AP Euro Exam

"Book of Common Prayer"

(1549) written by Thomas Cranmer, one of King Henry VIII spiritual advisors in the break with the Roman Church, this book was imposed on all English churches with the installation of King Edward VI's Act of Uniformity. A revised addition was imposed with the Second Act of Uniformity, along with a 42-article confession of faith by Cranmer, that helped establish a moderate Protestant doctrine in England.

First Coalition

(1792-7) consisted of the nations of Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, Spain, the Netherlands, Sardinia. Drove the French from the Austrian Netherlands, and peasants in Western France revolted against being drafted into the army. They were supported and encouraged in their resistance by devout Catholics, royalists, and foreign agents. Attempted to protect their social structures, political systems, and economic interests against the aggression of the revolution.

Reign of Terror

(1793-4) Emerged from the need to protect the revolution that came from the fact that France was at war with so many nations that were trying to do harm to the revolution. Many systematically executed under the command of Robespierre if seen as a threat to the revolution. Came to a close with Robespierre's execution, when the Convention took control over the Committee of Public Safety.

Republic of Virtue

(1793-4) Robespierre's desire to reshape France based on the idea of civic virtue from the writings of Rousseau, in which the sacrifice of one's self and one's interest for the good of the republic would replace selfish aristocracy and monarchical corruption. Manifested itself in the renaming of streets, republican attire of the san-culottes, absence of wigs, in suppression of plays and etc. that were not republic, and attack against crimes, esp. prostitution. Core value was the championing of public good or general will. Robespierre therefore advocated the use of terror in defending democracy.

Law of 22 Prairial

(1794) Passed by Robespierre, this permitted the revolutionary tribunal to convict suspects without hearing substantial evidence. The Reign of Terror grew even more fanatical.

Treaties of Basel

(1795) treaties by which France made peace with Spain and Prussia

Directory

(1795-9) Were anti-monarchists; staged a coup d'etat with help from Napoleon to prevent the revival of the monarchy. Economic troubles and the dangerous internal situation eroded all support.

Directory

(1795-9) a five-person executive body created under the Constitution of Year III during the Thermidorean Reaction. Chosen by the Elders from a list the Council of Five Hundred had submitted. Property qualifications applied. Had difficulty dealing with the suppression of the sans-culottes, the Two-Thirds law, and the Catholic royalist (supporters of monarchy) revival. Came to depend on power of army to govern France.

Battle of Abukir

(1798) Napoleon's fleet is destroyed by British Admiral Horatio Nelson, cutting his army off from France. The second coalition gathers to defeat French in Italy and Switzerland, then threatens to invade France itself. Ruins Napoleon's plan of destroying Britain through its trade system.

Second Coalition

(1798-1802) Consisted of the nations of Russia, Austria, Ottoman Empire, and Britain. Resulted from the French attack into Egypt, which had alarmed Russia.

Thomas Babington Macaulay

(1800-1859) English Whig historian. Was a member of the House of Commons, which passed the Great Reform Bill in 1831. His speeches in support of the bill reflect his views on the need for Parliament to give balanced representation in major elements in the population without embracing democracy. His "History of England" (1848) soon replaced David Hume's history of England as the standard text.

Faust

(1802-1832) Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's best work, a long dramatic poem in 2 parts. A man sells his soul to the devil to get a girl.

Third Coalition

(1803-7) William Pitt the Younger persuades Russia and Austria to join him against France, who had ignored the ultimatum that the British issued. This was in response to suspicions that Napoleon was planning to expand his empire beyond Europe.

Battle of Trafalgar

(1805) British Admiral Horatio Nelson destroys French and Spanish fleets, but then dies. British do not lose any ships. Ends all French hopes of invading Britain and guarantees British control of the sea for the rest of the war.

Battle of Austerlitz

(1805) Napoleon defeats Austrian and Russia armies. Austria concedes under the Treaty of Pressburg, and withdrew from Italy, leaving Napoleon in control of everything north of Rome. He is now recognized as king of Italy.

Battle of Jena

(1806) Napoleon defeats Prussian armies. Reforms in Germany come about due to this defeat. France's victory showed that an army of free patriots commanded by officers chosen on merit rather than birth could defeat an army commanded by strategically-inferior nobles.

Continental System

(1806-4) Napoleon's policy of preventing trade between Great Britain and continental Europe, intending to destroy Great Britain's economy. Britain instead trades in the Americas and eastern Mediterranean, therefore not suffering very badly; however, the remaining European nations are severely hurt. Foreign merchants become ready to turn towards smuggling due to Napoleon's tariff policies and his refusal at turning his empire into a free trade area.

Treaty of Tilsit

(1807) Agreement between Napoleon and Czar Alexander I after the Third Coalition collapsed in which Russia became a secret ally of France, and Prussia, an open ally. Napoleon took over the lands of Prussia, west of the Elbe, as well as the Polish provinces.

Peninsular Campaign

(1807-14) Napoleon's armies conquer Portugal via Spain, and force Maria I and the royal family to flee to Braziil. By May 1808, Napoleon has decided to overthrow the Spanish Bourbon king, Charles IV, and replace him with his brother Joseph. In August 1808, the British land an army into Portugal that will soon move into Spain.

Austrian Campaign

(1809) Napoleon defeats the Austrians in July 1809 and as a result, he will soon marry the Austrian archduchess, Marie Louise

Treaty of Chaumont

(1814) brought up by Robert Stewart, the British foreign minister. Provided for the restoration of the Bourbons to the French throne and the contraction of France to its frontiers of 1792. Also established the Quadruple Alliance.

Charter

(1814) constitution made under the supervision of Louis XVIII. Provided for hereditary monarchy as well as a bicameral legislature. Guarantees most of the rights listed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Religious toleration is enacted, but Roman Catholicism remains the official religion. Most importantly, it promised not to challenge property rights of current owners of land that had been confiscated from aristocrats and the church.

Congress of Vienna

(1814-5) upheld that legitimate dynasties, rather than ethnicity, provide the basis for political unity, that of which nationalism opposed. Had restored monarchical and aristocratic regimes that failed both to recognize the liberals' new status sufficiently and to provide for their economic and professional interests.

Hundred Days

(1815) aka Napoleon's return from exile at Elba, upon seeing the Coalition that defeated him dissolve in Vienna. Regained power easily, due to the fact that his military was still loyal to him. Frightened the great powers, and made the peace settlement harsher for France. Napoleon promises a liberal constitution and a peaceful foreign policy, but it is denied. He is declared an outlaw and is defeated by British general Wellington with the help of Prussians at Waterloo.

Coercion Acts

(1817) issued by Parliament after a mass meeting took place near London to discuss discontent about the government's issuing of unfair taxes. Temporarily suspended habeas corpus, and extended existing laws against seditious gatherings.

Protocol of Troppau

(1820) Led by Tsar Alexander, the members of the Holy Alliance issued this declaration, asserting that stable governments might intervene to restore order in countries experiencing revolution. Austria would use this agreement to justify intervention in Italy (1821), and all the members of the Holy Alliance would support French intervention in Spain (1823-1827)

Decembrist Revolt

(1825) On the eve of Nicholas I's succession, the army was to take an oath of allegiance to the new tsar. Most did, but the Moscow regiment did not, marching into Senate Square in St. Petersburg to demand for a constitution and Constantine as tsar. Nicholas then orders an attack on the protestors, killing 60. This was the first modern Russian rebellion whose participators had specific goals.

Treaty of London

(1827, 1830) signed by the Great Powers of Britain, France, and Russia in support of the Greek Revolution. Demands that the Turks recognize Greek independence. The second issuing declares Greece an independent kingdom.

Treaty of Adrianople

(1829) granted the Russians territory that belonged to the Ottomans in what is now Romania during the Greek Revolution. Also required that the Turks allow Britain, France, and Russia to decide the future of Greece.

Four Ordinances

(1830) issued by Charles X after the founding of a French Empire in North Africa, enabling him to stage a royal coup d'etat. This document restricted freedom of the press, dissolved the Chamber of Deputies, limited franchise to only the wealthiest, and called for new elections.

Thomas Hobbes

A philosopher whose greatest arguments were for an Absolute Government. He believed that humans were perpetually desiring for power, creatures that must be controlled strictly. His argument runs that a ruler will make the move for what is for the better of his subjects, as they really don't know what is best, only what they desire

Paris Commune

A radical republican / communist government in Paris created after The Franco Prussian War. After the defeat of Napoleon III, Otto von Bismarck forced the French to choose a government by universal male suffrage. When the French people chose monarchists over republicans, radical Parisian republicans formed the Paris Commune. After a month, French government troops massacred thousands of the Commune's defenders. Did you catch that? France was at war with Paris after the Franco Prussian War. The Third Republic is created in this chaotic period.

Industrial Revolution

A rapid expansion of economic development. Industrialization and inventions such as the spinning jenny, the steam engine, pure iron, and the water frame led to factorization and eventually mass production

Edict of Restitution

A reassertion of the Catholic safeguards of the Peace of Augsburg that reaffirmed the illegality of Calvinism and ordered the return of all church lands the Lutherans had acquired since 1552

Duma

A revolt in 1905 persuaded Tsar Nicholas II to permit a parliament with a lower-house that had limited legislative powers. Though through establishing this, it seemed like the tsar was giving his people power, in reality he could easily get rid of this group if they made any laws that he didn't like. Was progressively stripped of power during the reign of Tsar Nicholas II. Failed to forestall further revolution.

politique

A ruler who suppresses his or her religious designs for his or her kingdom in favor of political expediency. Examples: Elizabeth I (England), Henry IV (France).

