxides are small in size (this one is approx. 5 7/8" high), and it is believed they were used to hold cosmetics or silver perfume containers. Umayyad pyxides are typically carved from ivory, and this work was likely created from a cross-section of an elephant tusk. Based on the calligraphic inscription on the base of the lid, this particualr piece was created as a girft for the 18-year-old son of the caliph. The anonymous carver decorated thepyxis with images of hunters, animals, and vegetal forms surrounding four 8-lobed medallions that feature princely iconography, such as scenes of hunting and court life.

Saint-Maclou west facade (ca. 16th century)

Reliquary of Saint Foy (Image 058) https://klimtlover.files.wordpress.com/2012/11/sainte-foy.jpg

The Reliquary of Saint Foy (Image 058) consists of an enthroned statuette of a martyr. The figure's body is a wooden core, and its oversized head is a reworked Roman parade helmet. The entire sculpture is covered with gold leaf and silver gilt to create a magnificent container to preserve and protest the saint's relics. The figure of Saint Foy is covered with jewels and cameos from different time periods that were left as donations from pilgrims and patrons over the years. The throne on which the figure sits has an engraved image of a crucifixion to create a parallel between her martyrdom and the martyrdon of Jesus Christ.

St. Peter's Cathedral

The Saint Peter's project was finally finished in the middle of the seventeenth century by Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Bernini was one of the most important figures of the Baroque period, and he was skilled as an architect, sculptor, and painter. In 1656, Bernini started the massive piazza (plaza) in front of Saint Peter's, his largest and most ambitious building project. His design for the piazza had to incorporate the Egyptian obelisk, which was a symbol of Christian victory over paganism, and two fountains designed by Maderno. To accommodate these pre-existing elements, Bernini designed an oval-shaped piazza enclosed by two semicircular colonnades. The colonnades consisted of four rows of massive Tuscan columns ending in classical temple fronts. The encircling colonnades symbolically serve as the embracing arms of the church, welcoming pilgrims to the seat of Catholicism, thus promoting the Catholic Church's Counter-Reformation agenda. Bernini decorated a great deal of Saint Peter's interior. In 1624, he began a monumental gilded bronze baldacchino (canopy) that stands over 100 feet above the main high altar to mark the site of St. Peter's tomb. The spiral columns, partially fluted and covered with vines, display the grandeur and the dramatic energy characteristic of the Baroque period in their spiraling undulations. On top of the canopy, four dynamic angels stand guard at each corner, and in the center, snake-like brackets elevate the orb of the world topped by the Cross to symbolize the Catholic Church's triumph over the earth since the Early Christian period. The baldacchino is also decorated with bees, the symbol of the Barberini family of Pope Urban VII, the patron of the project.

Circle of the González Family

The Screen with the Seige of Belgrade and hunting scene (Image 094), which originally included six additional panels, is the only known work that combines two elite Mexican genres of biombos (folding screens) and tableros de concha nácar y pintura (shell-inlay paintings, later called enconchados). The influence for the folding screen came to the region from Japan through the Philippines, which was also a Spanish colony. It was commissioned by José Sarmiento de Valladares, the viceroy of New Spain, and was likely displayed in the viceregal palace, where it would have divided an intimate sitting room from a ceremonial state room. When it was first made, the screen was 12 painted panels, more than seven feet high, and measured 18 feet from end to end. The scene on its front side is from the Great Turkish War (1683-99), and this was a great display of propaganda for receiving international visitors. The hunting scene on the reverse was likely suited for the more intimate setting, the sitting room side of the divider. The rich floral border and garlands tied with red ribbons on top of the hunting scenes recalled the European tapestries to which the prints that inspired them were related. Both the main scenes are embellished with gold paint and inlaid shell work, which would have enlivened the busy compositions, particularly in candlelight. The paintings are attributed to Juan and Miguel González, who are rather mysterious. Scholars have debated whether they are Spanish or Japanese, as Mexico City at this time was very cosmopolitan and the influences of both traditions are apparent in the work. What is most unusual about the work, however, is the fact that with its commission, an entirely new form of luxury art object was created, one that combined folding screens and shell inlay paintings. Also significant is how prints by one of the most important Dutch printmakers, Romeyn de Hooghe, were used extensively by the painters for references. This expands our view of the kinds of print sources used in Latin America, as well as gives some insight into how far these print sources traveled.

El Greco1

The Spanish Renaissance's greatest painter was actually a Greek trained in the Byzantine style. Domenikos Theotokopoulos (1541-1614), called El Greco ("The Greek"), was born in Crete and traveled to Venice in his 20's. While there, he absorbed every facet of the Venetian school, especially their use of color. El Greco then visited Rome, where he was exposed to the Mannerist style and became acquainted with several Spaniards associated with the church in Toledo. Shortly after, El Greco moved to Toledo, where he lived for the rest of his life. El Greco's style is characterized by a combination of the Byzantine spirit, Venetian color, Mannerism, and Spanish mysticism (which dominated the Counter-Reformation culture in Spain). He is also famous for the intense emotionalism of his figures, the sense of movement in his work, and his use of light.

Saint-Denis, France http://www.brynmawr.edu/cities/Cities/wld/01430/01430b.jpg https://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/mtdavis/Gothic/images/sd6.jpg

The abbey church of Saint-Denis is viewed by scholars as the birthplace of Gothic architecture. This Carolingian period structure functioned as France's royal church and the final resting place for a number of French kings. Renovations were begun in 1135 in order to ensure that the structure's grandeur matched its important royal role as well as to accommodate the growing numbers of visiting pilgrims. A new facade with three portals and two square towers was added. The Carolingian apse was replaced with a new choir that had an ambulatory and radiating chapels. In the choir, architects used a new, lighter rib vaulting that rested on pointed arches (rather than the rounded arches of the Romanesque). The use of lighter vaulting made building walls between the chapels unnecessary, and it also allowed large windows to be inserted in the the outer walls. These windows would later be made of stained glass. The influence of Saint-Denis was tremendous, as the lighter vaulting, pointed arches, and extensive use of stained glass became the key elements of the French Gothic architectural style. Like the Romanesque churches, Gothic cathedrals also incorporated architectural sculpture. Unfortunately, little of the architectural sculpture at Saint-Denis survived the French Revolution. As a result, the portals of the west facade of the Chartres Cathedral in Chartres, France are our first look at Early Gothic sculpture (Lesson 5.07).

Florence Cathedral interior (early 14th century)

The cathedral's interior further reveals the differences between Santa Maria della Fiore and its Northern counterparts. The depth of the bays, the width of the arcades, and the shallow side aisles all reinforce that horizontal space , not soaring height, was the aim of the builders. As previously mentioned, Italian churches adhered to the classical basilican plan more so that other regions of Europe. When planning the cathedral, the Florentines desired to build a huge structure that could the entire population of Florence. While they fell short of their goal, their push to maximize the horizontal space had a significant impact on the cathedral's plan. *The facade of the cathedral was not completed until several centuries later in the nineteenth century, so it will not be discussed here.

Triumph of the Name of Jesus (Image 082) by Giovanni Battista Gaulli

The ceiling fresco, Triumph of the Name of Jesus (Image 082) by Giovanni Battista Gaulli, was revealed on Christmas Eve in 1679. The gilded stucco decoration of the ceiling, supported by white stucco angels, open up the heavens above the nave. On the left, Magi offer gifts to the name of Christ. Kneeling figures rise to the heavens, while, at the same time, God banishes sinners to hell. In the darkness beneath and to the right, the damned tumble down toward the viewer and their fate. The painting's perspective is called di sotto in su (literally meaning "from below upwards"), and it was incorporated into ceiling frescoes by many Baroque artists. Here, this perspective emphasizes the movement of the righteous toward the light, with its apex at the monogram of the Jesuits, while it moves the viewer away from the darkness to which the sinners are banished. Here, the typical Renaissance order, expressing the union between the earthly and heavenly, is used for an opposite purpose, to separate them.

Early Christian Luxury Art

The compositions of the illustrations in Early Christian period manuscripts was similar to those of the mosaics. The manuscript format was a collection of separate sheets (folios), bound together and enclosed with a cover to create a codex. Folios were commonly made of calfskin (vellum) or lambskin (parchment). These materials were both more durable and better suited for decoration than papyrus scrolls. Codes covers were artfully carved, and made from luxurious materials like wood or ivory. These sumptuously decorated handwritten manuscripts are referred to as illuminated manuscripts because of the brilliance of the decorations.

Church of Sainte-Foy

The elevation of the structure is impressive, and the tribune area added over the aisles opens onto the central nave not only accomodates increased pilgrim traffic, but also allows light to enter the church's interior. The transept (or crossing arm) is bordered by the aisles, and has two chapels on each side of the nave. The crossing dome was constructed using squinches to transition the octagonal shape of the dome to the square base on which it rests. In the squinches, there are sculpted relief figures of angels with realistic expressions and aminated eyes. The church terminates in an apse surrounded by an ambulatory and three radiating chapels on the east end. The ambulatory allowed pilgrims to see into the sanctuary through a metal grill that was created out of donated shackles given by prisoners hwo credited Sainte Foy with gaining their freedom. Symbolically, the grill reminded pilgrims of not only Saint Foy's power to free prisoners, but also it was a reminder that the monks at the church could free penitent pilgrims from the chains of sin. Throughout the Church of Sainte-Foy are over 200 columns with capitals decorated with relief carvings. Some of these are simply decorative, featuring images of plant motifs, while others are historiated and tell Biblical stories as well as stories from the life of Sainte-Foy. These capitals functioned as didactic pictures for both the monks and the pilgrims, and traces of paint indicate they were once polychrome.

Spain

The finest work of fifteenth-century Spain was a massive retable (a raised shelf above an altar for the altar cross) by the sculptor Gil de Siloe (active ca. 1485-1501). The influences of both Flemish and German art are apparent. A figure of the crucified Christ dominates the center of a circular frame, symbolic of the circular Eucharistic wafers used in the mass ceremony. God the Father and God the Holy Spirit hold the arms of the Cross, and God the Son (Christ) is crucified, symbolizing the Holy Trinity. Mary and John occupy the base of the cross, and a Pelican, a symbol for self-sacrifice, sits perched on top. The most striking aspect of the work is the realism of the tortured Christ.

"Rebecca and Eliezer at the Well" from the Vienna Genesis (early 6th century CE) (Image 050)

The first decorative scene we will examine presents the story of "Rebecca and Eliezer" (Image 050) at the well from Genesis 24. Eliezer, a servant of Abraham, was sent to search for a wife for Isaac, Abraham's 40-year-old son. When Eliezer stopped at a well to get water for himself and his camels, he met Rebecca, who drew water for him, and he chose Rebecca to become Isaac's wife. The scene is told using continuous narration in two episodes, as indicated by the repetition of the image of Rebecca. The first episode shows Rebecca leaving the city of Nahor to retrieve water from the well. Nahor is shown from above as a walled city. Rebecca walks along a colonnaded avenue to the well, symbolized by a partially nude female personification of the spring that is the source of the water in the well. The presence of this female figure shows the persistence of classical motifs and stylistic models. The lack of landscape elements, with the exception of the miniature city of Hathor and the road to the well, are significant of the stylistic change to the Early Christian modes of representation.

5 Pillars of Islam

The framework for the Muslim faith 1) Shahadah (Testimony of Faith, 2) Salat (prayer 5 times daily facing Mecca), 3) Zakat (giving alms to the poor), 4) Sawm (fasting during the month of Ramadan), 5) Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca once in a lifetime (if able)).

Spanish Art in the Americas2

The frontispiece (Image 081) incorporates labels in both Aztec hieroglyphs and Spanish to explain an illustrated founding of the capital city of Tenochtitlán in 1325. According to legend, on an island in Lake Toxcoco, an eagle landed on a prickly pear cactus, marking the spot where nomadic warriors were told to settle by the chief Aztec deity. The eagle is depicted at the intersection of two canals, a reference to the dividing of Tenochtitlan into four quarters. The center of the city contains a reference to the main temple, the Templo Mayor. To the right of the cactus a skull rack shows the sacrificial victims the Aztecs threw down the pyramid steps after removing their hearts. The seated figures are the founders of the city, and two major historical events are depicted below, the conquering of the cities of Colhuacán and Tenayca. The border of the frontispiece contains hieroglyphs for 51 of the 52 years of the Aztec recurring calendar system.

bent axis approach

The height of the ziggurat not only created an impressive setting for the temple, but also helped protect the temple from outside invaders. The walls of the ziggurat were slanted, and the temple on top could only be accessed by ascending one of the staircases on either end. These stairways changed direction 2 or 3 times and did not end directly in front of the temple doors in order to discourage invasion.

The Icon of the The Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George

The icon of the Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George (Image 054) comes from the Monastery of Saint Catherine. This image of Mary holding the infant Christ is referred to as a Theotokos ("Throne of Wisdom") in Greek as she holds the wisdom of salvation (Jesus Christ). An icon is a small portable painting (often on a wooden panel) depicting Christ, the Virgin Mary, and/or the Saints. Icons became important components of Byzantine worship and still are in use in Eastern Orthodox Christianity today. Some icons have been believed to work miracles or have healing powers. This work was created using encaustic (a wax-based pigment) on wood, not unlike the Faiyum mummy portraits from Lesson 3.21. The figures of the Virgin Mary, the Infant Christ, Saint Theodore and Saint George are flat and frontal in the foreground. Mary is shown seated on a throne to symbolize her elevated status. In the upper center of the work, the Hand of God descends from the heavens between the heads of two angels- another classic element of the Byzantine style. Icons were not universally accepted by Byzantine Christians. Some people were deeply suspicious of using images in worship for fear of breaking the Second Commandment that denies the creation and worship of images.

Medici Family

The important Medici family commissioned the Birth of Venus. This work belonged to Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici. It is important to notice the exceptional technique and style as well as the fine materials used to create the painting. The Birth of Venus is the first example in Tuscany of a painting on canvas. The interesting use of expensive alabaster powder makes the colors even brighter and timeless, another characteristic that makes this work truly unique. The interpretation of the painting is a tribute to classic literature, and but we can also certainly deduct a tribute to the wealthy Florentine family who commissioned the work: the beginning of the reign of love successfully comes to Florence thanks to the Medici family, their diplomatic skills and their culture. Sandro Botticelli gives art history one of its most divine masterpieces.

