AP Comparative Government Review Questions (Iran)

What role has Iran's military played in politics?

Used to support the regime and to suppress opposition.

How have oil revenues negatively affected Iran?

By creating a rentier state.

Ali Khamenei

Conservative Supreme Leader who was also a former President.

Muhammad Khatami

Former reformer President.

How would you describe Iran's political communication compared to other countries that we have studied?

Iranian political communication is mostly unfree with significant controls by the state like China.

What was the name of Mohammed Khatami's coalition?

Khordad Front

What was the cause of the Sunni-Shia split?

A dispute over the rightful heir to Muhammad. Sunnis favored a leader chosen by the community while Shia favored a relative of Muhammad, specifically Ali and were known as the "Shi'ite Ali" or party of Ali.

How does Shiism both unite and separate Iranians politically?

Almost all Iranians are strong adherents of Shiism; but historically many Shiite clergy have opposed involvement of the clergy with political matter.

How might we define Iran's government?

As an oligarchic theocracy which is tending towards a dictatorship.

Which country has the largest number of Shiites? Second largest?

Iran has the largest population of Shiites and Iraq the second largest.

Qu'ran

Islam's holy book which are Muhammad's words of his revelations. These were recorded after his death.

How has Iran's public policy on family planning changed since the Islamic Revolution? Why has it changed?

It has moderated its views against birth control to be more pragmatic as huge population growth has put intense strain on politics and society.

Why did the founding of the Islamic Republic lead to violence?

Many elements of society sought a democratic form of government while others wanted a communist revolution.

What are the names and background of the two main opposition candidates from the 2009 presidential election?

Mir Hossein Mossavi, a former PM of Iran and Mehdi Karroubi, a reformist and former speaker of the Majles.

Mullah

Prayer leader in a mosque

Civil society in Iran has been trending in which direction over the last 10 years?

Generally disappearing as leaders are executed or severely tortured.

How has Iran's geographic location influenced its politics?

Iran, formerly known as Persia, is located at the crossroads of Asia and thus suffered frequent invasions....Alexander the Great, the Mongols, Turks, Arabs, etc. This has led to "statism" of the need for a strong centralized state.

Ummah

Islamic community

Why is velayat-e faqih important in Iran?

It is the theological justification by Ayatollah Khomeini for the post of the Supreme Leader.

Who led collection of reformers that won the Sixth Majles election in 2000?

Mohammed Khatami

Where did Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini develop jurist guardianship?

While in exile in Najaf, Iraq.

Where and when did Islam originate? Who was its founder and how did his position differ from many other founders of religions?

570 C.E. with the birth of Muhammad in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. His followers considered Muhammad to be the "seal of the prophets" or the last of the prophets from the Jewish and Christian traditions. Muhammad was different from most religious leaders as he was both a spiritual and political leader of his community.

How can one describe Iran's levels of government?

A highly centralized unitary government with Provinces or Administration Regions that implement government policies.

Hassan Rouhani

Current President who has opened up dialogue with the U.S.

Shariah

Islamic law

Who is Shirin Ebadi? What is she known for?

Nobel prize winning feminist.

Ali Rafsanjani

Pragmatic Chairman of the Expediency Council and former President.

What changes occurred between the Sixth and Seventh Majles to alter the course of reform? Which government institution played a major role in this process?

The Guardian Council barred over 2500 candidates, thereby resulting in electoral victories for conservatives.

What were some of the main reasons for the fall of the Pahlavi dynasty?

The Shah's support for secular reforms and a constitution that were seen as un-Islamic by Shiite clerics. The failed White Revolution that led impoverished peasants to move into city slums. The harshness of his rule, typified by his dreaded secret police, SAVAK combined with the ostentatious opulence of his court.

What are the three reasons for consolidation of power by the government of the Islamic Republic?

The U.S. embassy hostage crisis helped to remove more liberal elements from power, the Iran- Iraq War from 1980 to 1988 helped to unify the country against a common enemy, introduction of new institutions like the pasdaran or Revolutionary Guards helped further incite revolutionary fervor and protect the revolution.

What might offer hope for governmental and societal change in the future?

Young educated men and women may put pressure on the government to change.

In what year was the Shah forced to flee Iran and the Islamic Republic declared?

1979

Which issue presented the greatest challenge for the incumbent presidential candidate in the 2009 presidential election?

Ahmadinejad's failure to improve Iran's weak economy and provide more benefits to the poor.

Describe Iran's dual-executive

An elected president who serves as head of government and head of state and a Supreme Leader who has ultimate authority on all matters including control of coercive elements of Iran's government.

Who was the effective leader of the new government, even though he did not take a distinct political role?

Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini

Why is Iran unlikely to become a totalitarian state?

Because of the incoherence of its multiple bureaucratic structures.

Which two countries that we have studied in this course have an official state religion? How are the governments of these countries different?

Britain and Iran. Britain is a democracy while Iran is a theocratic oligarchy with democratic elements.