Politique

A ruler who would subordinate theological doctrine to strengthen political unity with urges for tolerance, moderation, and compromise religiously

Parliamentary Monarchy

A system of monarchy in which the monarch must depend upon the parliament to follow through with certain actions (for example, get funding for a war). England used such a system

Anglican Episcopacy

A system very much like the papal system of England, put the monarch at the top of a triangle of the power of the Anglican Church

Linear Perspective

A technique used by Renaissance artists in which they adjusted the size of figures to give the viewer a feeling of continuity with the painting

a

According to the doctrine of predestination: a. God has foreordained who will be saved and who will be damned. b. Christians must set salvation as their only goal before it can be achieved c. theological fdoctrine must begin with ends and then work back to means d. only men are capable of salvation e. divorce is a mortal sin

Winston Churchill

Although later a prime minister, during World War I, he was the first lord of the British admiralty. He proposed a plan to capture Constantinople, which would supposedly knock Turkey out of the war, bring help from the Balkan front, and ease communications with Russia. His planned failed because it was poorly executed. 150,000 Allied troops were slaughtered by the Turkish.

Ptolemy

An ancient Greek astronomer, living in Egypt, who proposed a way of calculating the movements of the planets on the assumption that they, along with the sun and the stars, were embedded in clear spheres that revolved around the Earth; this was all included in his work "Almagest". His beliefs prevailed for nearly fifteen hundred years, until the modern model of the solar system, with the sun at the center, was developed from the ideas of Copernicus.

Cultural relativism

An ideal that states human beings living in different societies possess the capacity to develop, as human beings, in culturally different fashions. Johann Gottlieb Herder believed in this.

Economic liberalism

An ideal that suggests that people are happiest and the economy thrives most when governments minimize their regulation, monitoring, and control over the work. This refers to free-market capitalism, privatization of collectively held lands of the Church, open markets, foreign investment and wage labor.

Prince Klemens von Metternich

Austrian statesman and diplomat; he was the Austrian representative at the Congress of Vienna. Would have been glad to make a negotiated peace that would leave Napoleon on the throne of a shrunken France rather than see Russia dominate Europe. Suggested that Napoleon might still have saved his throne if he had been willing to accept a France reduced to its historical size. Napoleon refused this offer. For him, the biggest danger in Europe was nationalism.

Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn

Author of "A Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich". His novels exposed the brutality of Soviet labor camps. He wrote the accounts from experience, having been imprisoned for writings critical of Stalin.

Tsar Alexander III

Autocratic / brutal Russian Tsar. decided that, because of the assassination of his father, reform had been a mistake. He quickly instituted "exceptional measures" which included beefing up the secret police, persecuting constitutional reform advocates, and placing entire Russian districts under martial law if the government suspected the inhabitants of treason. He also curtailed his father's zemstvos.

Crimean War

1854 - 1856 the war fought over the Eastern Question. Ottoman Empire, Britain, and France vs. Russia. It was poorly fought and was costly to both sides. (According to your text book) It resulted in the demise of the Concert of Europe by weakening Russia and turning it against Austria (who didn't support Russia despite Russia's bailing out Austria in 1848). Uh oh, looks like the harmony is over. France hates Germany, Russia hates Austria, etc. this is going to get ugly (WWI).

Treaty of Westphalia

A treaty, written in France that made several major point, including Rescinding the Edict of Restitution, reasserting the Peace of Augsburg, Recognizing Calvinism, recognizing the Swiss Confederacy and the United Provinces of Holland,and undermining the HRE as a state

War of Jenkins' Ear

A war fought from the pressure put on Parliament by those in the West Indies to relieve Spanish intervention in their trade, it was symbolized by the fact that and English caption named Robert Jenkins had had his ear cut off when he was boarded by Spaniards in the West Indies

International Working Men's Association (First International)

Consisted of socialists, anarchists, and Polish nationalists. Founded by British and French trade unionists. Disbanded because of pressures from French authorities. Had organized and gathered statistics, kept labor unions, informed others of mutual problems, provided a form to debate socialist doctrine, and had proclaimed its influence over current events. From this group's efforts, Marxism became the most important kind of socialism.

rural

Constable and other Romantics tended to idealize ________ life.

Indochina

Contained Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam, and was a French colony, that of which France loses.

assignats

In December of 1789, this was issued by the Constituent Assembly, which had confiscated church property and issued this paper money based on this land. Initially, one could simply purchase land with it, although it was later used as general currency. The Assembly decided to issue more to liquidate (reduce) debt and create a larger body of property owners; this, however, resulted in inflation and a decrease in value of this currency.

b

In Thomas Hobbes's view, man was a. a person neither good nor evil b. a self-centered beast c. essentially God-fearing d. perfect at birth, but devolved over time e. not the creator of human society

1991

In _____, the Baltic provinces and states of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania break away from the USSR.

James I

King of England following Elizabeth I, he was the son of Mary Queen of Scots and therefore monarch of both England and Scotland. He tried to rule without parliament, and in attempts to find different forms of royal income, levied new custom duties known as impositions. He enhanced the Anglican Episcopacy and was suspicious of Puritans

"New" Liberalism

David Lloyd George's changes to the British Liberal Party. The demands of the working-class movement caused Liberals to move away from their economic ideals. They abandoned laissez-faire and voted for a series of social reforms and gradually created a British welfare state. Liberalism's core of 'the government that governs least governs best' had been transformed. They kept political liberalism, but changed economic liberalism. This would be closer to the modern liberalism of America that you are familiar with.

"Iron Law of Wages"

David's Ricardo's concept, which had been derived from Malthus's concept. As wages rise, birth rates rise, which make wages fall, which make birth rates lower, which then makes wages rise, and so on.

Battle of Sedan

Decisive battle of the Franco-Prussian war in which the Germans prevail and Napoleon III is captured.

Soviet Union

Eastern European leaders who led movements against the _________'s attempts to control their countries: 1. Imry Nagy - Hungary, 1956 2. Alexander Dubcek - Czechoslavia, Prague Spring in 1968 3. Marshal Josip Tito - Yugoslavakia, 1953-80 4. Vaclav Havel - Czechoslovakia - Velvet Revolution, 1989

Emperor Hirohito

Emperor who forced the Japanese government to surrender after the atomic bombardments of the US, on the condition that Japan retain its empire.

a

Empiricism is the belief that: a. experience, especially of the senses, is the best source of knowledge b. all truth exists in the mind c. truth, as such, does not exist d. rational reflection on idealized forms is the best source of knowledge e. reason can reveal all natural truths

Maria Theresa (of Austria)

Empress of Austria, this enlightened despot preserved the Habsburg Empire by recognizing Hungary as the most important of her dominions, granting the nobles more power, and with her personal heroism. She did however, do this all at the cost of the power of the monarchy. She later ruled jointly with her son Joseph

Peace of Saint Germain-en-laye

Ended 3rd French war of religion, and granted Huguenots religious freedoms within their territories

Lausanne Conference (1932)

Ended all reparations in Europe after World War I.

The Treaty of Westphalia

Ended all the hostilities within the Holy Roman Empire. Declared the independence of the Swiss Confederacy and the United Provinces o the Netherlands. Also ended with France being the most prominent nation in Europe

John Locke

English empiricist philosopher who believed that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience. Romantics opposed him, for he thought the mind was a passive receptor, and that poetry was a mechanical exercise following prescribed rules. also opposed his idea of the tabula rasa, in which the environment effect's one's development.

James Wolfe

English general, led troops up steep cliff to capture Quebec which marked the beginning on the end of the French/Indian War. He was mortally wounded in the attack and died

Richard Arkwright

English inventor of the water frame. Later lost his patent, and others began to use his invention freely. Cause many factories to spring up in the countryside near streams that would provide the water necessary to power the machines.

Jethro Tull

English landlord who funded his own experiments. Invented the seed drill that helped to boost crop yields, as well as the use of iron plows. His methods allows land to be cultivated for longer periods without having to leave it fallow.

John Constable

English landscape painter. Politically conservative. Saw the church and the British constitution as ultimately related. Considered religious institutions as barriers to political radicalism. Associated liberal reformers with evil.

Francis drake

English naval hero and explorer who was the first Englishman to circumnavigate the world (1577-1580) and was vice admiral of the fleet that destroyed the Spanish Armada (1588). He was a pirate who stole Spanish gold. He was later knighted by Queen Elizabeth 1

Enlightened absolutism

European rulers who embraced many of the philosophes' reforms; monarchical government dedicated to rational strengthening of central absolutist administration at the cost of lesser political power centers. Monarchs wanted to reform for the purpose of strengthening power and military. Wanted to appear more favorable to the philosophes.

Charles II (England)

First king after Oliver Cromwell's military state, returned England to it's old status quo. Had secret Catholic sympathies and used these to help negotiate with France. Passed the Deceleration of Indulgence in an attempt to begin a war with Holland, but it was not financed by Parliament. Ruled for the last few years without Parliament before dying a Catholic.

King William I (Kaiser Wilhelm I)

First king of a united Germany! was proclaimed Kaiser of the Second German Empire (the first was the Holy Roman Empire) in 1871. Bismarck was his Prime Minister when he had been King of Prussia, and continued in that role when he became King of Germany.

Tehran Conference (November-December 1943)

First meeting of the Big Three leaders. Stalin wanted to retain Pact with Hitler and dismember Germany. Most important decision made was the choosing of Europe's west coast as the main point of attack instead of the Mediterranean. This would mean that the Soviets would occupy Eastern Europe and control its destiny.

Anne Boleyn

First mistress and second wife of Henry VIII, it was because he wished to wed her and divorce Catherine of Aragon that he initially broke with the Catholic church

Immanuel Kant

German philosopher who argued that human perception is as much a product of the mind's activity of sensory perception. Argued that all human beings possess a categorial perception, the internal sense of moral duty or awareness. Sought to accept Rationalism and still believe in human freedom, immortality and existence of God. Argued for the subjective character of human knowledge, unlike Locke, who saw knowledge rooted in sensory experience alone.