Juan Rodriguez Juarez

The inscription on the painting Spaniard and Indian Produce a Mestizo (Image 097) attributed to Juan Rodriguez Juarez reads, "In American people are born in diverse colors, customs, temperaments and languages. From the Spaniard and the Indian is born the mestizo, usually humble, quiet and simple." The painting displays a Spanish father and Indigenous mother with their son, and it is part of a larger series of works that document the inter-ethnic mixing in New Spain among Europeans, Indigenous peoples, Africans, and the existing mixed race population. This genre of painting was known as pinturas de castas, or caste paintings, and they were largely fictitious, but aimed to capture reality. They usually display a mother, father, and a child or two. This family could be modeled on depictions of the Holy Family. They are often labeled with a number and a label that describes the mixing that occurred, a documentation, or taxonomy of sorts. This was a major concern of the Enlightenment, the notion that people can be rationally categorized by their appearance and ethnic makeup. Generally produced in sets of sixteen, caste paintings also could appear as sixteen vignettes on one canvas. The individuals are often racially "marked" through costume, activities, setting, and flora and fauna. The first painting is always a Spanish man and an Indigenous woman, accompanied by their mestizo offspring. Sometimes, as the mixing progresses through the series, the labeling names can reflect social anxiety and can often be pejorative. Casta paintings show that the more European one is, the closer to the top of the racial and social ladder you belong. In this painting, we see a well-dressed man in French-style European garb including a powdered wig, and a woman in a beautiful huipil, a traditional woman's garment worn in Central Mexico and Central America. The husband gazes loving down at the child, and they appear calm and harmonious. Sometimes, as the casta series progressed, the clothing becomes tattered and torn, the surroundings more hostile, and the families appear to be in discord; however, Rodriguez Juarez' series often display all families wearing fanciful attire. It seems that these casta series were most often commissioned by Viceroys, or stand-ins for the Spanish King in the Americas, but little is known about the patrons. It is probable that elites who claimed to be of true blood were disillusioned by the mixing that was going on in New Spain, and they wanted to attempt to display the hierarchy that they felt they needed to preserve.

Merode altarpiece

The left panel shows the donors inside a walled garden, which is another symbol of Mary's purity. The flowers filling the garden are related to the iconography of the Virginia Mary. The right panel is a view inside Joseph's workshop, which contains tools of his trade as a carpenter, such as an ax, a saw, and a rod, all of which relate again to the prophecy of Isaiah (10:15). Joseph is working on crafting a mousetrap, which refers to Christ as the bait to catch the devil. Again, in works like these, there is an compelling combination of the domestic and the divine.

Mosque of Selim II (1568-1575 CE) (Image 084) at Edirne plan http://www.ne.jp/asahi/arc/ind/2_meisaku/44_selimiye/plan_eng.jpg interior http://www.balsoy.com/Turkiye/inpictures/pi/edirne03.html

The master of Ottoman style architecture was Sinan, whose signature work is the Mosque of Selim II (1568-1575 CE) (Image 084) at Edirne, the former capital of the Ottoman Empire. Take a minute and look at the plan (Image 084). The building communicates the idea of a unified, central space, and it is part of a greater complex (kulliye) that includes a hospital, two academies, a library, multiple baths, a cemetery, and a bazaar (much like the Madrasa complex of Sultan Hasan). The interior (Image 084) is organized by multiple geometric shapes and decorated with rich materials and tiled geometric designs. The vast space created by the central dome makes it possible to see the mihrab from just about anywhere within the structure. The exterior of the mosque is, of course, dominated by the dome and its accompanying slender minarets.

Palete of Narmer

The most famous of these palettes is the Palette of Narmer (Image 013). In this work, order dominates the composition, unlike the tomb painting from Hierakonpolis. While scholars debate what is depicted on the palette, it is believed by many that the reliefs which decorate it record the unification of kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt. Egyptologists believe this unification probably occurred over the course of several centuries, but here it is shown as a great single event that occurred under the rule of the mighty King Narmer.

Jan van Eyck - The Arnolfini Portrait

The most fascinating aspect of the piece is the convex mirror at the back of the room. The are two figures standing in the doorway of the room that are reflected in its surface, as well as the back of Arnolfini and his wife. It is most likely that these figures are Jan van Eyck and his assistant, who function as witnesses to the dutiful pledge as well as recorders of the event. The script above the mirror reads, "Johannes de Eyck fuit hic" (which translates as "Jan van Eyck was here" in Latin). The medallions surrounding the mirror depict images from Christ's Passion, and the presence of these scenes vicariously offer divine sanction to the Arnolfini union.

San Vitale https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/949/flashcards/672949/png/san_vitale_plan1319512675819.png

The most magnificent Byzantine work in Ravenna is San Vitale (Image 051). Bishop Maximanus dedicated the structure in 547 to Saint Vitalis, a second-century Christian martyr who died in Ravenna. Created using two concentric ocatgons (as seen in the plan (Image 051)), the inner octagon rises above the outer one to allow for the clerestory windows. The church is centrally-planned unlike other churches in Ravenna. Eight rectilinear piers alternate with curved exedrae to integrate the inner and outer spaces and organize the structure's interior. A cross-vaulted chancel (the part of a church reserved for clergy and containing the altar and the choir) preceding the apse interrupts both the ambulatory and the gallery above. The narthex is asymmetrically arranged, but there is no indication why the builders used such an usual placement for this area. As unique as San Vitale's design, its exterior has a simple brick facing like may Early Christian structures (cf. the mausolem of Galla Placidia in 4.04).

Hagia Sophia cont.....

The most outstanding feature of Hagia Sophia are its dome and the use of light. Light floods the interior through multiple windows in the walls and at the base of the dome, reflecting off the interior ornamentation. The forty windows at the base of the dome give the impression that it is suspended from above and floating on a circle of light. The strong presence of light gives Hagia Sophia a sense of mysticism and spirituality, creating the heavenly quality of an otherworldly Jerusalem. It was the use of pendentives2 to shift the weight from the dome to supporting piers rather than onto the walls (as in the Pantheon, Lesson 3.20) that allowed the builders could remove a great deal of wall mass and insert windows.

Titian1

The most well-known and prolific of all the Venetian painters was Tiziano Vecellio (ca. 1490 - 1576), better known as Titian. Titian's mastery of color is best seen in the Assumption of the Virgin, the center of a massive altarpiece in the Friar's Basilica in Venice. The subject is non-Biblical and shows Mary's bodily ascension into Heaven. God the Father waits for the Virgin above, and the Apostles marvel at the miraculous sight of her assumption below. The artist skillfully uses color to depict light, as seen in heaven's "glowing" clouds that are infused with light. Between the heavenly clouds and the angels is a characteristically blue "Venetian sky."

Simone Martini

The next great Sienese painter was Simone Martini (ca. 1285-1344), who was Duccio's pupil. Martini pushed his teacher's sophisticated color schemes further, but he is also credited with creating a completely new style. Martini was in contact with French court artists, and he was strongly influenced by the French Gothic style. He developed the courtly International Style that was popular in the late fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. This style combined the brilliant color of Duccio, the naturalism of Giovanni Pisano,and the delicate ornamentation, extravagant costumes, and the formal pomp and circumstance of the French courtly style. Martini's most famous International Style work, the Annunciation (ca. mid 14C), demonstrated incredible intricacy in its architectural framework, the luxurious costumes, and an overall elegance of composition.

Vienna Genesis

The oldest and best-preserved illuminated manuscript containing biblical scenes dates from the 6th century. This work, known as the Vienna Genesis (Image 050), was created on purple vellum with silver ink. The purple dye used to color the vellum was also used to give imperial cloth its distinctive color, indicating that this work was expensive to produce and likely created for someone of high social rank. The manuscript is the product of many artists working together, with each artists assigned specialized tasks such as curing and cutting the animal skin, inscribing the paper with lines for the text, lettering, creating the illuminations, binding the pages, and adding the covers, buckles, and clasps which held the pages together as a manuscript.

The Central-Plan Church http://www.brynmawr.edu/cities/Cities/wld/00820/00820b.jpg

The other common design type for Early Christian buildings was the central-plan. In a centrally planned structure, the parts of the building are equidistant from a central point. Imagine that a basilica that has been bent into a circle, creating a circular nave, surrounded by a circular side aisle, as this plan shows. In a central plan, this side aisle is known as an ambulatory. Central-plan buildings were commonly as auxiliary structures such as baptisteries, mausoleums and private chapels. An excellent example of an Early Christian central-plan structure is Santa Costanza (ca. 337). Originally built by Constantine as a mausoleum for his daughter Costanza, it became a Christian church in the thirteenth century. A circular, barrel-vaulted ambulatory encircles the domed central space. Twelve pairs of Corinthian columns support the barrel vaulted ambulatory, and twelve clerestory windows in the dome illuminate the interior. Mosaics once covered the central area as well, but these have been destroyed.

The Great Mosque in Cordoba, Spain plan http://www.learn.columbia.edu/ma/images/dj_islam/large/ma_dj_cordoba_987plan.gif hypostyle hall https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Mosque_Cordoba.jpg

The plan (Image 056) of the mosque includes a large hypostyle prayer hall (Image 056). Over five hundred repurposed Visigothic marble columns (an example of spolia) are capped with red and white double arches to support the ceiling. The origin of the horshoe shape of the lower-level arches is unknown, but this style of arch is generally associated with the Visigoths that ruled the region prior to the Muslims. After their use in the mosque at Cordoba, this type of arch would henceforth be associated with Islamic architecture. The maqsura2 with multilobed arches and a series of domes were added later. The most decorative dome covers the area in front of the mihrab, which was the focal point of the prayer hall and decorated with gold tiles, calligraphy, and vegetal patterns. The mihrab has an octagonal base formed by arcuated squinches with crisscrossing with ribs, creating an elaborate design. The interior surfaces are also covered with intricate mosaics of tesserae.

Early Byzantine Art

The territory and status of the former Roman Empire were briefly recaptured during the reign of Justinian and his wife, the empress Theodora,. During this period, Byzantine art emerged with a unique style all its own. Justinian, who was a major patron of the arts, is credited for this new style as well.

Catacombs cont..

The tombs were similar to those of the Etruscans (see Lesson 3.12), but they were much more extensive. Some catacombs spread over as much as 600 acres and were several levels deep under ground (sometimes extending as much as 65 feet under the surface). The catacomb galleries held shelves (loculi) where the dead were placed. Fresco paintings cover the walls and ceilings of the catacombs. Although the catacombs were rarely used after Christianity was legalized, their fresco decorations are still studied as excellent combination of the Late Roman painting style with Christian subjects.

Late Gothic Architecture in France

The trend in the Gothic period was toward an obliteration of the wall surface in favor of unified space and windows. This trend was pushed even further in the later half of the High Gothic period, in which a style known as Rayonnant ("radiant") dominated. The signature church of the Rayonnant style is Sainte-Chapelle in Paris. The walls have been removed to the point that the structure is made almost entirely of glass (over 85%!), and the windows are separated only by mullions.1 The Rayonnant style defined the later half of the High Gothic period, but the Flamboyant style defined the Late Gothic period in the fifteenth century. The name of the style was comes from its use of ornate tracery 2 that gives the suggestion of thin flames. The overlapping features of the Flamboyant style seem flicker through overlapping features (such as pinnacles before rose windows), complex views, extreme ornamentation, and highly attenuated proportions. The masterpiece of the Flamboyant style is the church of Saint-Maclou.

Isenheim Altarpiece1 (Image 077)

The work is complex one and has a variety of views. The first selection is the central panel of the altarpiece when closed. It depicts a heart felt crucifixion scene. Christ's dying body hangs on the cross tortured and distorted, and festering wounds that cover the whole figure. The dark red blood creates a sense of visual tension against the sickly green of the flesh. Christ speaks to us with his features and the expressive gestures of his hands, which testify to his suffering. The traditional group of mourners gather at the foot of the cross. Mary is dressed like a widow in white as she faints and falls into the arms of St. John the Evangelist. A smaller figure of St. Mary Magdalene wrings her hands in sorrow. On the other side of the cross, St. John the Baptist focuses the viewers' attention on Christ with a stern and commanding gesture. He points to the Savior to remind the hospital patients that their suffering is nothing compared to that of Christ on the cross. Over John the Baptist's head are written the words that he speaks: "He must increase, but I must decrease." (cf. John 3:30). The ancient symbol of the lamb carrying the cross and pouring out its blood into the chalice of the Holy Communion is present at John the Baptist's feet.

Isenheim Altarpiece2 (Image 077)

There is little doubt that the artist wanted the beholder of the altar to meditate on text included in the image since it is emphasized by the pointing hand of St. John the Baptist. For the most part, the work presents a very real image of the unmitigated horror of Christ's suffering and death, but the figures differ greatly in size. Grünewald rejected the rules of art as they had developed since the Renaissance, choosing to deliberately use hierarchical perspective. The varied the size of their figures according to their importance in the picture returns to the principles of medieval and primitive painters. To express the mystic truth of the words of St John, Durer sacrificed a pleasing sense of beauty for the sake of the spiritual lesson, and he disregarded new push to incorporate correct proportions. The predella panel is a Lamentation scene. The green and pock marked flash of the dead Christ would have spoken to the patients of the hospital as St. Anthony's fire has a similar effect on their own skin. Interestingly, when the first set of wings and the predella wings are opened, the limbs of Christ are amputated from his body. This would have spoken voulmes to the patients and made a symbolic connection with them as many had to undergo amputation in their treatments. The expressiveness, intensity, and power along with the determined figural gestures and stiff drapery characteristic of the artist's style are most evident.

Roman patrician carrying the portrait heads of his ancestors

These realistic the compositions have receding hairlines and wrinkled faces in a purposeful, literal representation of the subjects' appearances. This is vastly different from the heroic portrait style of ancient Greece. The expressions on all of the men reflect the qualities which were admired in Republican Rome. The men are aged (an indication of wisdom and experience), reserved (an indication of prudence and thoughtful decision making), and stern (an indication of uncompromising discipline). The work also has elaborate drapery folds in the patrician's toga that add to the sense of realism. The origins of veristic portraiture lie in the Roman custom of creating wax portrait masks of departed loved ones. These wax portraits were preserved in their homes in wooden shrines, and they were used in funeral rites. Older Roman families used the masks to perpetuate their family names and the upstanding character of their lineages. In this work, there is a family resemblance apparent in the two busts that the patrician holds which he does not share. Unfortunately, the original patrician's head and neck were lost and have been replaced in modern times with another Republican head from ca. 40 BCE.