What are some of the restrictions on the Majles?

Candidates for the Majles are vetted by the Guardian Council. The Guardian Council can only pass quanun or statutes that do not conflict with shari'a or Islamic law.

How has Iran changed politically in the last 20 years?

Democratic policies have led to some policy shifts but authoritarian theocratic practices have stifled many policy changes.

Why did Iranian students occupy the American embassy in November 1979?

Due to the U.S. invitation for the Shah to go into exile to the U.S. and fears that the U.S. embassy would again be behind a plot to overthrow the government, as it had done with the CIA backed coup against Muhammed Mossadeq in 1953.

Describe the elected and unelected parts of Iran's government. Which of these has the most power? Why?

Elected institutions include the president, the Parliament or Majles, and Assembly of Experts. Unelected institutions include the Supreme Leader, Guardian Council, Judiciary, and Expediency Council. The Supreme Leader has the most power as he can override all decisions by any other part of the government.

What is the trend in Iranian civil society in recent years?

Generally declining as interest groups and personal freedoms are increasingly restricted.

How has Iran addressed its ethnic social cleavages?

Granted some ethnic groups a quota in the Majlis.

Which political groups were opposed to the new government? What was the result?

Groups like the National Front, Mojehedin, Fedayin, and Tudeh opposed the government. Following serious anti-government demonstrations and assassinations of leading clerics, all of these parties were banned and members became subject to arrest and often execution in a blood bath that exceeded the atrocities of the Shah's regime.

What have been some of the successes of the Iranian state since the Islamic Revolution and the challenges it faces?

Improvements in public service, health, and education. Challenges are its vulnerability based on reliance on a single product, oil, as a rentier state in a globalized world.

What did protest inspired constitutional reforms in 1906 initially result in? Why did these fail?

Initially it resulted in the establishment of a constitutional monarchy with a unicameral legislature called "The Majles", albeit with oversight by the clerics. It failed because the Qajar Shah, supported by Russian troops, dissolved the Majles in 1911.

How does Iran differ from most of its neighbors in the Middle East in religion, language, and culture?

Iran has a Persian culture. They mostly speak Farsi which is an Indo-Aryan language unlike Arabic. They are Shiites unlike most Arabs who are Sunnis and who view the Shiites as heretics. Their belief in the martyrdom of Ali and Hussein increases their sense of paranoia complicated by their history of numerous invasions.

How and why are Iran's demographics different from other countries that we have studied in this course?

Iran has the youngest population of any studied in this course with a median age of 23. This was a result of the leaders of the Islamic Republic that initially encouraged large families but later reversed course to encourage birth control due to the problem of providing public services to a rapidly growing population.

Why does Iran conduct elections in the manner it does?

Iran's regime is a republic so it needs to have democratic and competitive elections, but it is also based on the supremacy of Islam as the state religion and thus wishes to exclude those who do not fully adhere to Islam.

In what way is Iran's political culture and source of power and authority like China and Mexico?

Iranians have very positive beliefs about the revolution that led to their regime.

How is Iran culturally different from its Arab neighbors?

Iranians speak Farsi, or a Persian dialect and are influenced by both Persian traditions and Shiite Muslim traditions unlike their Arab neighbors who speak Arabic and are primarily Sunni Muslims.

In 1979 which political party was formed to pursue formation of an Islamic state? Why was it disbanded in 1987?

Islamic Republican Party or IRP which was disbanded in 1987 due to factionalism.

Why has Iran's public policy on family developed as it has?

It has moderated its views against birth control to be more pragmatic as huge population growth has put intense strain on politics and society.

What did the Iranian occupation of the American Embassy lead to?

It led to a 444 day hostage crisis, a break in diplomatic relations which, to date, have not been restored, freezing of Iranian assets in the U.S. and trade sanctions.

How might we associate Iranian foreign and domestic policies to the influence of the Shiism, such as the Battle of Karbala and Ashoura?

It reinforced Iranians perceptions of a unique Shiite culture and its division from Sunni Islam, heightened Iranians distrust of those opposed to the Islamic Republic, promoted a willingness to die for the Islamic Republic in the Iran-Iraq War, provided support for government propaganda depicting the struggle of good (Iran) versus evil (the West).

What effect did the Iran-Iraq War from 1980-1988 have on Iran's political culture?

It strengthened support for the government based on nationalistic fervor.

What are some of the geopolitical characteristics of Iran that have affected its history?

Located at the crossroads of Asia and has been invaded many times which leads Iranians to be naturally defensive/two mountain ranges with a dry arid plateau in between so that much land is not arable which makes it difficult to support a large population/one of the world's largest oil reserves which has meant that Iran has been slow to develop a diverse industrial base, instead relying on oil related "rents".

Which group is most discriminated against by the Iranian government? Why?

Members of the Bahai faith because of their belief in a prophet who came after Mohammed that Muslims view as heresy.

Who was Muhammad Mossadeq? Why was he overthrown in a coup in 1953? How has that influenced subsequent relations with the U.S.?