Social Democratic Party (SPD in Germany, SDP in England)

German political party that followed revolutionary Marxist rhetoric while organizing itself as a mass political party competing in elections for the Reichstag. Once there, SPD delegates worked to enact legislation to improve the condition of the working class. Other SPDs based on the German model were founded in Belgium, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, the Netherlands, and Russia. Eventually, it would become less revolutionary and more "revisionary"

Six Acts

In 1819, Parliament passed these laws which: 1. Forbade large unauthorized public meetings 2. Raised the fines for seditious libel 3. Speeded up the trials for political agitators 4. Increased newspaper taxes 5. Prohibited the training of armed groups, and 6. Allowed local officials to search homes in certain disturbed counties.

domestic servants

In 1850, the largest group of employed women in England worked as _________________.

Prague Spring (1968)

In 1968, Czechoslovak Communist Party leader Alexander Dubcek tried to liberalize the country's communist regime by introducing democratic reforms such as free speech and freedom of assembly. The period came to be known as this, but it was ended when Warsaw Pact (Soviet) troops invaded in a military crackdown.

Charles II (of England)

King of England of the Stuart dynasty, took the throne after the brief republic led by Oliver Cromwell. He was a secret Catholic sympathizer and wanted freedom of worship for Catholics and Puritans. He signed a secret treaty with Louis XIV in which he stated he would convert to Catholicism. He attempted to pass the Declaration of Indulgence in 1672, ending anti-non-Anglican laws, however, he was forced to rescind the law

Charles I (of England)

King of England, he dissolved Parliament in 1628 after they made him sign the Petition of Rights. After calling the Short Parliament because he needed funds for a religious war with Scotland, he dissolved it again. When the Long Parliament convened in 1640, he began to fight a civil war against its forces. He was executed in 1649, when England became a Puritan Republic. He was married to Henrietta Marie, daughter of Henry IV of France

Henry VIII (of England)

King of England, his aggravation with his union with Catherine of Aragon and affair with Anne Boleyn led to the religious split of the Anglican Church with the king at its head from the Catholic Church. The Act of Supremacy declared him the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England. Three of his children, Edward VI, Mary I, Elizabeth I were monarchs of England

Edward VI (England)

King of England, son of Henry VIII, began the move of the Anglican Church from strict Catholicism before he died. Also named Lady Jane Gray his heir instead of his sisters

Phillip II (Spain)

King of Spain, defender of the Catholic faith, married Mary I and waged war on England under Elizabeth I

Vladimir Lenin

Leader of the Bolsheviks, he came back to Russia after his exile with the help of Germany (who hoped to create trouble for the new provisional government) for the purpose of overthrowing the provisional government and creating an alliance consisting of workers and peasants. His speeches that focused on "bread, land, and peace" captivated them.

Henry IV (of France)

Leader of the Huguenots during the rule of Henry III, he was next in line for the throne when Henry III died. He was famous for his declaration "Paris is worth a mass"

Louis Kossuth

Leader of the Hungarians, demanded national autonomy with full liberties and universal suffrage in 1848. Was a Magyar nationalist and member of the Hungarian diet seeking to raise troops to fight for Hungarian independence. Attacked Austrian domination in the Habsburgs. Called for the independence of Hungary and demanded a responsible ministry under the Habsburg dynasty. Inspired by his speeches, students led disturbances in Vienna.

Mohandas Gandhi

Leader of the Indian nationalist movement. Advocated a doctrine of nonviolence centered on passive resistance to British rule over India. Influenced by Henry David Thoreau, from whom he learned passive resistance.

SA (Sturmabteilung) ("Storm Troopers")

Leader was Ernst Roehm. Was a paramilitary organization that initially provided its members with food and uniforms and eventually paid them. Were the chief Nazi instrument for terror and intimidation before they controlled the government. Attacked socialists and communists. Led to other paramilitary organizations of the Communists and Social Democrats being formed that weakened the Weimar Republic.

Sergei Witte

Led Russian into the industrial age. Was finance minister. Pursued a policy of planned economic development by issuing protective tariffs, high taxes, and putting Russia's currency on the gold standard. He helped to build the railroad systems which linked the far flung regions of the Russian empire and also stimulated industry. He remodeled the state bank and encouraged the establishment of savings banks. Also established a financial relationship with the French money market, allowing Russia to finance its modernization program with French loans. Favored heavy industries.

Conservative Party (Britain)

Led by Margaret Thatcher, they were determined to roll back many of the socialist policies that Britain had enacted since the war.

Karl Kautsky

Led the Efurt Program in Germany. Argued that because capitalism must collapse, the immediate task for socialist would be to improve workers' lives rather than to work for revolution, which would be inevitable anyway.

Francisco Franco

Led the Falangists, Spanish Fascists, in Spain. Despite help from Germany and Italy during the Spanish Civil War, he would not join his fascist allies during WWII, and would keep Spain neutral.

Treaty of Maastricht (1991)

Led to a unified EEC currency, the Euro, and a strong central bank. Was rejected by Denmark; thus needing for support.

How Lenin modified Marxism

Lenin argued that it was not necessary for Russia to experience a bourgeois period before it could move toward socialism, instead it could move directly into socialism from Feudalism through the leadership of a revolutionary elite (vanguard).

d

Marx derived the major ideas of the Communist Manifesto form: a. Darwin's theory of evolution b. the French Enlightenment c. German Kantianism d. German Hegelianism e. the ideas of Malthus and Ricardo

d

Most Englsih natural philosophers of the seventeenth century believed that: a. religion and science were incompatible. b. all important contributions to science had been made by Englishmen c. natural philosophy revealed deeper truths than theology. d. religion and science were mutually supportive. e. nature revealed little about the divine.

European empires

Most European thinkers associated with the Enlightenment favored the extension of _____________ across the world.

united, monarchical

Most German liberals favored a ______ Germany; as a result the were more tolerant of a strong state and ____________ power than other liberals were.

Grand Empire

Napoleon's empire that consisted of Spain, France, Italy, the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, the Confederation of Rhine (Germany), and Switzerland (circa 1812)

Auschwitz

Nazi death camp located in *Poland*. Was considered one of the most infamous of all the death camps, but is today a memorial site for the Holocaust.

July Monarchy

New regime under Louis Phillippe. Politically, was more liberal than the restoration government. Under his reign, revolutionary flag is used, new constitution is regarded as a right for all citizens, Catholicism becomes a religion of a majority, not an official relgion, the government becomes anticlerical, censorship is abolished, and franchise is made wider. Socially however, proved to be conservative. There was much corruption, and the government had little to no sympathy to the lower classes.

Fascism

Movement where single-party dictatorships arose from fears of the spread of Bolshevism. Right-winged. Originated with Mussolini in Italy. Were against democracy, Marxism, parliament, and were often anti-Semitic. Sought to make the world safe for the middle class, small businesses, owners of moderate amounts of property and small farmers (capitalists). Rejected French Revolution political thought and liberalism of the 19th century. Wanted to overcome Marxist class conflict by uniting classes within a nation.

Eamon de Valera

became First President of Sinn Fein. After the civil war between the Irish moderates and extremists, resigned his presidency and organized a resistance to the treaty.

Crimea

became an independent state following Russian/Ottoman Empire wars over territories along the Danube River and the Crimean coast of the Black Sea. Catherine the Great is able to add this territory to her empire without conflict in 1783, and is made the protector of the Orthodox Christians living in the Ottoman Empire by the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainardji. Would later cause conflict with France, whose monarch held the same title.

Greek Revolution (of 1821)

became one of the most famous and popular revolutions during the 19th century because it attracted the support and participation of many writers. Was supported by European liberals, because its location was viewed as the historic home of democracy. The Great Powers eventually decide to support the revolution, issuing the Treaty of London and sending a fleet to support the revolt.

George Canning (Great Britain)

became the new foreign minister after Castlereagh's death. Was much less sympathetic to Metternich's conservative goals. Was more interested in trade and commerce. Sought to prevent the extension of European reaction to Spain's colonies which were in revolt, for he wanted the colonies to be independent in order to break Spain's old trading monopoly and gain access to the Latin American trade Britain had been denied of, which was to say he brought the War of Jenkins's Ear to a successful end for Britain.

Glasnost

Policy of "openness" initiated by Gorbachev in the 1980s that provided increased opportunities for freedom of speech, association and the press in the Soviet Union, especially in public discussion of Soviet history and the Communist Party policy. Workers were permitted to criticize party officials and economic policies. Censorship was relaxed and free expression encouraged. Dissidents were released from prison.

Trade Unionism

Political activism of the working class through the new concept of the Trade Union. Unions are collections of worker created to increase their power relative to the owners. Unions have similar functions to some aspects of guilds. (big difference: Guilds represented small owner/workers. Unions represent workers). Unions were outlawed until the late 1800s. Trade Unionism was a left wing political phenomenon and often supported socialist policies

liberals

Political goals of 19th-century _________ included all of the following: 1. legal equality 2. religious toleration 3. freedom of the press 4. limited government regulation of business

William Pitt the Younger

Prime minister of Britain who had unsuccessfully supported reform of Parliament and now turned against reform and popular movements. His government worked to suppress reform in Britain. Secured Parliamentary approval for acts suspending the habeas corpus and making writing of certain ideas treasonable. Tried to curb the freedom of the press with less success.

Robert Peel

Prime minister of England who sponsored legislation passed by British Parliament that put Police on London streets. The police were soon known as bobbies or peelers. Also repealed Corn Laws to open British ports to foreign grain to feed the starving Irish. Accompanied abolition with a program for government and to modernize Britain's agriculture.