Merode Altarpiece

This altarpiece is a small portable object because it was used for worship in a private home. It is very different from the large-scale altarpieces for churches and cathedrals, which reflects a change in religious patronage. There are three scenes: the Annunciation in the center panel, Joseph in his workshop on the right wing, and the donors (patrons) looking in the center scene in the left wing. The use of an ordinary Flemish home for the setting of the work helped the worshipper better connect to the events in the panel as the setting and elements of the scene were familiar. The use of oil paint as a medium allowed for a closer attention to detail of the objects in the space as well. The elements of everyday domestic life also serve as iconographic symbols throughout the work.

Dome of the Rock design

This design was allowed for pilgrims to circumambulate (walk around) the rock in an orderly way. The dome is the most impressive feature of the shrine. It was originally covered in gold leaf, but this has now been replaced by anodized aluminum. This is an Islamic structure, though, because the dome dominates the external appearance of the building, and Roman and Byzantine domes did not. Tiling done in abstract geometric designs covers the lower portion of the structure. Initially, the exterior was covered in glass mosaic, and this tilework dates to the sixteenth century. The use of patterns like these are another characteristic of Islamic art since Islam prohibits any representation of human or animal forms in sacred places.

pendant figure

This sense of deep space is furthered by the inclusion of the two maids and the open window with the "Venetian sky" in the background of the work. The small dog is both symbolically and technically significant, serving as a symbol of fidelity as well as a pendent, or balancing, figure. The scene is an intimate, simple domestic interior, and the entire composition has a sense of warm, human, temporal reality.

Rayonnant

This trend was pushed even further in the later half of the High Gothic period, in which a style known as Rayonnant ("radiant") dominated. The signature church of the Rayonnant style is Sainte-Chapelle in Paris. The walls have been removed to the point that the structure is made almost entirely of glass (over 85%!), and the windows are separated only by mullions.

The Ardabil Carpet (1539-1540 CE) (Image 191)

This work is one of a pair of funerary carpets from the mosque of Shaykh Safi al-Din in Iran. Each carpet was created using over 25 million knots and they are almost 35 feet in length and 18 feet wide. Both are considered to be masterpieces of Islamic art, although the second carpet was taken apart to repair the one we are studying. It is believed that Maqsud of Kashan developed and supplied the design patterns for the pair of carpets to the royal weavers, and his name actually appears as part of the design (a practice that we have seen in other examples of Islamic luxury arts). The design itself consists of a central medallion surrounded by 16 pendants. Two mosque lamps of different sizes hang on the long axis of the carpet, and no human or animal forms are included in the design, as this was a work intended for use in a religious setting. Overall, the composition creates an illusion of a heavenly dome (reminiscent of the muqarnas see in architecture).

The Art of Calligraphy

Throughout all Islamic art, the importance of calligraphy (ornamental writing) is apparent from its widespread use. Calligraphy held a place of honor in the Islamic world, and artists sought to reproduce the sacred words of the Koran as beautifully as possible. Calligraphy was considered a holy task. Scribes had to undergo hours of arduous training, and only those with an exceptional level of spiritual refinement could survive the extensive traingin that allowed them to become scribes.

Titan2

Titian's Madonna of the Pesaro Family is another remarkable work in the Friar's Basilica. Commissioned by Jacopo Pesaro, the commander of the Papal fleet, the work was meant to be an offering of thanks after successfully defeating the Turks during the Venetian-Turkish War. The commander kneels in front of the the steps of a church with a Venetian soldier and a bound Turk behind him. The flag bears the symbols of the Papal family (the Borgia) and the symbol of the Pesaro. Peter (with his attribute, the keys) and the Madonna and Child are in front of him, and St. Francis (with the stigmata) introduces other male members of the Pesaro family. It is piece filled with majesty and dynamism, The main figures (Jacopo, Peter, and the Madonna) are arranged in a diagonal that leads the viewer's eyes to the Madonna. The battle flag and the other members of the Pesaro family offer balance to the composition. The striking use of color and the "Venetian sky" are characteristically present.

Early Christian vs. Byzantine Style

To contrast the Early Christian and Byzantine styles, we will comparatively examine the Christ the Good Shepherd Mosaic from the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (ca. 425) from 4.04 and the apse mosaic from the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe (ca. 533). Although only a century between them, they are strikingly different. The Christ as the Good Shepherd mosaic has volume, illusionistic depth, and overlapping figures, but none of these stylistic elements are present in the apse mosaic from Sant'Apollinare. The figures in the later work are flat, completely linear, and show an obvious lack of three-dimensional representation. To convey the complex Christian iconography to the congregants, a simple, unassuming style like this is ideal.

Arch of Trajan

To enter Trajan's forum, a visitor had to pass through a triumphal arch that was destroyed long ago. A well-preserved arch in Benevento, Italy gives us some idea what this structure may have looked like. The Benevento arch was created to commemorate the opening of a new Roman road, the Via Traiana (the "Trajan Road"). This structure is far more ornate than Arch of Titus, but it shares the same basic shape. This arch highlights Trajan's domestic works, not his military exploits, which was likely the subject of the arch at Trajan's forum. Reliefs from this arch show the emperor in civic dress performing various public duties. The message of this work, then, is that Trajan is not only a mighty general and builder (as his forum indicates), but also a man of the people.

Hadrian

Trajan's adopted son and successor Hadrian was not a military strategist like his predecessor. He was, however, a man very interested in the arts, and he was an artist and an architect in his own right. As emperor, Hadrian was widely traveled, and arches and statues were created in his honor wherever he went. Just before his death, Hadrian established an orderly succession for his line by adopting Antonius Pius (who was 51). In turn, he required Antoninus Pius to adopt Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, both of whom were also adults.

Michelangelo for the Last Judgment fresco in the Sistine Chapel.

Under Pope Paul III (Alessandro Farnese), the Catholic Church granted numerous commissions as part of their Counter-Reformation campaign. One of these commissions was given to Michelangelo for the Last Judgment fresco in the Sistine Chapel. AThe Almighty Christ fills the center of the composition, motioning with his left hand for the elect up to come up to Heaven while judging the damned with his right hand. Christ is surrounded by the Apostles, saints, martyrs and the hosts of Heaven. Angels with the implements of Christ's Passion fill the lunettes. The saved awaken to their resurrection bodies on the left while the damned are cast into Hell on the right. The detail in this work is amazing, especially the relieved and joyful expressions of the saved, the sorrowful and horrified visages of the samned (sorrow to horror), and the sinister and cruel faces of Hell's demons. Scholars have identified several saints in the composition: Peter carries a gold key and a lead key; Lawrence holds a grill as he was roasted to death; Catherine carries a wheel. Michelangelo painted himself into the composition twice: in the flayed skin that Saint Bartholomew (who was skinned alive) is carrying in his left-hand and in the figure in the lower-left hand corner, who observes the resurrection of the dead.

Diocletian and the Four Tetrarchs (late 3rd/early 4th century CE)

Under the leadership of Diocletian, who was declared emperor in 284 CE, order was restored in Rome. Diocletian shared his power with his potential rivals, establishing a tetrarchy (government of four rulers). The empire was divided into quadrants, and each leader ruled from his own provincial capital. The four tetrarchs ruled without incident until Diocletian resigned in 305 CE. Without his influence, the leaders soon began to fight among themselves and the tetrarchy fell apart. Official portraiture of the tertrarchy showed them as a unified group, as we see in this porphyry (purple marble) sculpture of them. The works shows the continued rejection of the classical style for several reasons. The figures lack individuality since they are identically dressed posed. Each tetrarch wears the same, anxious, worried expression indicating the idealism of the classical age has vanished. The cubic heads, tubed-shaped limbs, and squat, cylinder-like bodies of the tetrarchs lack any sense of naturalism as the ratios of proportion have been completely cast off.

Painting in the Second Century CE http://daphne.palomar.edu/mhudelson/WorksofArt/07Roman/0064.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fayum_mummy_portraits

Very little painting remains from the High Imperial period, outside of a collection of portraits recovered from the cemeteries of El Faiyum in the Nile Valley region of Egypt. Although the Egyptians continued to bury their dead in mummy cases throughout the Roman period, they did abandon the traditional funerary masks for painted portraits. These works were usually encaustic paintings on wood and quite a few have survived (the encaustic technique involves painting with hot wax to which colors have been added). The mummy portraits have a considerably sensitive and vivid compositions. Here, we can also see the tremendous development in painting since the first-century figure paintings from Pompeii.

Comares Palace facade http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-OphDCKbAoAU/UpXtDtCoYdI/AAAAAAAAHMs/glnASpFwpAA/s1600/20131126_101759.jpg

Walls typically have geometric tile dadoes (lower wall panels) with tessallation patterns and carved stucco panels covering the upper portions of the walls, as seen in the Comares Palace facade.

Notre-Dame of Paris

When Louis VI, the king of France, moved his capital to Paris, he needed a grand new cathedral to reflect his power and authority as well as the prosperity of France. Work began on one of the world's most famous churches, Notre-Dame of Paris in 1163. The interior incorporates sexpartite vaulting and a four-story nave elevation. The traditional triforium level was replaced by oculi (small, round windows). The walls of Notre-Dame were also thinner, taller, and contained more windows than previous structure, so additional support was necessary. To accommodate this need, architects added exposed, exterior arches known as flying buttresses to counter the outward force of the vaults. From this point forward, flying buttresses were a standard feature for High Gothic churches.

The Kaaba cont..

When Muhammad returned to Mecca, he cleansed the Kaaba of the pagan idols. In 631-62, Muhammad rededicated the structure to the worship of Allah. All Muslims aspire to take part in the Hajj (the annual pilgrimage to Mecca). Once arriving in Mecca, Muslims circumambulate (walk around) the Kaaba, hoping to kiss or touch the Black Stone (placed on the east cornerstone of the building by the door) as they pass it. The Kaaba has been remodeled several times over the centuries due to damage from civil wars, natural disasters, and the ravages of time and the elements. The largest renovation was conducted by the Saudi Arabian government in the 1950s in hopes of expanding the area to accomodate more pilgrims. Today, the mosque covers approximately 40 acres.

Jan van Eyck - Ghent Altarpiece (open)

When opened, the altarpiece is even more remarkable. Wearing a papal tiara, God Almighty sits at the center of the upper register with an earthly crown at His feet, signifying that He is King of kings. The Virgin Mary, John the Baptist, Adam, and Eve fill the other niches in the top register as well as a choir of angels. The lower register is a single, unified scene of the new heaven and the new earth from the Revelation of John the Evangelist. The composition is complicated iconographically: Central panel: Adoration of the Lamb Upper center: the Lamb of God (Christ) bleeds into a chalice on a sacrificial altar surrounded by angels blowing trumpets and holding the symbols of His Passion Lower center: Fountain of Life (cf. Revelation 22:1) Lower right: Twelve Apostles and the martyrs (indicated by their red robes) Upper right: Maiden Martyrs (holding palm fronds, also a symbol of martyrdom) Upper left: Confessors of the Church Lower left: Prophets Outside panels: Representation of the four cardinal virtues (Temperance, Prudence, Fortitude and Justice) Outer left: judges (Justice) Inner left: knights (Fortitude) Inner right: hermits (Temperance) Outer right: pilgrims (Prudence) The overall theme of the whole altarpiece is Fall of Man and the salvation of mankind through the sacrifice of Jesus Christ.

Isenheim Altarpiece3 (Image 077)

When the first set of wings on the altarpiece are opened, the dark, muted hues of the Crucifixion become bright, vibrant colors. In the left wing panel depicts the Annunciation. Based on the vaulting, tracery, and pointed arches, Mary and Gabriel are set inside a Gothic structure that shows the artist's skill at rendering architectural details. Mary has her Bible open to the prophecy of Isaiah (Isaiah 7:14), while the prophet Isaiah himself appears in the upper-left corner proclaiming Isaiah 11:1. Above Mary's head, the Holy Spirit is shown as a lightly drawn dove. In the central right panel, a seated Mary holds the infant Christ before an ornate portico symbolizing the Temple of God, while on the left central panel a concert of angels sings to the Lord. The intensity the artist is evident in the shower of light and tiny angels pouring down from God the Father in Heaven. On the right wing, there is a powerful Resurrection scene with an intensely radiant Risen Christ. He has blown the weighty lid from the tomb and knocked over the attending guards in a forceful whirlwind. Grunewald's figures are expressive with determined gestures and the scene is full of energy.

Taj Mahal

While the Ottomans held power in Eastern Europe and the Near East, the Muslim Mughal Dynasty ruled in India. The Mughals were affluent and created some of the most impressive buildings in architectural history. The finest of these structures is the world-famous Taj Mahal (Image 209) at Agra. Shah Jahan commissioned the building that functioned as a mausoleum for his favorite wife Mumtaz Mahal, whom he loved very deeply. The Taj Mahal is an integrated complex of structures, but the white domed marble mausoleum is its most significant and well-known component. As the ultimate expression of love, the Taj Mahal reflects the indulgence of a ruler with an overflowing treasury, political security, and skilled architects with finesse in art and science of building.

Baptistere de St. Louis (Image 188).

While there is no dedicatory inscription that indicates the basin's patron or its subject matter, the name of the artist, Muhammad ibn al-Zain, appears 6 times on the work. It is interesting to note that this basin was at one time associated with the Fench King, Louis IX (also known as "St. Louis" because of his religious piety and his enthusiasm for collecting Christian relics). This has been proven to by a myth since Louis IX died long before the basin came into the possession of the French royal family (who used thie basin for baptizing newborns). Regardless, the implied association with the king has caused this work to also be known as the Baptistere de St. Louis (Image 188).

Early Christian Mosaics

With the majority of the population being illiterate, uncomplicated communication of theme was the primary goal of Early Christian art. In the transition from the Roman to Medieval art, we see the familiar cylindrical bodies characteristic of the Roman Late Imperial period. At times, there is an attempt at illusionistic depth, which was characteristic of earlier Greek and Roman art. This illusionistic depth would fade over time, and figures would appear as flat, ungrounded (floating), two-dimensional representations that were easy to read iconographically. The realistic presentation of the natural world seen in classical art gave way over time to flattened figures posed frontally and floating in space. Landscape elements were minimal, as the goal was to create an image of timeless eternity with a clear message for the parishoners.

trompe-l'oei

a French term literally meaning "trick the eye." Sometimes called illusionism, it is a style of painting that gives the appearance of three-dimensional, photographic realism (from the Art Lexicon).