Mossadeq was overthrown in a coup orchestrated by the CIA in Tehran at the request of the British who objected to the nationalization of the Anglo-Iranian oil company. Americans also feared Mossadeq's alliance with the Tudeh, Iran's communist party. This has poisoned future relations with the US as Iranians view this as interference in their domestic affairs.

Was Velayat e-faqih widely accepted by all of the ayatollahs?

No. Many ayatollahs felt that clerics should not be involved in politics. He did gain wide support from the medium ranking clerics, Hojjat-al-Islam.

Who was Reza Shah and what was he noted for? How did he fall from power? Who succeeded him?

Reza Shah was an illiterate cavalry officer in a Cossack brigade who seized power from the Qajar Shah in 1921 establishing the Pahlavi Dynasty in the name of Reza Shah. He tried to modernize Iran building railways, schools, adopting western laws and dress, but this offended religious conservatives. He was sent into exile by the Allies in WWII when he sided with the Axis powers. They put his son, Mohammad Reza Shah on the "peacock throne".

How is the practice of the Shia different from that of the Sunni?

Shia have a hierarchical religious organization and are more open to discussion and dialogue about religious matters. They believe in the Twelve Imams as the descendents of Muhammad and commemorate the martyrdom of many of these, especially Husayn.

Karbala, Iraq

Site in Iraq of the massacre of the grandson of Muhammad, Husayn, and his troops-important as a Shiite martyr.

Sammara, Iraq

Site in Iraq of the occultation or concealment of the last known descendent​ of Muhammad, the 12th Imam...important to the Shiite Twelver Sect.

Najaf, Iraq

Site in Iraq of the tomb of Ali, cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad whose followers are the Shiite.

Why are there divisions between the two major factions in Iran's leadership?

Statist reformers or populists favor more of a social welfare state while conservatives favor more of a free market economy.

How would you describe the two-factions within the Iranian clerical elite that have most often come into conflict in the Islamic Republic?

Statists and free-marketers.

What are the two factions within Iran's clerical elite that often come into conflict in politics?

Statists vs. free-marketers and reformers vs. conservatives.

It has been said that the Islamic Republic was not a creation of high ranking ayatollahs but rather a regime created by the medium ranking clerics or hojjat al-Islams. Why?

Support for Khomeini's concept of velayat e-faqih was not so popular among the ayatollahs.

What was the "White Revolution" of the 1960s? Why was it, and other actions by the shah, causes for civil unrest that led to the Islamic Revolution?

The White Revolution was a failed attempt at land reform that led to millions of poor peasants flooding into the cities of Iran, forming the basis for anti-government protests.

What is the legitimacy of Iran's government based on?

The democratic institutions of the 1979 Constitution, the connection of the state to anti-Shah revolutionary spirit, and the theocratic connection to the Shiite form of Islam of many Iranians.

Explain the origin of the Sunni-Shia split. How do the Shia differ from the Sunnis in their religious practices?

The issue involved which leader should succeed Mohammad as he had not designated an heir to what was, in essence, a theocracy. Sunni's favored a leader of the community, Abu Bakr, while Shia from Shiite Ali or "Party of Ali" favored a blood relative, Mohammad's cousin and son-in-law Ali. Both Ali and his son Hussein were killed. Shia pray 3 times a day instead of 5. They have a religious hierarchy, unlike the Sunni. And most believe in "Twelver Shi'ism" or 12 imams of which the last imam will return as a messiah at the end of days.

Why was the 2009 election controversial and what happened as a result?

The results were announced within 1 day with Ahmadinejad winning 62% of the votes which were all paper ballots. This indicated a strong probability of vote tampering. Moussavi even lost in his home district. There was no independent monitoring of the election. The result was street protests by opposition supporters and a vicious crackdown by the Basij militia.

How has the role of women in Iranian society changed since the Islamic Revolution?

They have become more restricted in dress and behavior but received many more opportunities in education and careers.

What is the role of the Expediency Council? Whose idea was it to create this institution?

To iron out differences over legislation between the Majles and the Guardian Council. It was the creation of Ayatollah Khomeini based on his principle of maslahat" or "public interest" to avoid legislative gridlock.

Which major political parties were outlawed in the early 1980s? Why?

Tudeh, Fedayin, and Mojahediin due to their opposition to the Islamic Republic and velayat-e faqih.

Mahmoud Ahmadinejad

Two term conservative President whose election in 2009 sparked mass protests.

How did Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini justify his oversight of the government?

Velayat e-faqih or jurist guardianship.

Who won the 2013 presidential election and why was his background unusual? Why did popular support increase during the campaign and why was his election a surprise to many?

While a cleric, he has a Phd from a university in Scotland and was a former diplomat. Popular support grew because a) he was not one of the favored candidates by the theocratic leadership and b) he criticized the Ahmadinejad administration for its economic and foreign policy failures and promised a reopening of negotiations over the nuclear/sanctions issue with the U.S. and Europe.