Separation of powers

Proposed as an effective method of governing by Montesquieu, in which he looked to Britain as an example. Executive power = king, judicial power = manorial courts, legislative power = parliament. Checks and balances of branches to assure each branch has an equal amount of power. However, his perception of British constitution was incorrect because he failed to see that patronage and electoral corruption allowed aristocrats to dominate in government. He was also unaware of the emerging cabinet system, which was making the executive power a puppet of Parliament.

a

Protestant reformers a. implemented many of the education reforms of humanism. b. rejected humanism c. were unwilling to allow divorce d. believed only men should be taught to read e. generally supported scholasticism

d

Protestant reformers tended to do all of the following EXCEPT: a. favor clerical marriage b. encourage basic education c. oppose monasticism d. see marriage as a degraded state e. oppose the celibate life

Calvinism

Protestant sect founded by John Calvin. Believed in predestination (the idea that God decided whether or not a person would be saved as soon as they were born), and the individual's responsibility to reorder society according to God's plan. Calvinists supported constitutional representative government and the separation of church and state.

Puritans

Protestant sect in England hoping to "purify" the Anglican church of Roman Catholic traces in practice and organization with the removal of elaborate religious ceremonies and replacing the hierarchical episcopal system.

c

Protestants were more likely than Catholics to: a. advocate religious tolerance b. permit premarital sex c. permit divorce d. advocate religious violence e. advocate gender equality

Poor Laws

Provided aid to some low-paid workers. Prepared by the followers of Bentham. Government poor relief to be given out only in the workhouses. Life in the workhouse more unpleasant than the life outside, thus making poverty the most undesirable of all situations. The administrators assumed people wouldn't work because they were lazy, which was incorrect. Malthus especially was against these for he believed it encouraged the poor to breed and further complicate the problem because they didn't contribute to working society or generate "effective demand" for commodities produced by capitalists.

Ulster

Province in the north of Ireland. Although Ireland is Catholic, Ulster has a protestant majority that opposed Home Rule. Ulsterites had no desire to become a protestant minority in a catholic majority country.

Enclosures

Provoked by the rising prices of wheat, landlords replace this with the open field method to increase production.The strips of land are transformed into block fields. The landlords use Parliament to make their lands legally recognized by this method, made relatively easy, considering most of the landlords constituted Parliament itself. Strains the relationship between the governing and the governed.

William I

Prussian king who appointed Otto Von Bismark as Prime Minister of Prussia in 1862.

Overlaying

Smothering of a young child in bed by a sleeping adult. Used as a way to reduce the number of a members in a household. A result of the lack of contraceptives used to prevent pregnancy. Authorities often turned a blind eye.

"All men are born free, but everywhere they are in chains..."

So begins Rosseau's "The Social Contract" (1762); the rest of his book is a defense of the chains that a properly organized society has over its members, rather than a critical assessment of such a bond to society. In this way, Rosseau differs from John Locke, who greatly opposed governmental intervention and embraced individualism.

Edward VI (of England)

Son of Henry VIII and his third wife, he took the throne at only ten years old. He really led the Protestant Reformation in England, allowing clerical marriage, communion with cup, and other protestant doctrines to be legal

Duke of Alba

Spanish duke dispatched by King Phillip II, he lead an army of 10000 through Netherlands, terrorizing the country

Hoover Moratorium (1931)

Suspends all debts for one year. Was a blow to French economy; France only agreed to this because German economy was near collapse. Was a prelude to the end of reparations in Europe.

Francesco Petrarch

The "Father of humanism". He left legal profession to pursue letters and poetry. He wrote his "Letters to the Ancient Dead" to the famous Romans Cicero, Livy, Vergil and Horace, as well as writing a Latin epic poem and biographies of Famous Romans. HIs critical textual studies, elitism, and contempt forl the learning of the Scholastics became noticeable in later Humanists

home rule

The "Irish Question" centered on the issue of:

Giotto

The "father of Renaissance painting" , he painted a more natural world that was less abstract and more realistic

Thermidorean Reaction

The ___________________ led to the following: 1. Paris Commune outlawed 2. Executions of former Jacobins begins (White Terror) 3. These executions were carried out by young aristocrats (bands of Jesus) ....and resulted in: 1. a new constitution 2. the closing of the Paris Jacobin club 3. the reduction of the political power of the sans-culottes 4. a retreat from the radical revolution

Civil Code of 1804

The ____________________ established the following: 1. All privileges based on birth abolished; primogeniture remains abolished. 2. Effectively granted legal equality to the middle class and thus institutionalized the revolutionary principle of equality 3. Also institutionalized women's secondary status

Second Industrial Revolution

The ____________________ is associated with the following: 1. steel 2. chemicals 3. electricity 4. oil

Revolutions of 1848

The _____________________ reflected the interests of the following: 1. liberals 2. middle-class 3. nationalists

German Confederation

The _______________________ was used by Prince Klemens von Metternich to oppose: 1. Liberalism 2. Nationalism

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

The _________________________ guaranteed: 1. equality before the law 2. representative government 3. individual freedom 4. proportional taxation 5. equality of access to public office 6. presumption of innocence until proven otherwise

b

The accomplishments that most captured the public imagination during the Scientific Revolution occurred in the area of: a. chemistry b. astronomy c. biology d. medicine e. natural history

Jacobins

The achievements of the _________ include: 1. abolition of slavery 2. franchise given to all adult males 3. adaption of the metric system 4. decreeing the law of the maximum--fixed prices on essentials and raised wages.

Haiti

The first successful independence movement in the Latin American countries began in the French colony of _______. These independence movements were sparked by the wars of the French revolution and the Napoleonic wars.

Martin Luther

The son of a Thuringian miner, he entered a monastery at a young age. Very early on, he began to look towards the fact that one would gain access to heaven with the justification of faith alone. In 1517, he posted his ninety-five theses against indulgences. Following his excommunication, he continued preaching his views and released three pamphlets: "The Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation", "Babylonian Captivity of the Church", and "Freedom of a Christian". His beliefs eventually evolved into Lutheranism

League of Nations

The only one of the Fourteen Points that President Wilson was successful in getting initiated was the creation of a ___________. Ironically, the US would not join this, since the US Senate refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles. One of the major reasons was the Senate's fear that it would lose control of the right to declare war.

Versailles

The palace outside of Paris built by Louis XIV, the meeting place of the Estates General and the home of King Louis XVI until the march by women on Versailles forced him to leave

Roundheads

The parliamentary forces during the English civil war, names so for their hairstyle

"Liberty, equality, and fraternity"

The phrase you associate with the French Revolution is:

c

The phrase, "Paris is worth a mass," is attributed to a. Catherine de Medici b. Gaspard de Coligny c. Henry of Navarre d. Henry III e. Louis XIII

Neolocalism

The process in preindustrial Europe in which children grew up, moved away from their parents, and began their own families

Eastern Question

The question of who will benefit from the crumbling Ottoman Empire. The Great Powers are like vultures circling a corpse. Which will dive first to pick over the bones of the Ottomans.

e

The real goal of early nineteenth century political liberals was: a. a mass democracy b. the end of monarchy c. free education for all d. the end of poverty e. political reform based on private property

Joseph II

The reforms of __________ of Austria include the following: 1. abolished capital punishment 2. established equality before the law 3. freed serfs 4. created a system of primary education 5. established religious toleration 6. tightened state control over the established church

Americanization

The spread of American values, practices, popular culture, and way of life on European culture due to influences such as the Marshall Plan, the leadership of NATO, the stationing of huge military bases, student exchanges, popular culture and tourism. Refers to economic and military influences.

Bohemia

The starting place of the Thirty Years' War, a state of the HRE with the City of Prague near its Center. Ruled at this time by Ferdinand (Later Ferdinand II of the HRE)

Charles II of Spain

This sickly and childless Hapsburg ruler dies in 1700. Before his death, negotiations had been made among the nations involved to partition his inheritance in a way that would preserve the existing balance of power. However, he states in his will his desire to leave the Spanish throne to the grandson of Louis XIV, Phillip of Anjou, who becomes Phillip V of Spain.

Deism

The religion of the Enlightenment (1700s). Followers believed that God existed and had created the world, but that afterwards He left it to run by its own natural laws. Denied that God communicated to man or in any way influenced his life. Was a combination of religion and reason. Influenced by the Newtonian worldview. Its two major points: -belief in the existence of God -belief in a life after death

New Model Army

The reorganized Parliamentary army of Oliver Cromwell, was the first time troops were led by men that were chosen for their capabilities instead of their heritage

Estates General

The representative, legislative body of France. They clashed over many things, such as how voting would be counted and how many people would be in each house. They met at Versailles in May 1789 for the first time since 1614

collectivization

The resistance of Russian peasants to ____________ led the government to tolerate small family plots (gardens) by the mid-1930s.

Kapp Putsch (1920)

The right-wing "armed insurrection" attempts to seize power from the German Weimar Republic in Berlin. Led by a conservative civil servant and supported by army officers. The coup fails, but had collapsed only after the government fled the city and German workers carried out a general strike. Created additional problems for the Weimar Republic.

France

The rise of Enlightenment political thought in _______ was due to the following factors: 1. The corruption of the royal court 2. Blundering of the bureaucracy 3. unsuccessful mid-18th century wars 4. Power of the Catholic Church

"Cuius Regio, Eius Religio"

The ruler of the land determines the religion.

Eucharist

The sacrament of Jesus' body and blood truly and really present under the appearances of the bread and wine.

Charter

The six points of the ______________ include: 1. universal male suffrage 2. annual election of the House of Commons 3. secret ballot 4. equal electoral districts 5. abolition of property qualifications for and 6. payment of salaries to members of the House of Commons. Parliament refused to pass this 3 times. Later, several of the 6 points become law.

ferdinand ii

This was the name of the future ruler of the Holy Roman Empire and King of Spain. Instigated a Protestant revolt by closing Protestant churches in Bohemia. This led to the 30 Years War. Victorious Habsburg king who reduced power of bohemian estates, won the battle of white mountain. Confiscated protestant landholdings and gave them to catholics.