Book of the Dead

a collection of prayers and spells recorded on illustrated papayrus scroll that would buried with a mummy. These Book of the Dead scrolls could be as long as 70 feet. For high-ranking members of society, a Book of the Dead was considered an essential tomb item that would help the ka navigate the trials of the afterlife.

folio

a collection of separate sheets. Folios were commonly made of calfskin or lambskin. These materials were both more durable and better suited for decoration than papyrus scrolls. Codes covers were artfully carved, and made from luxurious materials like wood or ivory.

Arabesque

a complicated, intertwined, flowing design of stylized floral and plant motifs loosely based on Arabian decoration (from the Art Lexicon).

Attribute

a conventional object used in art to identify a saint or mythical figure

Construction techniques used in the pantheon

a marvel of engineering. Romans understood that the recipe for concrete could be adjusted to make lighter and heavier consistencies. Using this knowledge, the lower portions of the Pantheon were created using a concrete mixture that used heavier stones in order to bear a heavier load of the structure's weight. Successive levels of the Pantheon were created using with concrete that used lighter and lighter stones as ingredients. This meant the structure would not cave in on itself because the weight of the upper walls and the dome were lighter than the base. The concrete used in the dome itself was made with a very light stone called pumice. To further remove the weight, the thickness of the dome also decreased as it approached the opening (or occulus) at the dome's apex. In addition, coffering (sunken, decorative panels) was used on the interior of the dome to decrease its weight as well. Roman architects are the first to conceive of architecture in terms of units of space that could be shaped by their enclosures. The desire to subjugate the natural world and create their own artificial spaces has been a constant throughout Roman architecture thanks to concrete and vaulting technology, with the Pantheon being a culmination of both of these. Since the Romans worshiped inside of their temples, there was always a great need to enclose large areas of uninterrupted space, especially given the rapidly growing population in Rome. The need for enclosed space was true for secular buildings too, as we saw with the extensive Basilica Ulpia of Trajan.

The Villa Pompea

a more mature Second Style work. Like the scene from the Villa of the Mysteries, there is a painted platform, but in this work, the artist has gone further and created quite a magnificent view out of the "windows" of this triclinium (or dining room). This is exactly the sort of illusion that is characteristic of the Second Style. As there are no real windows in the room, the artist attempts to use linear perspective1 to create a sense of 3-D depth on a 2-D surface. The technique of linear perspective was not perfected until the fifteenth-century Italian Renaissance, but it is evident that Roman painters had understood and used this technique.

Centaur

a mythological beast that is half man, half horse ca. 750 BCE

Bahram Gur Fights the Karg folio (ca.1330-1340) (Image 189)

a page from the Great Il-Khanid Shahnama. The page was created using ink and opaque color on gold and silver paper, indicating it was likely commissioned by a high-ranking patron, such as a member of the Il-Khanid court. The format of the page has 6 columns of text (written in the Persian naskh calligraphic style) with an illustration in the center of the page. Considered a masterpiece of Persian art, the Il-khanid period was an experiemental time in which Muslim artists were influenced by new ideas and motifs as a result of the Mongolian invasions. The influence of Chinese painting styles can be seen in the inclusion of landscape elements as well as motifs such as peonies, lotuses, and band of clouds (seen in this work). This image shows the Sassanian king Bahram V (r.421-438 CE) (also known as Bahram Gur for his skill in hunting the gur (onager)). In this scene, Bahram Gur fights a lion, killing it with his sword rather than his bow to show his bravery as well as his hunting prowess.

The Romanesque period

a period of great development across Europe. Waves of Christian pilgrimages were moving around Europe to view religious relics and prove their devotion to God, with their ultimate goal being the Church of Santiago de Campostela in Spain, where the relics of St. James the Apostle are housed. The increased traffic along the pilgrimage routes (which were once Roman trade routes) led to the development of towns and churches throughout Europe. In some towns, older basilica-shaped structures were renovated to accommodate the growing crowds, while in other towns, new church structures were built using an enlarged cruciform plan.

Fibula

a pin used to fasten garments at the shoulder in the ancient world

Porticos

a porch or walkway with a roof, open or partly enclosed, supported by columns

retable

a raised shelf above an altar for the altar cross

Erechtheion (Image 035) 421 BCE

a structure built to replace the Archaic period temple of Athena destroyed by the Persians. The new structure was built to the north of the old temple's remnants, supposedly on the site where the gods Athena and Poseidon competed to be the patron deity of Athens. In this contest, Poseidon struck the rock of the Acropolis and produced a salt water spring, and the force of this blow left a trident mark held sacred by the Athenians. In response, Athena miraculously caused an olive tree to grow from the rock, and this olive tree still stands in the spot as a reminder of the victory that awarded her the city of Athens. The Erechtheion is a bit of an oddity in ancient Greek architecture because of its asymmetrical plan. The structure lacks symmetry because its plan had to incorporate several different existing shrines and sacred places under one roof, such as the tombs of the legendary kings Erechtheus and Kekrops, Poseidon's trident mark, and Athena's olive tree. The main purpose of the structure was to house the Archaic wooden statue of Athena, which was the goal of the Panathenaic procession. In spite of its irregular plan and mythological significance, the Erechtheion is best known for its ornamentation. In fact, some scholars believe that architects tried to compensate for the irregularity of the plan with its remarkable decoration, the famous of which are the caryatids of the south porch.

Other symbols

alpha and omega- Eternity of God mandorla- this almond-shaped, radiant light indicates the glory of God and is usually seen surrounding christ book- bible, scriptures ewer and basin- cleansing eye- omniscience and omnipresence of God fire- burning bush, God; small flame, Holy Spirit halo (nimbus)- circle of light usually found above or around the head indicates godliness hand- when coming from the heavens; God keys- usually paired: gold key opens heaven to repentant sinners; lead locks heaven to the unrepentant rainbow- forgiveness scroll- authority (when held in figure's hand) skull- death; mortality

Markets of Trajan (Image 045)

also built adjacent to Trajan's forum, along the slope of the Quirinal Hill. Concrete made it possible to transform the slope of the hill into a multilevel complex similar to a modern day mall. The basic unit of the markets was a taberna (a single room shop covered by a barrel vault). Each taberna had a wide doorway, and most units had a window above the doorway to let in light through an inner attic area that was used for storage. Clerestory lighting was also used to illunimate the interior. Overall, the markets housed 150 shops and administrative offices, creating a centralized area for commerce and government administration. The combination of the markets, forum, and his column creating a propagandistic building complex with its different aspects.

Seated Boxer (ca. 100-50 BCE) (Image 041)

an image of an older man, worn out from countless fights instead of the proud, strong, youthful portrayals of athletes typical of the the High Classical period. This is not a victorious young athlete with a perfect face and body, but instead a heavily battered, defeated veteran. His face registers defeat with his broken teeth and nose and the cartilage damage in his ears (cauliflower ear). Blood (created from inlaid copper) drips from the cuts on his forehead, nose, and cheeks. His hands show years of toil and are bound with leather straps that were used as boxing "gloves" in ancient times. Like the Greeks, the boxer is exhausted and dejected. He looks up and interacts with an unseen champion who has just beaten him, which has led scholars to believe he may have been part of a larger sculptural group. As a Hellenistic work, the boxer appeals to our emotions, not our reason or intellect. The compassion the viewer feels for this once-mighty fighter makes this work a masterpiece of Hellenistic sculpture.

Ocher

an impure iron ore which is usually yellow and sometimes red

Relics

an object of religious veneration, especially a piece of the body of a holy person, or of an object associated with [the saint]. In the Christian tradition, relics were especially important throughout the Middle Ages (from the Art Lexicon).

The Roman forum at Pompeii

an open area that functioned as both the commercial and political centers of the town. The focus of Pompeii's forum was a religious structure known as the Capitolium

extended walls

antae

Plants and Animals

apple- sin, unless it is in the hand of Christ where it means salvation fish- Icthus goat- evil; unrepentant sinners grape- Christ's blood shed for the forgiveness of sin; fruitfulness of the Christian life; fruitfulness of the church lamb- Christ; Christ's followers; martyrs lily- purity olive- peace palm- triumph; victory (primarily over death) peacock- immortality (from the ancient myth that its flesh does not decay) pine cone- fertility of the church pomegranate- resurrection; church (many seeds in one fruit) rose- white for purity; red for martyrdom serpent- evil vine- life and fruitfulness from a life in Christ wheat- believers; Christ's body

Space

area that "holds" the object(s) in or around a work. Space may be limited or unlimited

Value

artists incorporated light in their works to create the effects of diffusion, reflections, and shadows. Artists also strove to express a sense of three-dimensionality and depth in their compositions. Artists sought to display the same emotional depth in their works as that seen in the sculptures of the period.

apotheosis

ascent into heaven

opisthodomos

back porch. No function other than to provide balance and symmetry to the design

landscape or vegetation

background/plants etc

Temple of Minerva at Veii (Image 031))

built on a podium made of stone and often had a roof with a wide overhang. Unlike Greek temples which could be accessed on all sides, Etruscan temples were accessed by a small central staircase. Columns were only placed in the front, creating a large porch. Etruscan columns had a base, were unfluted, and had flat echini similar to the Greek Doric order. Instead of pedimental sculpture, Etruscan temple statuary was on top of the structure, known as acroteria (a figure or ornament placed usually at the top or edge of the ranking cornice). Some of these sculptures were simply placed on the roof. Inside the temple, there were three cellas, one for each of their principal gods, Tinia, Uni and Menrva. The Etruscan temple more closely resembled a real home for the gods, rather than a sacred shrine.

Sumerians were producing legal documents, writing great literature, and keeping written historical records using wedge-shaped characters called...

cuneiform

incised

cut

First Style

dates from the late second-century BCE to the early first. This style is of Greek origin and the walls are painted in such a way as to resemble expensive marble revetment. First Style painting never went completely out of style, and traces of it can be seen in the other 3 painting styles.

Bilaterally symmetrical

each side of the vertical axis is exactly the same), and this perfected bilateral symmetry further emphasized the order and balance of Egypt under the pharaoh's rule. Artists finished the work through the smoothing process of abrasion to eradicate the lines and rough edges. The resulting sculptures would be strong and compact (few breakable parts), stable (still retaining the basic shape of the block of stone), and ordered (symmetrical).

Second Style

first appeared around 80 BCE, and it is a completely Roman invention. In this style, artists attempt to create a sense of three-dimensional space and create an illusion of expanding the room beyond the limits of the walls. In our selection from the Villa of the Mysteries in Pompeii, there is a segment of a ritual for the mystery cult of Dionysis. Not much is known about this cult and its practices, other than it was limited to women. For the purposes of our study, we will concentrate on the "ledge" that the figures stand on instead of the subject of the work. The presence of the ledge creates a perception of depth and three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface, and that illusionism is what makes this a Second Style work.

Leonardo Da Vinci's Last Supper (Image 073) (cf. Matthew 26:17-30)

fresco was painted for the refectory of the church of Santa Maria della Grazie in Milan. Unfortunately, the work is in a state of decay due to the artist's experimentation with media and incompetent restoration attempt. In 1495, Leonardo began painting the Last Supper on the northern wall of the refectory (dining hall) of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, Italy. He completed it by1498, nearly 3 years later. Leonardo was commissioned to create the painting in the Dominican monastery of this Church by the Duke of Milan, Ludovico Sforza. The Last Supper measures fifteen by twenty-nine feet. It remains whole as of today, except for the construction of a doorway in 1653, which eliminated the lower central area of the painting. The Last Supper is not a fresco, and Leonardo's method of creating the Last Supper was uncommon. Leonardo's concentration and tentative manner of execution did not suit fresco, which was the commonly used medium for mural painting of the day. Frescos required the pigment to be applied quickly before the plaster dried, precluding any changes during the course of execution. Instead of fresco, Leonardo invented his own artistic technique for mural painting, instead using tempera paint on stone. The base was compounded out of gesso, pitch, and mastic, and has not proven to be durable. The pigment soon began to crumble from the base and progressive decay set in.as early as 1517. Leonardo was successful in employing linear perspective to create an extension of the refectory and provide an illusionistic depth. The discovery of nail hole located in the temple of Jesus indicates the focal point of Leonardo's painting of the Last Supper. He drove a nail into the wall and radiated string in various directions to help him see the perspective of the room. The Last Supper is a typical subject chosen for the decoration of many refectories, but Leonardo chose to capture the moment in which Jesus announces to his apostles that he knows one of them will betray him. The apostles are depicted in a sense of astonishment just after Jesus' announcement. It is significant that Leonardo chose to ignore two long-established iconographical compositions. The arrangement of the disciples around a circular or square table had been tradition until this point. The portraits of the disciples, with the exception of Jesus are reportedly those of actual people Leonardo found in Milan. Leonardo spent much time wandering through jails with criminals to find the appropriate Judas (fourth figure from left of painting). In addition to using living models for the disciples, Leonardo surrounded them with objects then in everyday use. The tablecloth, knives, forks, glassware, and china were all similar to those of the monks living at the monastery.

Chartres Cathedral, Chartres, France West Facade https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Chartres_1.jpg

he towers and their spires on the west facade (Image 060) are the most notable features of Chartres Cathedral because of great differences between the two. The north tower was started soon after the fire in 1134 and built up to base of present spire. The spire was much later added in the Flamboyant Gothic style (see Lesson 5.08). The foundations of south tower were laid in 1145, and its spire was completed by 1170. The south tower (without the spire) represents a culmination of Romanesque traditions.

Elevation (Church of Sainte-Foy)

http://www.bluffton.edu/homepages/facstaff/sullivanm/france/conques/stefoy/0072.jpg The elevation of the structure is impressive, and the tribune area added over the aisles opens onto the central nave not only accomodates increased pilgrim traffic, but also allows light to enter the church's interior. The transept (or crossing arm) is bordered by the aisles, and has two chapels (http://www.bluffton.edu/homepages/facstaff/sullivanm/france/conques/stefoy/0095.jpg) on each side of the nave. The crossing dome was constructed using squinches to transition the octagonal shape of the dome to the square base on which it rests. In the squinches, there are sculpted relief figures of angels with realistic expressions and aminated eyes.