Thermidorean Reaction

This was the tempering of the revolution in France after the execution of Robespierre. It set up a new constitutional regime. The influence of the wealthy middle class and professional people replaced the sans-culottes. They submitted a conservative document that provided for a bicameral legislative government heavily favoring property owners. The Paris Commune outlawed, the Jacobin club was closed, and the radicals involved in terror were attacked. Laws making divorce easier for women were repealed, and women were given less freedom than before. Featured a revival of Catholic worship and the decaying of the republic of virtue.

Ruhr

To get war payments from Germany, the French government ordered its troops to occupy this land of Germany's mining and manufacturing district; in response, the German government ordered resistance; this led to a strike. Poincare, the French minister, sends French civilians to take over German mines and railroads, so the French prevail. Despite the success of the confiscation, resulted in the alienation of France by Britain, as well as French and German inflation.

Leon Blum

Was leader of the French Socialists. Became prime minister in 1936. Worked to pursue socialism through democratic and parliamentary government. In order to prevent strikes in the French industry, reorganized labor management. Raised wages from 7-15%, made employers recognize unions and bargain with them, gave workers paid two-week vacations annually, and established a 40-hour work week. Also raised salaries of civil servants, and extended loans to small industry, etc. Made bankers and business people angry, and they worked to stop his reforms. Was replaced by Daladier.

Vaclav Havel

Was a playwright whom the communist government had imprisoned. Led the opposition to the Czech Communist Party. Was elected president of Czechoslovakia.

Great Depression

Was a result of the financial problems that emerged from the Great War, agricultural problems, especially a collapse in agricultural prices, and lack of strong economic leadership among the European nations and the US. Britain suffered greatly in unemployment, but was seemingly better off than France. France's came later, but lasted longer. Unemployment was not a major problem in France, but wages were lowered and tariffs increased. Right-wing groups became active in response. They weakened the republic government of France and lost it support.

Agricultural collectivism

Was a reverse of the policies of the NEP. Soviets try to confront difficulties in agriculture by replacing private peasant farms with huge state-run and state-owned farms. To carry out this policy, Stalin portrays kulaks as the cause of agricultural problems, and tries to eliminate them as a class. Confiscates their land and tries to have them organize a collective farm. Peasants who refused slaughtered cattle in revolt. Those that resisted (over 2 million) were sent to prison camps. Also began attacking priests and churches with this policy. Caused peasants to move from rural areas into cities, most of whom were young males.

Hungarian Uprising (1956)

Was a revolt against Soviet domination in Hungary, which is unsuccessful. Nagy, the premier, is executed and is replaced by Janos Kadar.

Simon Bolivar ("The Libertador" of Venezuela)

Was a strong advocate of independence and republicanism. Successfully frees Caracas, Venezuela, where he is named president; Bolivia; Columbia; and Ecuador from Spanish control. His defeat of Spanish royalist forces at the Battle of Ayacucho would finally free the rest of Peru and mark the end of Spain's efforts to hold onto its South American empire. At a meeting in Guayaquil, he and San Martin disagree over the future political structure of Latin America, him wanting a republic Latin America.

(Captain) Alfred Dreyfus (France)

Was accused of passing secret information to the German army. Was actually blamed for this because he was Jewish. Sent to Devil's Island, prison in French Guiana. At first, many opposed him, including the army, the French Catholic Church, political conservatives and Anti-Semitic newspapers. Later, a military trial convicts him again, but the president of France pardons him.

Benjamin Disraeli (Great Britain)

Was an English conservative who led the House of Commons that introduced a reform bill in 1867. This was the first of his successful attempts of expanding the electorate, in which male working-class citizens could now vote. Admitted the working class into the electorate because he wanted them to support the Conservative candidates. Also believed the middle class would grow more conservative, which was correct. Became prime minister of England after Gladstone. Under his ministry, the Public Health Act of 1875 (improved sanitation) , the Artisan Dwelling Act of 1875 (provided housing for working class), and the protection of trade unions and the permission for them to raise picket lines came into effect.

Sudetenland

Was an area of Czech security. Riots in this region lead to German intervention. Germany wants this region. Chamberlain and Daladier insist the Czechs give this area up to the Germans. After the Munich Conference, this region belongs to the Germans, and Hitler promises to spare the rest of Czechoslovakia, but soon invades Poland and Hungary to get territory from it. Then, Hitler invades Prague and ends the Czech state.

Appeasement

Was based on the assumption that Germany had real grievances and that Hitler's goals were limited and acceptable. Also because people feared war. The British, specifically, believed that the last world war was an arms race and were reluctant to rearm. Chamberlain was very guilty of committing this.

Eiffel Tower (1889)

Was built originally as a temporary structure for the internal trade exposition of the year 1889. Became a symbol of the newly redesigned Paris, and its steel structure became a symbol of French industrial strength. Also symbolized the social and political divisions between liberals and conservatives in the Third Republic.

Operation Barbarossa (June 11, 1941)

Was code name for the invasion of Russia by Germany, and was aimed to destroy Russia before winter could set in. Mussolini's invasion of the British colony of Egypt and Greece would divert Hitler's attention to the Balkans and Africa. This would cause a delay of six weeks. Despite killing a majority of the Russian troops, destroying nearly all of the 15,000 Russian tanks and 2,000 planes, the Germans couldn't deliver the final blow. Hitler didn't capture Moscow before winter like his General staff wanted, and decided to go south. Winter devastated his troops. Russian counterattacked and Germany retreated.

Adolph Hitler

Was deeply affected by German nationalism, racism and extreme anti-Semitism that existed in Vienna. Began to hate Marxism, which he associated with Jews. Became associated with the Nazis during a period when the Social Democrats governed Munich. Eventually began to dominate within the party. Spoke highly of Mussolini's accomplishments.

Alexander III (Russia)

Tsar of Russia after his father's assassination. Was as much an autocratic as his father and grandfather, Nicholas I. Made slight improvements to the conditions in Russian factories, but sought primarily to roll back his father's reforms. Favored centralized bureaucracy over the Zemstvos. Strengthened secret police and increased censorship of the press.

Peter the Great (of Russia)

Tsar of Russia, rose to power with his brother Ivan V on the shoulders of the streltsy. Fascinated by Northwestern European military strategy involving maritime powers, he fought the Great Northern War to gain a warm water port, using a military force he created that was faithful to him and not itself. He founded St. Petersburg, a smaller version of Versailles. His reforms included the creation of the Table of Ranks which drew nobles into State service, created a more powerful bureaucracy, and took control of the Russian Orthodox Church

Alexander II (Russia)

Tsar of Russia. Was a reformer only within the limits of his own autocracy. After the Crimean War, conducted several reforms. Abolished serfdom, made reforms on the organization of the local government and judicial systems, introduced Western European legal principles into Russia, repressed Poland and moved to "Russify" it. Later was assassinated by a member of the Land and Freedom Society, who greatly opposed his autocracy.

Schleswig-Holstein Problem

Two kings of Denmark had ruled these two northern duchies, which never actually was a part of Denmark. Holstein, where Germans dominated, belonged to the German Confederation. When the Danish Parliament tries to annex the duchies, the German Confederation stops them with a war proposal.

c

Tycho Brahe's major contribution to science was his: a. discovery of the planet Mercury b. proof of the Copernican system c. compilation of a large amount of astronomical data d. discovery of the moons of Jupiter e. support of Galileo

U-2 Incident (1960)

US sends spy planes over the Soviet Union, and one is shot down. Khrushchev refuses to attend Paris summit because of this, and Eisenhower's trip to Moscow is cancelled.

Kristallnacht (1938)

Under Nazi Party orders, thousands of Jewish stores and synagogues were burned or otherwise destroyed. The Jewish community had to pay for the damage because the government confiscated the insurance money.

Pope Paul VI

Under ___________, the 21st Ecumenical Council made the following changes to Catholic liturgy: 1. fostered a new spirit toward Judaism 2. encouraged freer relations with other Christian denominations 3. mass would be celebrated in the vernacular 4. more power given to bishops

Augustin de Iturbide

Under ______________, a Mexican general, Mexico gained its independence from Spain. He is later declared the first emperor of Mexico.

Saar

Under the Treaty of Versailles, this region was put under the control of the League of Nations. In January 1935, a plebiscite was held with 90% of the voting choosing to go to Germany rather than to remain with France.

Sardinia-Piedmont

Under the leadership of Cavour it led the unification of Italy. Expanded it's power to became the Kingdom of Italy in 1861.

Treaty of Rome (1957)

Under this treaty, the members of the Coal and Steel Community agree to form a new organization, the European Economic Community.

maximilian of bavaria

Was duke of Bavaria, was catholic. He created the catholic league. He became an ally of Ferdinand II, but wasn't very helpful because he had other ideas (get power). He had much military success in northwestern Germany, and he defeated the Lutheran/Dutch king Christian IV and pushed him back into Denmark.

German Confederation

Was established at the Congress of Vienna. Included 39 states of differing sizes and strength whose representatives met in a central diet in the Frankfurt. Its strongest states were Austria and Prussia.

Croix de Feu (Cross of Fire)

Was one of the right wing groups that became active during the Depression in France. Consisted of veterans. (See Action Francaise for more info, because I refuse to retype it)

Action Francaise

Was one of the right wing groups that became active during the Depression in France. Were founded before WWI in the wake of the Dreyfus affair. Had more than 2 million followers. Some wanted monarchy, and others favored military rule. Were hostile to parliamentary govt., socialism, and communism. Weakened loyalty to republican government.

Imry Nagy

Was premier of Hungary. Tried to kick Soviet troops out of Hungary, and wanted Hungary out of the Warsaw Pact as well as the ultimate neutralization of Hungary. Even tried appealing to noncommunist groups in Hungary.

Gustav Stresemann

Was primarily responsible for reconstructing the Weimar Republic and giving it a sense of self-confidence. As chancellor, decided to abandon the plan of resistance in the Ruhr because he believed Germany couldn't afford it. Introduced a new German currency. Moved against challenges from the left and right wings. Supported the resistance to Hitler's putsch and other disturbances. Became foreign minister in 1923 until his death. Although he was willing to accept the Versailles settlement in the west, was a revisionist in the east and wanted German territory back, and to reunite with Austria.

Twenty-first Ecumenical Council (1959-1965)

Was summoned by Pope John XXIII in 1959. Its first council was called in the fourth century by Emperor Constantine. Would later be called Vatican II.

(Archduke) Francis Ferdinand (of Austria)

Was the heir to the Austria throne. On June 28, 1914, he and his wife were assassinated by a young Serbian nationalist, who was a member of Black Hand terrorist society. He was not very popular in Austria and his death did not cause much sadness. Had been known to favor a form of federal government for Austria that would have raised the status of Slavs in the empire, which alienated conservatives and Hungarians, and threatened the creation of an independent south Slav state.

Second Vatican Council (Vatican II) (1959-65)

Was the name of the 21st ecumenical council.

Otto Von Bismark (Germany)

Was the prime minister of Germany. Wanted not a parliamentary, but a constitutional monarchy for Germany. Moved against parliament for the right to collect and use tax money, saying it is in the constitution, and that parliament has no control over distribution of tax. Embraced German nationalism to enable Prussian conservatives to outflank the Prussian liberals. Intended to keep Austria out of the unified Germany. Went into war against Austria and won for Prussia. Was able to crush liberals by making monarchy and army more popular institutions in the country. Was the chief manipulator behind the events of the Austro-Prussian war and the Franco-Prussian war, all for the purpose of uniting Germany.

Joseph Goebbels

Was the propaganda minister for the Nazis. Used radio and films to boost the Nazi cause. Broadcast exaggerated claims of Nazi victories throughout the war.

Wall Street (Stock Market) Crash (1929)

Was the result of unregulated financial investments. All kinds of credit disappeared and many banks failed. Thereafter, little American capital flows into Europe.

Battle of Stalingrad

Was the turning point in the European war. The total casualties for both sides was 1.7 to 2 million.

Fascism

____________ developed in the 20th century and is associated with Benito Mussolini. Characteristics include: 1. extreme, expansionist nationalism 2. dynamic and violent leader 3. glorification of war and the military

German

____________ nationalism was a reaction to both Napoleon and the influence of the Romantic Movement.

Whig history

____________ presents the past as an inevitable progression towards ever greater liberty and enlightenment, culminating in modern forms of liberal democracy and constitutional monarchy, involving the rise of constitutional government, personal freedoms and scientific progress.

Nationalism

____________ was an important complement to liberalism in this period.

Enlightened monarchs

____________ were in favor of: 1. improving education 2. reducing the power of the church 3. reforming legal codes and laws 4. corresponding with philosophes

Nationalism

_____________ challenged the status quo in these six areas in Europe: 1. Ireland, against British influence 2. Germany, challenging Austria's multinational structure, as well as creating conflict between Austria and Prussia 3. Italy, to drive out Austrians 4. Poland, against Russia 5. Eastern European nations of the Austrian Empire 6. Southeastern nations, against Ottomans and Russians

Maria Theresa

_____________ did all of the following: 1. established an efficient tax system 2. created central councils to deal with political problems 3. Expanded primary education 4. Limited the amount of labor the nobility could demand from their peasants.

Anarchists

______________ believed that individuals would be free only when the state was abolished.

Karl Marx

_______________ derived the major ideas of the "Communist Manifesto" and "Capital" from: 1. German Hegelanism 2. French Utopian Socialism 3. British classical economics 4. Factory conditions in Manchester

Four Ordinances

_______________ of 1830, issued by Charles X, 1. restricted freedom of the press 2. dissolved the Chambers of Deputies 3. limited the franchise to the wealthy 4. called for new elections

Jean-Paul Sartre

_______________ said, "Existence precedes essence".

Robert Owen

_______________ was a Scottish industrialist/British socialist who: 1. Established a model, Utopian community at New Harmony, Indiana 2. Opposed the employment of young children 3. Supported Engels's attacks on the middle class 4. Experimented with cooperative and socialist communities 5. Organized one of Britain's first national unions 6. Tried to improve the working conditions of his workers

Electricity

________________ made all of the following possible: 1. telephone 2. incandescent bulb 3. telegraph 4. refrigerator

Charles X

_________________ initiated the following conservative measures: 1. restored the rule of primogeniture 2. enacted a law that punished sacrilege with imprisonment or even death 3. created a fund to pay the survivors of emigres who had forfeited their land.

William Gladstone

_________________ supported all of the following policies: 1. extension of the franchise 2. spread of public education 3. home rule of Ireland 4. merit exams in the civil service and military

Adolph Hitler

_________________ used all of the following to gain and maintain power: 1. ritual spectacles 2. campaigning by airplane 3. films 4. radio

Committee of Public Safety

_____________________ was able to defeat the armies of the First Coalition by harnessing: 1. modern nationalization 2. revolutionary terror 3. planned economy

Legislative Assembly

a French congress with the power to create laws and approve declarations of war, established by the Constitution of 1791. Replaced the National Assembly. Created to face challenges of Civil Constitution of the Clergy, king's flight to Varennes, and Declaration of Pillnitz.

Zionism

a Jewish movement seeking to reestablish a Jewish homeland in Palestine (ancient Israel) that arose in response to growing anti-Semitism. Theodor Herzl was Zionism's strongest proponent. 3,000 Jews went annually to Palestine from 1904 to 1914, but by WWI the Zionist movement remained nothing more than a dream.

Jacques Necker

a Swiss banker who became the new royal director-general of finances. He reported that a large portion of royal expenditures went to pensions for aristocrats and other royal court favorites. This greatly angered court aristocratic circles, and he left office shortly after. His financial sleight of hand made it difficult for government officials to raise taxes.

Trench Warfare

a bloody form of war that consisted of two opposing forces digging holes in the ground or "trenches" to provide shelter from enemy gunfire. Gas was also used to fill the trenches of the enemy and kill all within them. Caused heavy casualties, even though not much ground was gained in these conflicts.

Anne Boleyn

a lady-in-waiting of Catherine of Aragon, she later became Henry VIII's second wife in 1533 after he broke off with the church through Reformation Parliament in order to legally divorce his first wife. Although both parents were desperate for a son in order to have him be the heir, she bore Henry a daughter, soon-to-be Queen Elizabeth I. In 1536, she was executed for alleged treason (a crime against one's government), adultery, and incest.

Rococo

a lavish, lighthearted style of art that emerged from 18th-century France. Emphasized pastel colors and a play of light. Became associated with the aristocracies of the Old Regime. The designers of the hotels of the French aristocrats would compensate for the small scale of the rooms they designed with elaborately-decorated and light-colored walls to make the room appear brighter and more spacious. Aka, "the style of Louis XV". Often portrayed the aristocracy, esp. the French aristocracy, at play, which falsely convinced many in France that the nobles and monarchy were frivolous and decadent. This increased the hostilities toward the social and political elites of the Old Regime. Jean-Antoine Watteau was a prominent artist of this style.

Holy Alliance

a league of European nations formed by the leaders of Russia, Austria, and Prussia after the congress of Vienna.

Utilitarianism

advocated by Jeremy Bentham. The greatest happiness for the greatest number. Also said that government laws that didn't benefit all citizens were useless.

Anti-semitism

after a period of ease in mid-19th century, this sentiment arose again in last 2 decades of the 19th century. Beginning in the 1870s, it attributed to the economic stagnation to Jewish bankers and financial interests. Erupted in Germany in the 1880s.

Congress of Vienna

after this conference, the Great Powers of Russia, Austria, Britain and Prussia agree to meet periodically to discuss matters in Europe.

Maximilien Robespierre

aka "The Incorruptible"; the leader of the bloodiest portion of the French Revolution. Was the dominant figure of the Committee of Public Safety by late 1793. He set out to build a republic of virtue. Depended largely on the support of the sans-culottes of Paris. Begins to execute his fellow republican colleagues in 1794. Destroyed his rivals without creating any supporters for himself, which lead to his execution.

Lebensraum

aka "living space"; was supposedly what the new Germany needed. Would be taken from the Slavs.

Petite Bourgeoisie (lower middle class)

aka "white-collared workers" in Britain. Included secretaries, retail clerks, and lower-level bureaucrats in business and government.

Johann Gottlieb Herder

an enlightened critic of the European empires. Believed no single definition of human nature could be made the standard throughout the world, and then be used to dehumanize people who did not fit the standard. Believed those American civilizations encountered in the Americas possessed cultures that should have been respected rather than destroyed. Embraced cultural relativism. Believed being human includes the ability to develop a variety of distinctly different cultures that cannot be compared to other cultures.

Joseph II (of Austria)

associated with enlightened absolutism. Imposed reforms that contemporaries believed he derived from the philosophes' suggestions. Aimed to extend his territories. Wanted to impose central authority on areas of social and political life. Refused to be crowned. Increased the authority of his officials. Required the use of German in governmental matters. Favored religious toleration unlike his mother, despite being Catholic, and so extended the freedom of worship to Lutherans, Calvinists, and those of the Greek Orthodox. Granted Jews freedom of worship and relaxed financial/social burdens on them, but did not give them full equality. Limited the power of the churches, and even dissolved religious orders he thought were unproductive. Made priests like his employees, which ended the influence of the Roman Catholic Church as an independent institution. Abolished many tariffs, and made improvements to trade routes. Abolished serfdom. Encouraged landlords to change land leases to allow easy transfer/inheritance of land. In 1789, he required that all be taxed regardless of status; resulted in revolts among nobles.