Crossing dome (Church of Sainte-Foy)

http://www.bluffton.edu/homepages/facstaff/sullivanm/france/conques/stefoy/0105.jpg The crossing dome was constructed using squinches to transition the octagonal shape of the dome to the square base on which it rests. In the squinches, there are sculpted relief figures of angels with realistic expressions and aminated eyes.

an ambulatory and three radiating chapels (Church of Sainte-Foy)

http://www.bluffton.edu/homepages/facstaff/sullivanm/france/conques/stefoy/int2.html The church terminates in an apse surrounded by an ambulatory and three radiating chapels on the east end. The ambulatory allowed pilgrims to see into the sanctuary through a metal grill that was created out of donated shackles given by prisoners hwo credited Sainte Foy with gaining their freedom. Symbolically, the grill reminded pilgrims of not only Saint Foy's power to free prisoners, but also it was a reminder that the monks at the church could free penitent pilgrims from the chains of sin

Cluny III, Cluny, Germany (The church of Hugh of Semur at Cluny, Germany)

http://www.brynmawr.edu/cities/Cities/wld/01180/01180c.jpg The church of Hugh of Semur at Cluny, Germany (also know as as Cluny III ) was started in 1088, but it was dismantled in the nineteenth century, so its building stones could be used elsewhere. Records indicate it was nearly twice the size of Saint Sernin, and, at one time, it was also the largest church in Europe. Like Saint-Sernin, Cluny III had Romanesque architectural elements (five aisles, radiating chapels, and barrel vaults), but its nave elevation1 had three stories instead of two, and the arches of each nave bay was slightly pointed, both of these will become standards for northern churches in the subsequent period.

Romanesque Church elements https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Cathedral_schematic_plan_en_vectorial.svg/2000px-Cathedral_schematic_plan_en_vectorial.svg.png

https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/888/flashcards/191888/jpg/aafxpks01352173302652.jpg Let us now take a look at these elements in an actual Romanesque church using a church plan. Notice the length of the nave and the size of the multiple side aisles, and the use of groin vaults in the nave bays (rectangular units used to organizes space in the nave. In this case, the X's indicates each bay unit has a groin vault). Nave bay units are further defined by the compound piers (designated on the plan by the black dots) on the corners of each bay. The ambulatory and radiating chapels (apsidioles) on the apse end further accomodated the large crowds of pilgrims and the viewing of relics with minimal interruption of the mass service.

clerestory and triforium

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Amiens_interior_towards_W.jpg

Tower of Pisa

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/The_Leaning_Tower_of_Pisa_SB.jpeg leans because its foundation did not settles at an angle.

Nike of Samothrace (Image 037)

is not a Roman copy, but an original piece recovered from the Greek island of Samothrace (ca. 190 BCE). The statue of Nike itself is full of movement. Her wings are beating as she alights on a warship, and her drapery is swept up in the winds of her descent. The nude female form is revealed through the "wet drapery" technique, with her himation (cloak) in thick folds around her right leg, and her chiton (gown) pulled tightly across her abdoment and left leg. She is a true masterpiece of motion. The Nike of Samothrace was part of a great fountain shaped like the prow of a ship. She was likely a votive offering given by the people of Rhodes to commemorate its victory in a 2nd century naval battle. She would have stood in the sanctuary at Samothrace dedicated to deities who protected sailors and granted victory in war. Instead of being placed statues on a platform, this work is incorporated into a larger environment (in this case, a fountain) like many Hellenistic works. The water flowing in the fountain created the illusion of the water hitting the prow of a ship, and the splashing of the water added an auditory dimension to the drama of the work. Nike's reflection in the water in the fountain would have further enhanced the sculpture's sense of movement. She appears as a living, breathing, and intensely emotive presence.

The Great Mosque in Isfahan, Iran

is one of the oldest mosques still standing in Iran, and it was created using 4 iwans (vaulted open rooms) (Image 186) connected by a large open-air courtyard (Image 186) that functions as a quiet escape from the busy activity of the city.

Agora

large, open square where people met and gathered for a number of reasons, including philosophical and political discussions as well as commerce

Romanesque

literally means "Romanlike." The term was originally initially used to describe European architecture during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Later, it was used to identify all of the history and culture of this period since the structures borrowed heavily from Roman construction techniques, such as barrel vaults, groin vaults, and rounded arches.

House of the Vettii from Pompeii (Image 039)

ne of the best-preserved at Pompeii. It was owned by 2 brothers who were freemen and made their fortunes as merchants. Their money allowed them to purchase and furnish a house worthy of a member of the upper class. Roman houses were inward looking in nature, as seen in the plan of the House of the Vettii (Image 039). Access to a Roman home was through a single entrance (fauces), which was flanked by shops (tabernae). Beyond this entrance was an atrium, a large open space that provided light and ventilation to the interior. Other rooms (cubiculum) of various sizes and purposes were arranged around the atrium. At the center of the atrium was a collecting pool (impluvium) (Image 039) located beneath a large opening in the roof that provided light as well as for the collection of rain water for household use. The centerpiece of the home was a peristyle court that followed the atrium. Since Roman homes did not have a backyard, walled gardens were commonly found in many homes. The House of the Vettii in Pompeii (Image 039) provides an excellent example of an early Roman house. Its frescoes (Image 039) also provide insight into Roman painting .

bronze Capitoline Wolf (ca. 500 BCE)

one of the most famous later Etruscan works. Its subject matter is the legendary she-wolf who nursed the mythical founders of Rome, Romulus and Remus. This animal is a symbol of Rome to this day. The Etruscan portrayal of the beast is full of tension and energy, showing the beast as both fierce and defiant with its intense glare and strong jowls. The infants under the she-wolf picture were added during the Italian Renaissance.

Saint Luke's incipit page (Image 055)

opens the Luke's Gospel (incipit means "it begins"). The image combines text with patterning that is full of spiraled forms, swirling vortexes, and animal life. Inside the large letter Q that begins Luke's first sentence, blue pinwheel shapes spin between fields of red and green with vegetal designs.

Colophon

page of the text that contains information on the book's manufact

Amphora

primarily for storage

porphyry

purple marble

causeway

raised path

The Tomb of Leopards

receives its name after the large cats that decorate the upper portion of the tomb. This banqueting scene shows the vivacity and gesturing that is characteristic of the Etruscans. Women are present too, and they can be identified by their lighter skin. You can see this tomb in its entirety by clicking here.

Reliquaries

receptacles used to keep sacred relics and were another common form of Romanesque metalworking.

East Pediment

recounts the birth of Athena. The center of the pediment was removed when the Parthenon was converted into a Christian church, the only figures that remain are the spectators to the right and left who witnessed Athena's birth on Mount Olympus. On the left end, the head (missing) and arms of the sun god, Helios, and the heads of the horses pulling his chariot rise from the pediment floor. Next to them, a reclining male figure (Herakles or Dionysus), 3 goddesses (either Hestia, Dione and Aphrodite or Selene and Nyx (the moon and night)), and then more horses descending into the pediment floor on the right end. The horses of the sun are shown energetically since it is beginning of the day, and the horses of the moon are weary after working all night.

Baroque

refers to the the period of Western art that roughly coincides with the 17th century. The word was first used by eighteenth-century Neoclassicists to describe the art of the the preceding period which that found distasteful (similar to the origin of the term "Gothic"). The term Baroque originated from the Italian and Portuguese word barocco, meaning "rough" or "irregular." This term was used by philosophers and theoreticians in the Medieval period to describe an obstacle in schematic logic, and the word came to denote any contorted idea or complicated process of thought. The art and architecture that distinguishes the Baroque period is stylistically complex and pushes the boundaries. Its goal is to evoke emotional states in the viewer by appealing to the senses, and the style often incorporates dramatic ways to accomplish this. The qualities most commonly associated with the Baroque style are grandeur, drama, vitality, tension, emotional exuberance, movement, and a blurring of distinctions between the various arts. Today, the word Baroque has lost all its negative connotations , and it is generally used to describe Western art roughly corresponding the years 1590 to 1725.

pinturas de castas

rom the Spaniard and the Indian is born the mestizo, usually humble, quiet and simple." The painting displays a Spanish father and Indigenous mother with their son, and it is part of a larger series of works that document the inter-ethnic mixing in New Spain among Europeans, Indigenous peoples, Africans, and the existing mixed race population. This genre of painting was known as pinturas de castas, or caste paintings, and they were largely fictitious, but aimed to capture reality. They usually display a mother, father, and a child or two. This family could be modeled on depictions of the Holy Family. They are often labeled with a number and a label that describes the mixing that occurred, a documentation, or taxonomy of sorts. This was a major concern of the Enlightenment, the notion that people can be rationally categorized by their appearance and ethnic makeup.

The cornice

same for both orders, topped the structure and also framed the pediment, which held architectural sculpture.

Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus (Image 047)

sculptors were also busy creating sarcophagi during the 3rd century as burial became more popular and the Roman custom of cremation was increasingly abandoned. The exterior is decorated with a battle scene between the Romans and a barbarian foe, which is likely the Goths. The presentation of the scene on the sarcophagus shows a near total rejection of the classical style. First, there is no common baseline in this extremely chaotic scene. There is also a definite lack of motion in the composition, which should be a frenzy- every figure seems frozen in his pose. In addition, the figures are noticeably disproportional and frontal. The central figure in particular has a head that is disproportionately large and blocky for his stocky body. This figure is believed to be the son of one of the warrior-emperors and the person for whom the sarcophagus was created. He has an air of self-assurance and fearlessness. On his forehead, he has the symbol of Mithras, the Persian god of light, truth, and victory over death. This symbol (as well as the popularity of burial over cremation) reflects the growing influence of eastern religions inside the borders of the Roman empire. It is clear that the sculptor of the sarcophagus was rejecting the classical norms and traditional modes of representation, instead incorporating ideas that had been used in the art of the plebeian, or lower, classes for some time. These elements will also set the standards for artistic representation in the Middle Ages.

("Throne of Wisdom")

sedes sapientiae. Christ, the embodiment of Holy Wisdom, sits on the lap (or "throne") of the Virgin Mary. It is the western equivalent of the Byzantine concept of the Theotokos.

Saint Matthew page

see Matthew presented as a man (his symbol). The image of Matthew incorporates the typical Early Medieval abstract patterned decoration with a flat figural representation characteristic of the Early Christian period.

Optical art

seen by a viewer, which is revolutionary. It is not simply painted to provide the most information (i.e., with the composite view of the Ancient Near East and Egypt). While certain features of the combatants are not visible (e.g., Herakles left arm and the giant's right leg), the perspective is much more realistic. This is another substantial development in the history of art.

Saint Luke's portrait page (Image 055)

shows him seated at an angle as a classical scribe with his feet elevated on a short stool, which indicates the artist may have been following a Mediterranean model. There is an attempt at Greco-Roman illusionism, but the subject is conceived of in terms of line and color instead of three-dimensional volume. The folds of the figure's drapery fall in a schematized manner that is sharp and regularly shaped. The phrase "O Agios Lucas" combines the Greek "O Agios" ("Saint") with the Latin form of the name Luke, giving the work the prestige of both Greek and Roman classical cultures. The choice of there languages also had religious significance: Greek was considered the language of the New Testament, and Latin was the language of the Christian Church in Rome. Over Luke's head, his evangelical symbol, the winged ox, carries a copy of his Gospel.

Anavysos Kouros (ca. 525 BCE) (Image 027)

shows the continued advancement of the period. This figure is a grave marker from a cemetery in Anavysos. Stylistically, it is about 2 generations later than the kouros from Attica. The form still exhibits the Egyptian stance, but the human body is presented in a much more naturalistic way. The head is no longer too large for the body, and rounded facial features have replaced the flat planes of the earlier work. The figure's long hair falls naturally over the back, but no longer creates a stiff backdrop for the head. The v-shaped ridges first seen in the kouros from Attica have become fleshy, rounded hips, although they do not demonstrate weight shift that indicates real human motion. Created from marble, the sculpture would have looked different in ancient times. Traces of paint indicate that the work was once polychrome (painted in color), which is typical of much Greek statuary.

Luca Signorelli (1450-1523)

studied in Umbria, but he was certainly more inspired the artist Pollaiuolo than any of the Umbrian school masters. Signorelli's work is demonstrates a mastery of anatomical form and the variety of figural poses. He is most well-known for his series of frescoes in the San Brizio Chapel in the Orvieto Cathedral. His depictions of Hell, Purgatory and Heaven are inspired by Dante's Divine Comedy. In The Damned Cast into Hell, the Archangel Michael and his accompanying angels direct damned sinners into Hell. Demons ferociously attack their prey, creating a scene of horror. The whole scene is a mass of writhing, complicated nude figures. Signorelli's work would have a profound impact on Michelangelo and Raphael, two great masters of the High Renaissance.

coffering

sunken, decorative panels

Hieroglyph

symbolic representation

Pantheon (Image 046)

temple for all the gods, was the major contribution of Hadrian's reign. The original temple structure had been destroyed by fire around ca. 27 BCE. It was completely redesigned and rebuilt during Hadrian's reign. The Pantheon is one of the best preserved buildings from classical antiquity today as well as one of the most important and revolutionary buildings in the history of architecture. While the colonnaded portico is clearly inspired by tradition, the other elements of the Pantheon were innovative. Behind the porch is a huge, rounded concrete structure topped by a hemispherical dome that is 142 feet in diameter with an apex that is 142 feet from the floor. Thus, the space is created by the perfect intersection of two circles. The intersecting circles of the interior space was imagined as the orb of the earth, and the dome as the vault of the heavens. It was a cool, calm and mystical setting for worship away from the noise of every day life.

Madonna1 enthroned with Child, angels, and prophets

the Madonna1 enthroned with Child, angels and prophets (from left to right, Jeremiah, Abraham, David and Isaiah). A striking naturalism is present in both the figural poses and individual expressions of the figures. Cimabue strives to create illusionistic depth, which is evident in the architectural structure of the throne, the overlapping of figures, and the concave portion of the throne's base. 1Mary, the mother of Jesus is called the Theotokos in Byzantine art; the Madonna in Italian art; and the Virgin in Northern art.