Nuclear family

existed in Northwestern Europe; made up of a married couple and their biological or adoptive children; families of three generations or more uncommon due to high mortality rates and late marriage.

Family Economy

centered on the idea that the family was the basic unit of people's consumption. Almost everyone who was a serf or merchant lived in a family because it was impossible to support oneself on one's own. Because of this every member of the household would have a job essential to keeping the family alive. Serfs would have their various jobs centered on farming and field work while merchants would center on the running of a shop. Existed in PRE-INDUSTRIAL Europe

Soviets

councils of workers and soldiers that the various socialist groups in Russia began to organize after the provisional government was created following the abdication of Nicholas II. The Bolsheviks controlled this group, and as a result, had demanded that all political power go to them. Laid the groundwork for a revolution of the proletariat.

Germanic Confederation

created by the Congress of Vienna to replace the Holy Roman Empire. Consisted of 39 states under Austrian leadership. Austria was wary of this group and the possibilities of it forming a German national state within the Habsburg domains that would exclude other groups. Also had issued the Final Act.

"Successor States"

created by the Treaty of Versailles out of the ruins of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Were supposed to be a shield against the rise of Bolshevism. Included countries like Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland and Yugoslavia. Goal was to make new parliamentary governments function in a stable manner. Had economic difficulties, were not financially independent (except Czech), had to depend on trade with Germany, and consisted of agricultural, rural economies. All except Czechs surrendered to domestic authoritarian governments.

Zemstvos

created in 1864 by Alexander II, they were local assemblies that provided a moderate degree of self-government.

Juntas

creole political communites that claimed the right to govern different regions of Latin America, declaring they were ruling in the name of the deposed Ferdinand VII. They were set up to protect the interests of the creoles and they ended direct Spanish governmental control of the colonies. Their establishments also ended privileges of the peninsulares.

Open-field system

existing during the 18th century before enclosures; the system of farming that divided the land to be cultivated by the peasants of a given village into several large fields, which were in turn cut up into long, narrow strips-fields open and not enclosed into small plots by fences or hedges-large field as community-same pattern of plowing, sowing, and harvesting; the whole community would decide what to plant; discouraged improvement.

Four-stage theory

human societies can be classified as hunting and gathering, pastoral or herding, agricultural, or commercial. hunters have no or little settled life. pastoral societies are groups of nomads who tend their herds and develop some private property. agricultural societies are settled and have clear-cut property arrangements. commercial state includes advanced cities, the manufacture of items for wide consumption, trade between cities and countryside, as well as elaborate forms of property and financial arrangements. stages of a movement from barbarism to civilization. commercial stage describes society in northwestern europe.

Francis Joseph

the reining emperor of Austria during the creation of the Dual-Monarchy.

Counter-Reformation

the response to the Protestant Reformation. Catholic churches willing to reform in order to win back Protestants to their side. Began with the Council of Trent in 1545. The Roman Inquisition was born, in which those who were believed to be heretic were brought in and brutally questioned.

Transubstantiation

the term used to describe the changing of the bread and wine into the Body and Blood of Christ that takes place during the consecration of the Mass, by the power of the Holy Spirit through the words and actions of the priest

Proletarianization

the term used to indicate the entry of workers into a wage economy and their gradual loss of significant ownership of the means of production such as tools and equipment, and the control over the conduct of their own trade. Artisans and factory workers would eventually come to participate in a wage-labor force in which their labor became a commodity of the labor marketplace. Would occur when a factory replaces previous skilled laborers, and the factor workers must contribute labor for wage.

empiricism

the view that knowledge comes from experience via the senses, and science flourishes through observation and experiment

habeas corpus

law requiring one to be brought before a judge before being considered guilty

Paval Pestel

leader of the Southern Society in Russia. Favored limited independence for Poland, and democracy.

Marxist Revisionism

led by Bernstein, it was the concept that socialist ideas could be accomplished through using the present government, by voting democratically and peacefully rather than by violent revolution

King Jonh III Sobieski of Poland

led the Polish army to rescue Vienna from a Turkish seige. Was an exception in the ways of the Polish; was not foreign like previous rulers of Poland.

Pascal's Wager

states it is a better bet to believe God exists and to stake everything on his promised mercy than not to do so. Because, if God does exists, the believer will gain everything, whereas should God prove not to exist, comparatively little will have been lost by having believed in him.

Thomas Cranmer

stood in as a replacement for Thomas Wolsey after he was dismissed, he became one of Henry VIII's closest advisors. He convinced Henry VIII that, in order to get divorced from Catherine, he would need to break away from Rome. He was appointed by Henry as Archbishop of Canterburry in 1533. and lead the Convocation (legislative assembly representing English clergy) in declaring Henry's marriage to Catherine null and void. He also wrote the "Book of Common Prayer".

Frederick William I of Prussia

successor to Frederick I of Prussia, considered the most eccentric monarch of the Hohenzollern domains and one of the most effective. Created a successful army, one of the largest in Europe. Even organized bureaucracy among military lines.

Transylvania

territory that Hungarians try to annex.

Realpolitik

the "politics of reality", of which Bismarck, the "ultimate realist", was the foremost 19th century practitioner. Mr Adams' Real world definition: People tend to use this concept to justify whatever they wish to do when you disagree with them and find their action morally questionable.

Battle of the Somme (1916)

the Allies launched a major offensive along this river. Aided by a Russian attack in the east that drew off some German soldiers, the Allies hoped to break through the German line of defense. Enormous casualties were suffered on both sides without result.

Horatio Nelson

the British admiral who destroyed the French fleet at Abukir and ruined Napoleon's plans of destroying Britain by invading Egypt and damaging British trade. Destroys Spanish and French fleets in the Battle of Tralfagar, sufficiently succeeding in ending all French hope of invading Britain. Dies in battle.

epicycles

movements of planets in perfect circle

Zemstvos

participated in the Constitutional Democratic Party (Cadets) of Russia. Modeled themselves on the liberal parties of Western Europe and wanted a constitutional monarchy under a parliamentary regime with civil liberties and economic progress.

Alexander I of Russia

tsar of Russia; was angered by Napoleon's enlargement of France with Austrian territory, marriage to Austrian Marie Louise, and violation of the Treaty of Tilsit by the annexation of Holland. He then withdrew from Napoleon's continental system and prepared for war. Ignored Napoleon's peace offerings after France's invasion of Russia. Wanted all of Poland under his rule after the Congress of Vienna had convened, which eventually led to his owning a smaller portion of Poland, and France is added as a fifth power. Proposed a Holy Alliance, whereby the monarchs he allied with would promise to act together in accordance with Christian principles.

Napoleon III

was determined to redesign Paris. Appointed Baron Georges Haussmann for this task.

Lord Liverpool (Great Britain)

was the Prime minister of Britain who failed to protect the welfare of the poor and instead worsened it with taxes that favored the nobility in a time of poor harvest and unemployment.

"J'accuse" (1898)

written by Emile Zola. Defense of Dreyfus.

Letters on the English

written by Voltaire after his return to France following his exile in England (1733), it was his book based on his experiences while living there; it praised virtues of the English, especially that of religious liberty and freedom, and indirectly criticized the French society's abuses. Was later condemned by the Parlement of Paris.

individual

A distinct feature of Romanticism, especially in Germany, was its glorification of both the __________ person and the ___________ cultures.

Anarchism

A doctrine urging the abolition of government or governmental restraint and industrialism as the indispensable condition for full social and political liberty. Some of its followers would favor peace, believing education was key in spreading its ideas, while others favored violence. Later, its followers would favor the community good over the individual good.

Edict of Nantes

A document of religious toleration issued by Henry IV which ended religious fighting between Protestants and Catholics in France; granted the Huguenots freedom of public worship, right of assembly admission to public offices and universities, and permission to maintain fortified towns, but only in their own territories. This brought peace to France, but also Henry IV's assassination. Later, it was evoked by Louis XIV in 1685.

Petition of Rights

A document presented to Charles I by Parliament, requiring no forced loans or taxations without the consent of Parliament, that no freeman can be imprisoned without due cause, and that no troops could be quartered in private homes.

Confederation of the Rhine

A federation of German states organized under Napoleon I in July 1806. Formerly under the rule of the Holy Roman Empire, which was dissolved the same year, the new federation placed itself under the "protection" of Napoleon and was governed by one of his close allies. It quickly fell apart after Napoleon's defeat outside Leipzig in 1813 as member states abandonded the French and joined the German natinalist "war of liberation."

Zollverein (1834)

A free-trading union formed by all the major German states except Austria. The favorability of abolishing internal tariffs that impeded economic growth was realized by Prussian reformers following the Napoleonic wars.

Blaise Pascal

A french mathematicion and physical scientist. He was a Jansenist made famous for his wager in which he stated it was better to believe in God, as there was relatively little lost if one was wrong

English Game Law

A great example of Aristocratic favoritism, this law granted English landowners the exclusive right to hunt game animals. People who did not own land of their own (renters, merchants), thus were not allowed to hunt. This led to a large growth in poaching, which in turn led to the creation of a black market and traps to catch poachers

Bastille

A great fortress in Paris, once held political prisoners. It was stormed by the Parisians and was overcome. This even allowed for the armament of the militia, and was the first of many crucial journees, or very important moments in the Revolutionary pattern

Jansenists

A group in opposition to the Jesuits that adhered to the teachings of St. Augustine and opposed teachings of free will. Believed that original sin had so corrupted humankind that individuals couldn't do anything to contribute to their salvation. Lived pious and morally austere lives; associated with opposition to royal authority. This movement made considerable progress with families in Paris but was supressed by Louis XIV.