Filippo Brunelleschi built

the Pazzi Chapel of Santa Croce (Image 067) as a space with perfect harmonious proportions. The architect's central-plan design included a central square capped by a round dome on pendentives. He achieved this by including in his plan his knowledge gained during his stay in Rome where he focused primarily on measuring ancient buildings, for example the Pantheon. The chapel was commissioned by Andrea de' Pazzi in 1429 ,but the work went on well after the death of the architect in 1446. They never finished because the family suffered the consequences of the conspiracy organized by Jacopo and Francesco de' Pazzi, together with the archbishop against the Medici family. Brunelleschi's plan included extensions at either end that are exactly half the width of the central square (again, in perfect proportion), while the dome itself is defined by twelve ribs and twelve oculi. The chapel, used as the chapter house by Santa Croce friars, is preceded by an atrium, a sort of entrance hall. Six Corinthian columns placed next to the central arch support the atrium. Rectangular in layout, it contains one square room covered by an umbrella shaped dome. Two sides of the remaining space are each covered by a barrel vault with round windows. The wall opens on a small square apse covered by a dome decorated with a fresco replicating the sky over Florence on July 4th, 1442. The attribution to Brunelleschi of this part of the structure is still a subject of discussion among the scholars, some attributing this portion of the chapel to another architect (possibly Michelozzo , Rossellino, or Giuliano da Maiano). The interior of the chapel (Image 067) is decorated with Corinthian pilasters, ornamental arches, and roundels (round panels) featuring the Twelve Apostles above the blind arches. The four Evangelists have been attributed to Brunelleschi, the cherubs on the medals of the external frieze to Desiderio da Settignano and his brother Geri. Alesso Baldovinetti drew the pattern of the stained glass window with the figure of Saint Andrew.and the Four Evangelists on the pendentives. Again, we see an interior space that is graceful, balanced and harmonious.

The history of Rome

the Regal period when Rome was ruled by Etruscan kings (753-509 BCE); the Republican period when Rome was governed by the Senate (509-27 BCE); and the Imperial period when Rome was ruled by emperors (27 BCE - 476 CE).

Dome of the Rock (691-692 CE) (Image 185)

the earliest large-scale work of Islamic art. . The structure is built around the rock (Image 185) which was the site of the miraj (Muhammad's ascension into heaven). The building's central plan design was likely inspired by Constantine's Church of the Holy Sepulchre (built in the fourth century over the tomb of Christ) which had a plan resembling that of Santa Costanza. This design was allowed for pilgrims to circumambulate (walk around) the rock in an orderly way. The dome is the most impressive feature of the shrine. It was originally covered in gold leaf, but this has now been replaced by anodized aluminum. This is an Islamic structure, though, because the dome dominates the external appearance of the building, and Roman and Byzantine domes did not. Tiling done in abstract geometric designs covers the lower portion of the structure. Initially, the exterior was covered in glass mosaic, and this tilework dates to the sixteenth century. The use of patterns like these are another characteristic of Islamic art since Islam prohibits any representation of human or animal forms in sacred places.

Sanctuary of Fortuna in Italy

the first large-scale structure created with concrete. Inspired by Hellenistic design, the Romans built an amazing complex into a massive hillside. This complex consisted of several terraces supported by barrel vaulting3 that contained shops, offices, and shrines. Ramps (also supported by barrel vaults) connected the terraces. The site culminated with a tholos temple dedicated to Fortuna. The Sanctuary of Fortuna demonstrated the Roman desire to subdue nature to display their power. If they could conquer nature and transform a hillside, imagine what else they could do! Keep this cultural characteristic in mind as we study the art and architecture of Rome.

Sarcophagus of the Spouses (Image 029)

the same animated faces and gesturing arms characteristic of the Archaic period are present. The relaxed pose of the figures are very different from the stiff poses of Egyptian funerary sculpture. This work was also created in parts and the assembled, which accounts for the awkward and disproportional transition from the lower half to the upper half of the figures' bodies. The most interesting feature of this work is sociological rather than artistic. In the Greek world, women were expected to stay in the home. Only women who were slave girls or prostitutes could attend a Greek banqueting party or symposium. In this work, a woman is presented in a position of honor reclining at a banquet. She is openly and freely conversing with those around her, which was unheard of in Greek and Roman cultures. Works such as this combined with other evidence from the civilization indicate to scholars that Etruscan women enjoyed a rare level of freedom and equality in antiquity.

White ground technique

the vessels are first coated with a thin layer of white clay. Then, figures and designs are outlined in black and then eventually filled with a variety of colors. This white-ground technique was a considerable development, but other revolutionary advancements in the science of painting also occurred in the 5th century as well.

galleries

tribunes http://www.pitt.edu/~medart/menuglossary/gallery.htm

biombos and enconchados

two elite Mexican genres of biombos (folding screens) and tableros de concha nácar y pintura (shell-inlay paintings, later called enconchados). The influence for the folding screen came to the region from Japan through the Philippines, which was also a Spanish colony. It was commissioned by José Sarmiento de Valladares, the viceroy of New Spain, and was likely displayed in the viceregal palace, where it would have divided an intimate sitting room from a ceremonial state room. When it was first made, the screen was 12 painted panels, more than seven feet high, and measured 18 feet from end to end.

Orders in Archaic Period

two systems 1. Doric order, found mainly on the mainland of Greece and in the western colonies (so-called after the Dorian Greeks 2. Ionic order (after the Ionian Sea), which was most prevalent on the Aegean islands and in Asia Minor.

greywacke

type of sandstone , which is characterized by its dark color, hardness, and grainy composition

Dressed

using copper chisels, wooden mallets, and wedges, workers on the Great Pyramids cut and removed large blocks that were of roughly equal size from the limestone quarry. Once removed, the rough stones were then smoothed, sanded, and chiseled (or dressed) to their exact dimensions.

circumambulate

walk around

Saint Foy ( Saith Faith)

was a 4th century child martyr who was beheaded because she refused to pay homage to the Roman gods. Her relics (her skull) were originally housed at an abbey in Agen, France, where she was from. Around 866 CE, a monk from the abbey church at Conques, stole the saint's skull. justifying his actions as furta sacra ("holy theft" or "holy transfer"), claiming that the Sainte-Foy had visited him in a dream and expressed her desire for her relics to be moved to Conques. The original monastery a Conques was remodeled and expanded twice after the relics of Saint Foy were brought to the site in the 9th century, but this structure was partially destroyed to make way for the current church begun by Abbot Odelric ca. 1050 CE.

Donatello: St. George

was a master of both relief carving and sculpture in the round, and he had incredible range. Some of his most important works were commissions to fill architectural niches. His depiction of Saint George for the guild church of Or San Michele in Florence renders several subtle aspects that create a sense of the proud strength of the warrior-saint. The raised chest, slight turn of the left shoulder, and breadth of his stance give the figure an attitude of pride and confidence that is echoed in Saint George's focused expression. Historians consider this work the first statue in the round since antiquity.

Perugino (1450 - 1523): Christ Giving the Keys of the Kingdom to Peter (below, cf. Matthew 16:16-20). (cf. the Arch of Constantine in Lesson 3.23)

was a member of the Umbrian school of Italian painting, and he later trained under the Florentine master. He was called to Rome by Pope Sixtus IV in the 1480's and received a commission the Sistine Chapel along with other important artists of the period. Perugino's most well-known contribution to the Sistine Chapel was his depiction of Christ Giving the Keys of the Kingdom to Peter (below, cf. Matthew 16:16-20). This work is the epitome of a 15th century Renaissance work with its idealized figures, spatial clarity, balance and symmetry. This fresco is a masterwork of scientific linear one-point perspective. Christ hands the keys of the Kingdom to the disciple Peter in the foreground. Around them, graceful, elegant and highly idealized depictions of the other Apostles and contemporary figures are arranged in a frieze-like manner. The golden key symbolizes heaven and points towards Christ, while the lead key (the key to Hell) points down. In the middle of the composition, Perugino creates scenes from the life of Christ. The far space of the background is dominated by centrally-planned structure flanked by two identical triumphal arches (cf. the Arch of Constantine in Lesson 3.23). The orthogonals of the work extend from the foreground into the distance, converging on the open door of the centrally-planned structure, creating a compositional triangle with the figures in the foreground serving as the base. This forward triangle is balanced by another triangular formation with the architectural structures in the background forming the base, and the interaction between Christ and Peter forming its apex. The use of these two triangular elements intersect and create a balanced, unified composition. Perugino's mastery of space and perspective, as seen in works like this, had an incredible impact on the next generation of artists during the High Renaissance.

Fra Filippo Lippi (1406-1469)

was a monk, but certainly not a devout one. The life of Filippo Lippi, a Carmelite monk, makes for an interesting story. The monk was not exactly dedicated to his religious tasks and fell in love with a nun, Lucrezia Buti. The nun Lucrezia returned his love and, after years of a secretive affair, they both were forced to renounce their religious vows. They had two children, a daughter and a son, Filippino, would later become a brilliant painter following in the footsteps of his father.

Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472) : The Palazzo Rucellai (Image 070)

was a true scholar of architecture. He studies the subject intently as well as wrote a treatises on architecture (De re aedificatoria) that combined his inspiration from the ancient models with his own architectural innovations. The Palazzo Rucellai (Image 070) is a landmark Renaissance palace in Florence whose façade was designed by Alberti, a renowned humanist and architect, between 1446 and 1451. This splendid work was the first to fully express the spirit of fifteenth-century humanism in residential architecture. Alberti organized this facade like that of the Palazzo Medici-Riccardi. The rustication of Alberti's facade is much more subtle, and the stories are defined by flat pilasters under full entablatures. The structural elements of ancient Rome are replicated in the arches and pilasters. The larger blocks on the ground floor heighten the impression of strength and solidity. The pilasters of the three stories embody different classical orders creating an effect reminiscent of the Coliseum. Flanking the two main doorways are long stone street benches that run the length of the building. These were a typical feature of fifteenth-century buildings that then, and still today, they serve as a resting place for passers-by and visitors to the palazzo. The elegant design of this palace marked a turning point in the architecture of patrician residences, setting them apart from the more fortress-like structures that had been previously built in Florence. The palace was created from an enclave of eight smaller buildings that were combined to form a single architectural complex arranged around a central courtyard. The piano nobile (or noble floor) is home to the Institute. It was refurbished for the occasion of the wedding of Giuseppe Rucellai and Teresa de' Pazzi. The frescoed vaulted ceilings, which date from around that time, depict mythological figures and motifs. The Palazzo Rucellai is one of the oldest and most prestigious historical residences in Florence. It has been home to the Rucellai for over 500 years, and the family continues to occupy portions of the building.

Raffaelo Sanzio (1483-1520), better known as Raphael

was another great artist of the High Renaissance in Italy. In his youth, Raphael studied under Perugino, which allowed him access to extensive professional knowledge and considerable patronage. While in Florence, Raphael was influenced by the work of Leonardo and Michelangelo, but he developed his own unique individual style. The marriage of (Virgin) Mary and Joseph - a legendary account not recorded in the Bible- is the subject of one of Raphael's early works. According to the legend, there was a competition for Mary's hand in marriage, the contestant were given wooden rods. The high priest was to give Mary to the suitor whose rod blossomed. In Raphael's work, the high priest presides as Joseph (whose rod has a flowed on the end) gives Mary the ring of matrimony. Behind Mary there is a congregation of virgins, while behind Joseph there is a group of other would-be suitors with their barren rods. One suitor breaks his rod in frustration. A centrally-planned building dominates the background similiar to Perugino's Christ Giving the Keys to Saint Peter (Lesson 6.04).

Arch of Constantine

was built adjacent to the Colosseum. It has a triple passageway like the Arch of Septimus Severus. The relief panels that decorate the arch were actually taken from the monuments of former Roman emperors Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius, and then the heads of the old emperors were refashioned to make them resemble Constantine. Originally, this scene now located on the the attic story of the Arch of Constantine depicted Marcus Aurelius receiving triumphal honors, but thanks to sculptors, it is Constantine who now receives the honors. We know this panel comes from an earlier work due to the presence of proportional bodies, natural poses and "loose" drapery. The stylistic differences are even more apparent when we compare the Aurelian panel with decorative scenes dating from the age of Constantine. As expected, the figures have cubic heads, squat bodies, and rigid frontality that were typical of the Late Imperial period.

Andrea Mantegna (ca. 1431-1506)

was highly influenced by Donatello, as seen in his figural forms, which are naturally rendered, proportionally correct, and emotionally expressive. Mantegna was a master of perspective, and his prowess with creating depth on a flat surface is impressive. He has to his fame the first completely consistent illusionistic treatment of an entire room in the so-called Camera degli Sposi ("Room of the Newlyweds") , a commission for the Palazzo Ducale in Padua, Italy. The walls seem to dissolve into garden and landscape vistas. The ceiling was treated in a novel technique known by art historians as di sotto in su ("from below upwards"). In the decoration of the ceiling, Mantegna painted an illusionistic oculus that opens skyward. Unidentified figures look in as well as a peacock (a fortuitous symbol) alongside foreshortened cupids. This work would become the prototype for Baroque and Rococo artists, who took illusionistic ceiling painting even further.

Leonardo da Vinci (1452 - 1519)

was the first great master of the High Renaissance. Although he is best known as an artist, he was also an accomplished scientist and engineer. Leonardo studied underthe Florentine master Verrocchio in his youth. He left Florence in his late twenties to work for the Duke of Milan. One of his first works in Milan was Madonna of the Rocks. The Madonna holds John the Baptist under her right hand and blesses Christ with her left. The infant John prays to the infant Christ and received his blessing in return. An angel holds the infant Christ steady and points to John as an indication that he will be the prophet who announces the Messiah. The presentation is characterized by harmony, order and proportion typical of the Early Renaissance, but Da Vinci has pushed these elements further with his unique stylistic innovations. He abandons an architectural setting in favor of a natural one, specifically a rocky grotto with a pool in the foreground. Using a pyramidal composition of the figures, he fills the space with figures and creates a sense of balance. Da Vinci's unique use of a smoky chiaoscuro is known as sfumato, and this technique allows him to create figures that gracefully and glowingly coalesce with the landscape. Sfumato is the technique of blurring or softening sharp outlines by subtle and gradual blending of one tone into another. The smoke-like haziness creates a vague sense of movement in the mist (from the Art Lexicon).

Athena seizing the Giant Alkyoneos from the Altar of Zeus (ca. 175 BCE) (Image 038)

we see Athena seizing the Giant Alcyoneos by the hair (Image 038). Alcyoneos' writhing body and agonizing expression is captured primarily through the shadows that the deep carving creates. The swirling drapery and open stride of Athena create a sense of swift, violent movement. The altar dismantled in the Middle Ages, and its marble fragments used to built defensive walls. The site was rediscovered by German archeologist Carl Humann in 1871, who took what was left of the altar to Germany. Today, the west front has been reconstructed in a museum in Berlin, and the site on which it once sat looks over a vast landscape out towards the sea. This proves an appropriate setting for a structure dedicated to the god of the sky.

http://civicjournalist.com/images/gallery/Iran/06023_large.jpg The prayer hall areas (Image 186)

were covered by a roof that is supported by brick piers and columns to leave open areas that could accomodate the city's entire population for Friday prayers. The direction of prayer is indicated by the quibla iwan on the southern side of the courtyard, which is the only iwan flanked by minarets. The quibla iwan also functions as the entrance into one of two domed chambers in the mosque. The domed chamber off the quibla iwan has colorful tile decoration and muqarnas (stalactite-form stucco decorations) like the other 3 iwans, but the domed interior itself was reserved for the ruler and allowed entrance into the mosque's main mihrab.

Minoan frescos

were true frescos (as opposed to the fresco secco), meaning that the painting was done while the plaster was still wet. This is a much more difficult technique because the plaster dries quickly, but the effect speaks for itself.

Line

an element of art which refers to the continuous mark made on some surface by a moving point

Northern Renaissance in France4

A truly French Renaissance style can be seen in the Square Court of the Louvre, which was a royal palace at the time (it will not become a museum until after the French Revolution in 1789). Francis I began redesigning of the Medieval palace fortress, and his successor Henry II continued the project. The Louvre's overhaul was directed by architect Pierre Lescot (1510-1578) and sculptor Jean Goujon (ca. 1510-1565). The facade contains Italian classical elements (ground story arcade, second story pilasters, and alternating curved and triangular pediments). Several elements are present that become typical of the subsequent French architectural style, such as decreased height of the stories, a steep roof, large windows, and a facade punctuated by pavilions with arched pediments). 2turret - A small tower, usually containing stairs, that is located on the top of a building (from the Art Lexicon). 3lantern - In architecture, a small, often decorative structure with openings for lighting that crowns a dome, turret, or roof (from the Art Lexicon).

fauces

Access to a Roman home was through a single entrance

quatrefoil

An ornamental form which has four lobes or foils. It may resemble a four-petaled flower.

"Colorito" vs. "Desegno"

Two terms are used by scholars to differentiate the Venetian artistic style from that of the style of central Italy: "colorito," which means colored or painted and "desegno," which means designed or drawn. The most striking characteristic of the Venetian school is their use of color while Florentine and Roman artists focused on carefully drawn, sculptural forms.

Ivories

Uncomplicated, highly skilled images of biblical scenes also occur on ivory boxes, codex covers, and writing tablets known as, diptychs.1 In this half of an ivory diptych both the Angel of the Lord announcing Christ's Resurrection (Matthew 27:62-66, 28:1-7) and Christ's Ascension into heaven (Luke 24:50-53) are depicted.

carpet pages http://www.wsp.krakow.pl/whk/durr1.html

decorative pages that are typical of Hiberno-Saxon manuscript illumination

St. Matthew cross-carpet page from the Lindisfarne Gospels (ca. 700 CE) (Image 055)

demonstrates the same marriage of Christian iconography and the animal interlace style of the northern Warrior Lords. The patterning is more intricate that the Book of Durrow , with serpentine animal and vegetal forms, curling, weaving, and interlocking into a design so dense it is difficult to discern the cross from the background.

triclinium

dinning room

Jan van Eyck - The Arnolfini Portrait

dog - fidelity clogs cast aside - holy ground peaches (on the window sill) - fertility single candle (in chandelier) - nuptials (a Flemish tradition) image of Saint Margaret (bedpost finial) - patron saint of childbirth husband's position near window - indicates that he is the provider and part of the "outside" world wife's position near the bed - indicates her domestic responsibilities and that she is part of the "inside" world

Kylix

drinking vessel

damnatio memoriae

essentially, they damned his (Geta's) memory and removed him from Roman history

The Gero Crucifix (ca. 970)

named after its patron the Archbishop Gero, is a six-foot work of monumental sculpture carved from oak. In this composition, Christ is depicted as truly suffering in the use of a bowed head and stretched, attenuated muscles.

Form

object(s) shape and structure

cubiculum

other rooms of various sizes and purposes were arranged around the atrium.

stigmata

ounds resembling those Christ received during the crucifixion

Christ's Passion cont..

pillar- to which Christ was tied in order to be beaten flagellum- with which Christ was whipped crown of thorns- that the Roman soldiers used to mock Christ as "king" of the Jews cross- on which Christ was crucified hammer and nails- tools by which Christ was fixed to the crucifix

pendentives http://www.pitt.edu/~medart/menuglossary/pendentive.htm squinch http://www.pitt.edu/~medart/menuglossary/squinch.htm

It was the use of pendentives2 to shift the weight from the dome to supporting piers rather than onto the walls (as in the Pantheon, Lesson 3.20) that allowed the builders could remove a great deal of wall mass and insert windows. Byzantine architectural engineering is noteworthy for its use of pendentives and squinches. Familiarize yourself with these structural devices, for you will see them time and time again. Therefore, make sure you print and study the links that we have provided in this footnote.

Versailles

King Louis XIV's most famous building project, however, was the conversion of the royal hunting lodge at Versailles into one of the world's most magnificent palaces. Under the direction of architect Charles Le Brun (1619-1690), a literal army of artists descended on Versailles in 1669. The Palace at Versailles (Image 093) is a stunning example of the excesses of French nobility that led to the French Revolution. The three-man team who orchestrated this enormous mansion worked 21 years to complete the palace that housed the entire 20,000 who made up Louis the XIVth's court. The place has 700 rooms, 2,153 windows, and takes up 67,000 square meters of floor space. The plan included not only a massive palace, but also a vast park and numerous satellite buildings including government offices, military barracks, servants' quarters and a chapel, just to name a few. Indeed, Versailles was more like a small city. By building Versailles, Louis emphasized his importance as "The Sun King" and shifted attention away from the feuding, gossiping nobility in Paris. He filled his opulent palace with sculpture, painting, and fountains that all focused on his position and person - as he famously said, "L.état, c'est moi" ("I am the state"), or, essentially, "everything revolves around me." Versailles itself is laid out along three radial avenues that converge at the palace. Everything leads to the king, and this is evidenced by how the axes of the three avenues intersected in the king's own bedroom, which also served as an official audience chamber. The palace itself is over a quarter-mile long and is perpendicular to the dominant east-west axis running through the city and the park. Every detail of the extremely rich palace was carefully planned and executed, as seen in the courtyard (Image 093). The architects and decorators designed everything from wall paintings to doorknobs in order to exhibit the greatest opulence and finest craftsmanship. Versailles' most famous room is the Galerie des Glaces (Image 093), or Hall of Mirrors. This second story hall overlooks the great gardens and extends almost the whole length of the central portion of the palace. The hall is decorated with dramatic and theatrical ornamentation that is typical of the Baroque. Ceiling paintings, marble, stucco decoration, and, of course, mirrors create a dazzling effect. Hundreds of mirrors are set into the wall opposite the windows extend the width of the room. The mirror was a favorite element of Baroque interior design, and of course, emphasized the extravagance of Louis the XIV's lavish lifestyle. The royal chapel by Jules Hardouin-Mansart (1646-1708), great-nephew of Francois Mansart is a rectangular building includes an apse as high as the nave. Overall, the chapel is a flowing curved central space in characteristic Baroque fashion, but it does not have the drama of the Italian Baroque architecture. The palace itself is nearly dwarfed by the beautiful park in which it is set. The formal gardens near the palace (Image 093) provide a transition from the formal architectural forms, such as the garden facade (Image 093), to the natural forms of the grounds surrounding the palace. There are elegant geometrically trimmed shrubs (Image 093) that form units with focal points in the form of a group of sculptures, a reflecting pool, or a fountain. The gardens are carefully tended and manicured to reflect that Louis XIV had control over nature as well as the state. As the gardens stretch away from the palace, the formations loosen, blending in with the natural landscape. The park is also called a "temporal artwork," as it changes with the time of day, the time of year, and the position of the observer. The sculpture of the French Baroque was dominated by the classical style as well, as seen in our selection, Apollo Attended by the Nymphs by Francois Girardon (1628-1715). This sculptural group was designed for the Gardens at Versailles . There is no doubt that Louis XIV, who, like Apollo, was known as the sun-god, was pleased with this work.

Pharaohs

Kings

Neoplatonism

The subject comes from Ovid's Metamorphoses, a very important work of Latin literature. Botticelli's composition is simply remarkable for its poetic depiction of figures and forms caught up in a brisk breeze, and in fact, the painting was inspired by a poem about the birth of Venus from the contemporary poet Angelo Poliziano, a friend of Botticelli and the best Neoplatonic poet of the Medici court. Neoplatonism was a modern thought of the era that tried to connect the Greek and Roman cultural history with Christianity. The Neoplatonic philosophical meaning was simple: the painting would mean the birth of love and spiritual beauty was a driving force of all of life.

Proportion

size relationship(s) of objects within a work

Pax Augusta

"Augustan Peace"

Athenian Acropolis

480 BCE. After this defeat, the Greek city-states joined together, going on the offensive and defeating the Persians in 478 BCE. This anti-Persian confederation regrouped after the Persian Wars under Athenian leadership, forming an alliance known as the Delian League, which would continue to hold the Persians at bay for the next thirty years.

Side Aisles

A closer look at the plan of Old St. Peter's shows that the church had a wide nave that ended in an apse (where the altar was located) and had double side aisles.

triptych

A painting or carving that has three side-by-side parts, panels, or canvases. Typically, a triptych has three hinged panels, the two outer panels designed so they can be folded in towards the central one (from the Art Lexicon).

Rachel Ruysch

Called in Dutch "pronkstilleven" ("still lifes of displays or ostentation"), still life compositions were often referred to as vanitas works. A vanitas work usually contains a collection of objects that speak to the transience of life and the passage of time. Vanitas works can include not only obvious symbols of mortality, such as skulls, but also overturned glasses, half-eaten food, decaying flowers and fruit, and other objects that seem to have been abandoned in the middle of begin enjoyed. Many artists selected luxury manufactured goods for their compositions, such as silverware, Chinese porcelain, Oriental carpets, fragile glass and exotic foodstuffs, representing the wealth of the Dutch Republic, the might of its sea power, and the efficiency of its trade systems. These objects are usually symbols of wealth, power, and earthly pleasures, and their presence on the table in disarray were meant to remind the Dutch audience that life is short, so they should be mindful of living good and righteous existences in order to go to Heaven. An important Dutch still life artist is Rachel Ruysch (1663-1750). Unlike most seventh- and eighteenth-century female artists, Ruysch enjoyed fame and recognition of her talent during her lifetime. Ruysch was a specialized in still-life paintings of flowers. Her father was a famous anatomist and botanist, and he had many specimens at his home that would inspire Ruysch. She also lived in a district of Amsterdam called Bloemgracht ("flower canal"), which was an area of great natural beauty and a favorite place of artists. Within the still life genre Ruysch was not terribly innovative, but she did perfectly assimilate the work of others and equaled them in terms of technique. At 15, she was apprenticed to Willem van Aelst, a prominent painter who was also known for his flower paintings. Van Aelst taught her the skill of composing a bouquet in a vase but in a less formal manner in order to produce a more realistic and tangible effect. In more realistic works, flowers and leaves would droop over the sides of vases and around the back, and this technique would later instill vitality into Ruysch's paintings. Fruit and Insects (Image 096) represents two passions of the time - taxonomy (or, categorization) and still-lifes, which give attention to the pleasure of the senses and their fleetingness. Flower painting increased in popularity during this time because of the increase in more affluent merchants, a growing interest in plants developed by the progress of botany, and the import of a wider variety of exotic flowers and plants in Holland. Typical for this period is the adding of insects and fruit of every kind. This work includes bundles of grapes, peaches, and plums as well as a bird's nest. These fruits with their characteristic matte finishes are often difficult to reproduce, and it appears they were chosen in order to demonstrate her technical skill. Ruysch became court painter to the elector palatine Johann Wilhelm, who gave this painting and its pendant to his father-in-law, Cosimo III de'Medici.

Senmut

Hatshepsut's chief advisor

Church of Sainte-Foy, Conques, France

Images of the Last Judgment as well as the Apocalypse were common themes on Romanesque tympana throughout France. The tympanum of the Last Judgment on the western facade of the Church of Sainte-Foy (Image 058) is frequently studied because of its excellent state of preservation as well as its size and lively presentation of the subject matter. This imagery is based on Matthew 25: 31-46, which explains the separation of the blessed and the damned as well as their fates. The tympanum is divided into three registers separated by banners with inscriptions in Latin. The design is further compartmentalized into approximately twenty sections that correspond with the limestone slabs used to create the tympanum. In the center, an elongated figure of Christ sits enthroned in Majesty surrounded by his star-filled mandorla and flanked by angels. Angels also fill the uppermost portion of the tympanu, some blowing their trumpets to signal the Second Coming of Christ and others carrying a huge cross that symbolizes the crucifixion in the Passion of Christ. Hierarchical perspective is used to indicate Christ is the most important (and therefore, the largest) figure on the portal. Below Christ in the center, the Archangel Michael and a demon are weigthing souls to determine their future before sending them to Heaven or Hell. Once their fate has been determined, the souls are sent to the level below where there are figures passing through one of two doors. The rounded door on the left in the image (which is Christ's right) resembles the entrance to Sainte-Foy, and it is used to admit the blessed into the Kingdom of Heaven. The blessed are greeted by an angel who takes their hands and ushers them into Heaven. In the panel to the left of the door to Heaven (above the left door into the church), Abraham presides over Heaven with figures that represent Old and New Testament Law. Saint Foy also makes an appearance on the Blessed side of the portal, bowing to the hand of God below the portion of the inscription that reads "joy in heaven." On the other side (Christ's left, but the viewer's right), there is a square door (in the post-and-lintel style) that represents the entry into Hell. At this entrance, a demon violently pushes a sinner into the mouth of Hell with a mallet where a monster awaits to eat the sinners who are being damned for eternity. Once through the door to Hell, a panel (over the right door into the church) shows Satan presiding over the torturing of those condemned to eternity in Hell, and in particular, it shows the punishments of those who commit the Seven Deadly Sins. For the worshippers who passed through the portal into the Church of Sainte-Foy, this tympanum served to remind them of their responsibilities as good Christians as well as what happened to them should they decide to sin. Even the illiterate could "read" the sculptural images of Heaven and Hell and understand the consequences of being virtuous versus being sinful.

Saint-Sernin, Toulouse, France

The earliest, truly Romanesque structures populate the pilgrimage routes in France. Saint-Sernin at Toulouse, was begun in 1070 and completed sometime around 1120. Saint-Semin had all the typical features of a Romanesque church: an elongated nave, transept, apse, ambulatory, and radiating chapels. The church plan is in the shape of a Latin cross. The interior space is rhythmically organized by repeating barrel-vaulted bay units supported by compound piers. The use of "segmented space" is typically seen in a Romanesque church, and it is strikingly different from the timber-roofed, uninterrupted space used in Early Christian basilicas like Sant'Apollinare Nuovo. Church is shape of Latin Cross (http://www.pitt.edu/~medart/menuglossary/LATINCR.HTM) Interior https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/428/flashcards/19428/jpg/st_sernin_nave.jpg

Ambulatory

a circular side aisle, as this plan shows. In a central plan, this side aisle is known as an ambulatory.

atrium

a large open space that provided light and ventilation to the interior

nave

a large, central space

grisaille

a style of monochromatic painting in shades of gray, used especially for the representation of relief sculpture, or to simulate one (from the Art Lexicon).

Hierarchy of scale

a subject of greater importance is depicted as larger in size

Subtractive method

a technique in which the artist would first draw sketches on the four sides of a block of stone and then chisel away the excess material

Capitolium

a triple shrine for Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. The Capitolium was a common feature in all Roman towns in the Republican period. These structures show the eclecticism of Roman art, as they combine the a platform, central stairs, and a deep porch of an Etruscan temple plan with Greek Corinthian columns.

madrasa

a type of seminary that is a common Islamic structure.

Flemish

an adjective meaning "of or relating to [the region of] Flanders."

ambulatory and radiating chapels

apsidioles

Superstructures

are better known as entablatures 1. The architrave is the first part of the entablature. We have previously called a this a lintel.

patrician

aristocrat

Axial plan

bilaterally symmetrical

Colors

black- death blue- truth brown- humility green- life; vitality purple- power; authority red- martyrdom white- holiness; purity yellow (bright)- divinity;godliness yellow (dull)-decay

The Torhalle (or gatehouse) of the Lorsch Monastery in Germany (ca. 9C)

borrows elements from the Roman past. The design for this gatehouse is borrowed from Roman city gates, as seen in its second story with windows and flanking towers. The engaged columns and composite capital are both clearly classical in origin. In contrast, the zigzag decoration and the steep, shingled roof show a Northern influence.

Eucharist

bread

tumulus

burial mound

lintel

cap

Caliph Umar I

captured Jerusalem in 638

Cycladic

centered around the Cycladic Islands

peristyle court

centerpiece of the home

Giotto's Madonna Enthroned

central figure has volume and is completely solid.

Berlinghieri's Saint Francis Altarpiece

central figure lacks figural volume and is completely flat.

Cella

central hall

Third style

first appeared around 15 BCE. This style is recognized by delicate linear decoration on a monochromatic (single color) background. Third style paintings were simply for decoration. The increased sense of depth evident in the Second Style works was essentially eliminated in the Third. The Romans seem to have returned to embracing the wall surface through ornamentation (like the First Style) instead of attempting to dissolve the walls (like the Second Style).

Citadels

fortified palaces

Grave Stele of Hegreso (Image 036)

from ca. 410 BCE was discovered in the Dipylon cemetery in Athens. It shares the sculptural style of the reliefs from the Temple of Athena Nike and the compositional format of some of the vase paintings of the period. The inscription identifies the subject as Hegreso, a young woman shown seated in an elegant chair being attended by her maid. She is examining a box of jewelry (likely her dowry) that the servant has brought to her. The image is a characteristic moment from every day life in Classical Greece, but the simplicity of the scene is somewhat deceptive. This is an intimate view into the woman's quarters of a Greek house. The presence of both the servant and the jewelry box attest to her wealth and status.

in the round

fully carved and removed from any background material

chalice

glass holding wine

Deity

god

Caladarium

hot bath The most interesting architectural feature of the baths was its dome over the caldarium because it was almost as big as the dome of the Pantheon, and the dome sat on a much taller base.

furusiyya

good horsemanship

tetrarchy

government of four rulers

Megaron

grand entrance hall

megaliths

great stones

kulliye

greater complex

The Forum's Basilica Ulpia (image 045) http://www.pitt.edu/~tokerism/0040/images0/040.jpg

had a semicircular recesses, or apses, at each end. Unlike most basilicas, this one was entered from the long side. Behind the basilica was an additional smaller plaza with two libraries on either side- one Greek and the other Latin. The great marble Column of Trajan stood in the middle.

basilica

housed the law courts in most Roman towns. The basilica saw many people each day, and it was in fact designed to meet the demand for a large, enclosed public space. Inside of the basilica, two rows of two-storied columns created a large, central space (or nave) that was flanked by aisles that were also rather spacious. There was ample space on both stories for offices.

Mosques

houses of worship. "Mosque" comes from the Arabic word "masjid" which means "bowing down place."

Technique

how an artist manipulates material(s)

Composition

how an artist organizes the form(s) of a work

chancel

he part of a church reserved for clergy and containing the altar and the choir

Head of a Roman Patrician (c.75-50 BCE) (Image 42)

he same harsh realism in the details of this bust in an effort to convey the wisdom and strict adherence to important Republican ideals, such as loyalty and service to family and state. The hyperrealistic, direct nature of Republican sculpture was not limited to family portraiture. Important politicians were also depicted in the same manner, as seen in these busts of Marcus Tullius Cicero and another statesman. As two of Rome's most famous Republican leaders, show, they are rendered with receding hairlines, wrinkled faces and necks, and stern expressions in the typical veristic style. The characteristics of the leaders' personalities are also shown in their portraits. As Rome's greatest speaker, Cicero his lips are parted to give the impression he is going to speak. In contrast, Caesar, the mighty general, has the hard, forceful demeanor of a veteran commander.

Polyptychs

hinged, multipaneled paintings)

Nave elevation (Cluny III, Cluny, Germany) http://www.brynmawr.edu/cities/Cities/wld/01180/01180i.jpg

its nave elevation1 had three stories instead of two, and the arches of each nave bay was slightly pointed, both of these will become standards for northern churches in the subsequent period. 1Nave elevation refers to the division of horizontal space in the nave wall. Saint-Sernin, we has two stories: the arcade (lower) and the tribune (upper). At Cluny III the nave elevation is defined by an arcade, a tribune, and a clerestory.

Temple of Athena Nike (Image 035)

kallikrates built this small, Ionic amphiprostyle temple to commemorate the Greek victory over the Persians. The building rests majestically on a fortification overlooking the steep climb to the Acropolis. Its Ionic frieze depicts the victory of the Greeks over the Persians in the battle of Marathon in 490 BCE. The most famous sculptures associated with this structure are the reliefs that decorated the parapet around the structure. There are dozens of images of Nike shown with different postures and attitudes. The best of these works shows Nike adjusting her sandal (Image 035). This awkward posture is elegantly and gracefully shown. Her garments cling tightly revealing the anatomical structure beneath in a way that is mirrors the delicate representation of clothing on the Three Goddesses from the Parthenon's pediment. This style of rendering clothing while simultaneously revealing the anatomical forms underneath it is known as the Phidian wet drapery technique.

parchment

lambskin

dadoes (dado)

lower wall panels

Galleries

networks of passageways

Wooden tondo portrait http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severan_Tondo#mediaviewer/File%3aSeveran_dynasty_-_tondo.png Bust of Caracalla http://www.vroma.org/images/scaife_images/093b.jpg

portrait of Septimus Severus and his family from Egypt, you can see where the image of young Geta has been destroyed. The arm of the Roman emperor had a very far reach. In the Late Imperial period, portrait sculptors continued to create images that showed the "inner man," as this bust of Caracalla demonstrates. Caracalla was cruel, resentful, and paranoid. The knotted brow, piercing eyes, and clenched jaw reflect his personality.

Pyxis and Lekythos

primarily a vessel for oils and such

Temple Mount

the location of the Jewish temple (Dome of the Rock) (which was destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE, and the site traditionally believed to be the burial place for Adam as well as Abraham's attempt to sacrifice his son Isaac and the Jewish people.

qibla

the orientation of the mosque , faces Mecca

decursio

the ritual of circling the emperor's funeral pyre

Superstructure

what rests on the columns, 3rd section

Anastasis

Greek meaning "Resurrection"

Ziggurats

Temple's platform

Mycenaean

The latest phase of the Helladic civilization

Islamic Mosque cont..

In addition, there is a stepped pulpit (minbar), on which the imam ("teacher") recites the khutba ("sermon"). Some mosques also have exterior auxiliary towers known as minarets, which are used by a muezzin ("crier") to call the faithful to prayer five times a day.

Gur

onager

Lunettes

semicircular frames

animal style

In general, the surviving arts of the Warrior Lords (people such as the Huns, Vandals, Ostrogoths, Merovingians, Celts, Anglo-Saxons, etc.) consist of smal functional objects with decorative abstract patterns combined with animal forms

Tomb of the Reliefs

"Necropolis" is an appropriate term for this burial site because the tombs were laid out along a network of streets in a systematic way. Tombs were fashioned of the rock below to resemble an actual home. The most ornate of these is the Tomb of the Reliefs (ca. 3rd century BCE). The walls show all the elements of everyday life, including weaponry, tools, cooking utensils, pottery, and cosmetic gear all cut from the rock below.

di sotto in su

("from below upwards")

Baldacchino

A large four-columned canopy

colonnades (columns)

Most temples had them of various kinds. (kinds are listed below)

Engraving3

The enormously influential Adam and Eve is the only engraving to which Dürer signed his name in full, indicating the importance he placed on this work. The static, almost iconic grandeur of the image is the result of Dürer's preoccupation with conveying not merely the drama of the biblical narrative, but also the ideal proportions of the human form. The nearly symmetrical frontal poses of Adam and Eve in The Fall of Man were carefully calculated to demonstrate idealized proportions of the nude to a Northern audience unfamiliar with classical norms of beauty. Such famous Greek statues as the Apollo Belvedere and the Medici Venus inspired both the proportions and the graceful attitude of the figures. Adam and Eve are set before dense woodland filled with a multitude of plants and animals. Erwin Panofsky, a German art historian, was the first to decipher the complex and inventive symbols contained in Dürer's engraving. Adam grasps a mountain ash with his right hand, signifying the Tree of Life; this is contrasted with the Tree of Knowledge which is represented by the fig tree at the center of the composition. The evil and seductive serpent places the forbidden fruit in Eve's hand is opposed by the parrot, which symbolizes both wisdom and understanding, and the virgin birth of Christ. The cat and mouse in the foreground, predator and prey, summarize the relationship between the two central characters. The elk, bull, rabbit, and cat illustrate the four humors, or temperaments, into which the human soul has been divided since the fall fo man from God's grace. The Four temperaments is a psychological theory that suggests that there are four fundamental personality types, sanguine (optimistic leader-like), choleric (bad-tempered or irritable), melancholic (analytical and quiet), and phlegmatic (relaxed and peaceful). Medieval doctrine suggests in the twelfth century that the perfect equilibrium of these humors in humans was upset after the fall, causing one or the other to predominate and make man both mortal and subject to sin.

stoa

a continuous colonnade

Chryselephantine

made of wood and fashioned with gold and ivory

Color

tonality (light or dark) and intensity (bright or dull)

Ara Pacis Augustae

("The Altar of Augustan Peace"). Built to commemorate the Augustan peace, Augustus dedicated the work on the birthday of his wife, Livia. The Ara Pacis was not only a marvelous work of art, but also an instrument of Augustan propaganda. The altar itself is situated inside an ornate enclosure. The exterior was covered in symbolic relief carvings as it was the public face of the monument. The outer decorations are divided into lower and upper regions that are separated by a Greek meander pattern. All the lower regions show acanthus tendrils in relief, symbolizing the fruitfulness of Augustan Peace. This lush vegetation is extremely ordered, illustrating the Roman desire to control nature. In the upper regions, figural reliefs fill the panels. The west facade of the enclosure presents mythological scenes involving Mars (the father of Romulus) on one side of the stairs and Aeneas, the mythological patriarch of the Roman race on the other, again stressing the divinity of Augustan ancestry.

Two states of Roman Empire

After the reign of Constantine, the Roman Empire consisted of two states, each with its own ruler. The western portion of the Roman Empire officially fell in 476, but in the east, the Roman Empire lasted another millennium until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

Confraternities

Groups of Christian families pooled their money and created burial associations

Donatello: St. Mark

Donatello's Saint Mark also occupies a niche in the same building as Saint George. Saint Mark has a noticeable weight-shift, reintroducing the element of contrapposto to Western art and again reviving classical tradition. The drapery of the figure further reflects this sense of natural movement and weight-shift.

Early Christian Art in Ravenna

By 380, Christianity was the official state religion of Rome. Pagan worship was outlawed in 391, and a few years later in 394, so were the Olympic games (which were considered pagan in origin). were The emperor also outlawed pagan worship in 391 and the Olympic games in 394. In 402, the Visigoths invaded Italy, and the capitol of the west was established in Ravenna, an inaccessible and heavily defended city on Italy's Adriatic coast.

Caravaggisti

Gospel Book of Charlemagne (ca. 800)

Charlemagne was an enthusiastic patron of learning and scholarship, and many books were produced during this Carolingian period. The Gospel Book of Charlemagne (ca. 800) was created with purple vellum pages with text written in gold. Its images have several classical characteristics. The application of value gives the illustrations a sense of three-dimensionality and depth. In addition, the figures were presented idealistically and with large drapery folds.

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