Enclosure Movement

A long standing movement involving fencing off common lands for private use. This essentially commercialized farming. The movement, having started in the 17th century, accelerated in the 18th century with the passage of certain enclosure acts by Parliament.

Steam Engine

A machine that turns the energy released by burning fuel into motion. Thomas Newcomen invents the first model in 1760, initially, to pump water out of coal mines. James Watt later perfects it by making changes that enabled the engine to drive machinery efficiently. Steam power could now be used to spin and weave cotton. Before long, cotton mills were found all over Britain. Because they were fired by coal, they didn't need to be located near rivers, and were transportable. Later on, became added to ships and wagons, revolutionizing transportation

Mississippi Company

A monopoly on trading privileges with Louisiana in North America. Took over management of French national debt. Issued shares of its own stock in exchange for government bonds.

Battle of Midway Island

A naval and air battle fought in World War II in which planes from American aircraft carriers blunted another assault on Hawaii and did enough damage to halt the Japanese advance. Was a major turning point in the war against Japan.

Northern Renaissance

A northern explosion of humanism and reform, spurned on by the invention of the printing press. Pushed forth by figures such as Erasmus, it led to educational and religious reform across Germany, England, France, and Spain.

The Communist Manifesto (1848)

A pamphlet written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels for the Secret Communist League that describes the new political system of scientific socialism, which becomes the basis for communism. The book states that all of human history is based on the conflict between the bourgeoisie (those who own the means of production) and the proletariat (working class), and predicted that the proletariat would rise up in a violent revolution to overthrow the bourgeoisie and create a society with an equal distribution of goods and services. Marx and Engels say that human history must be understood rationality and as a whole, and that through these clashes between social classes, revolution of production can be achieved, as well as social transformation.

Immanuel Kant

"Dare to know", quote in which this author defines enlightenment. Have the courage to use your own understanding.

Edmund Cartwright

1785, an Englishman who invented the power loom which was water-powered and provided for rapid and automatic weaving.

Monroe Doctrine

1823 - Declared that Europe should not interfere in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere and that any attempt at interference by a European power would be seen as a threat to the U.S. It also declared that a New World colony which has gained independence may not be recolonized by Europe. (It was written at a time when many South American nations were gaining independence). Only England, in particular George Canning, supported this document. Mostly just a show of nationalism, the doctrine had no major impact until later in the 1800s.

Peninsular Campaign

A campaign led by Napoleon, he entered the country to force Portugal to abandon its treaty with Britain and overthrew the Spanish Bourbons. This campaign brought in Guerrilla warfare against Napoleon.

General will

A concept in political philosophy referring to the desire or interest of a people as a whole. As embraced by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who championed the concept, it is identical to the rule of law, and to obey it is to be free.

Concordat of 1801

A concordat between Pope Pius VII and Napoleon. Made possible because Pius had written that Christianity was compatible with the ideals of equality and democracy. Reaffirmed the Roman Catholic Church as the majority church of France and restored some of its civil status. Gained for French Catholics the right to practice their religion freely. Required refractory clergy and those who had accepted revolution to resign. Replaced by clergy whose title the Pope confirmed, but the state would name bishops, as well as pay their salaries. In return, the church was to give up its claims to its confiscated property.

English Civil War

A conflict between Parliamentary forces and the Royalist forces of Charles I. Ended with a Parliamentary victory led by Oliver Cromwell

Declaration of Indulgence (1672)

A declaration by Charles II, suspended all laws against Roman Catholics and non-Anglican Protestants. Was supposed to help appeal Louis XIV and unite the English behind a war with Holland

Declaration of Indulgence (1687)

A declaration by James II, suspended all religious tests and permitted free worship

Petition of Rights

A petition put to Charles I by Parliament when he wished to fund a war with Spain. It stated that no forced loans or taxation without the consent of Parliament would be enacted, that no freeman should be imprisoned without due cause, and that troops should not be billeted in private homes

Utopian Socialism

A phrase that was first used by Karl Marx to criticize the works of Fourier, Owen, and Saint-Simon

Political Absolutism

A political state in which a single monarch has absolute power over a nation

Guises

A powerful family in eastern France who lobbied to control the country following the unfortunate death of Charles V and his sickly son in 1560. They had major influence through the Catholic hierarchy of cardinals and bishops. They supported the Catholics in order to keep their political power.

Bourbons

A powerful family in the south and west of France. In league with the Montmorency-Chatillon, they supported the Huguenot protesters to battle the Guises for political reasons.

Montmorency-Chatillons

A powerful family who controlled the center of France. This family also supported the Huguenots in combating the Catholic Guises in France.

Geocentric model

A representation of the universe in which stars and planets revolve around Earth. Ptolemy proposed the model. Others, like Aristotle and Copernicus, built onto it, and believed that above the Earth lay a series of concentric spheres, fluid in character, of which one contained the moon, another, the sun, and still others the planets and the stars. Outer regions of these spheres contained God and the angels. Earth had to be in the center because of its heaviness. Stars and other heavenly bodies had to be contained in the spheres so they could move. The rest was presumed natural.

Thirty-Nine Articles

A revision of Thomas Cramner's original forty-two articles. Made moderate Protestantism the official religion within the Anglican Church

Navigation Acts

A series of acts passed in England to weaken Dutch trade and strengthen English trade

Clarendon Code

A series of laws the exluded Roman Catholics, Presbyterians, and Independents from the official religious and political life of the nation

SS (Schutzstaffel)

AKA Protective Force. Was the chief vehicle for police surveillance. Commanded by Heinrich Himmler. Had originated as a bodyguard for Hitler and then became an elite paramilitary organization. Had about 52,000 members. Carried out the purges within the Nazi Party.

SA (Sturmabteilung)

AKA Storm Troopers. The unemployed begin to join this group that reached nearly one million members in 1933. They attacked the Communists and Social Democrats. Their key officers, including Ernst Roehm, were later murdered at the command of Hitler.

2100

About _______ people were executed during the last 132 days of the Reign of Terror.

Guillotine

An instrument of execution that consists of a weighted blade between two vertical poles. Introduced as a method of "humane" execution. Used during the French Revolution against thousands of individuals, especially during the Reign of Terror.

Enlightenment

An intellectual movement concentrated in France during the 1700's; developed rational laws to describe social behavior and applied their findings in support of human rights and liberal economic theories. The philosophes stress reason, natural law, and progress in their criticism of prevailing social injustices.

Thirty Years' War

An international war fought in Germany. Took place in five phases: The Bohemian; the Danish; the Swedish; and the Swedish-French (international)

Communist Information Bureau (Cominform) (1947)

An organization of communist nations with the goal of spreading revolutionary communism. Was the Soviets' response to the US containment policy. Ended the era in which noncommunist countries and communist countries cooperated with each other.

industry, government

Anarchists rejected both _________ and _______________.

mechanistic

Bacon, Descartes, and Newton all sought to explain the universe in ________ terms.

Huguenots

Converts or adherents to Calvinism in France, including many from the French nobility wishing to challenge the authority of the Catholic monarch. Also known as French Protestants.

Nicholas I (Russia)

Even though both Constantine and Alexander I acknowledges his succession as tsar, he refuses. Only accepts throne after being told about a conspiracy among certain officers. Symbolized autocracy. Was aware of the need for improvement in Russia, but was afraid of change. Refused both reform and abolition of serfdom. When revolt breaks out in Poland, he issues the Organic Statute, reclaiming it a part of his empire.

Third Estate

Every in France who was not part of the clergy or the nobility . Many of the controversial moves involved with the Estates General were in regards to this estate. The doubling of their representative body was a influential move that led to the creation of the National Assembly

France

Except for the period 1924-6, Conservatives remained in power and ________ enjoyed general prosperity until 1931, longer than any other European nation.

Committee of Public Safety

Executive committee established by National Convention that was supposed to supervise the elimination of the "enemies of the revolution", under the leadership of Robespierre. Developed a relationship with the sans-culotte of Paris that mostly just touched the surface.

Public opinion

Existed after the mid-18th century. Erupted from the literate public and the growing influence of secular printed materials, creating an increasingly influential force that was this. Was a collective effect on political and social life of views circulated in print and discussed in the home, workplace, and in the centers of leisure. Readers of philosophe writers discuss their ideas, then circulate them widely. Supported the expansion of trade, the improvement of agriculture and transport, and the invention of new machinery for manufacturing. Chief bond was the desire to reform religion, political thought, society, government, and the economy for the sake of human liberty.

French, Napoleonic

Industrial development in continental Europe was disrupted by the _____________ revolution and the _____________wars.

Vietnam

Student uprisings peaked in 1968 when American students demonstrated against US involvement in ______. France and Czechoslovakia also had protests the same year.

Ngo Dinh Diem

Noncommunist leader of South Vietnam who established the Republic of Vietnam in the territory left by the French. Was supported by the US. The National Liberation Front of North Vietnam wanted to overthrow him and unify Vietnam into a single nation.

e

The Hatti-i Humayun: a. declared Islam the sole religion of the Ottoman Empire b. were a series of modernization efforts c. were a series of military reforms d. were opposed by most European powers e. spelled out the rights of non-Muslim subjects of the Ottoman Empire

c

The Hohenzollern turned ________ into a powerful state. a. Hungary b. Saxony c. Prussia d. Bohemia e. Silesia

Victor Emanuel II First King of Italy

Previously had been King of Piedmont with Cavour as his Prime Minister Should have changed his title to King Victor Emanuel I of Italy, but kept his number (II) of the Kingdom of Piedmont. This caused a bit of backlash among Italians.

Neville Chamberlain

Prime Minister of Britain during Hitler's rule. Attends Munich conference and appeases Hitler, allowing Hitler to take over the Sudetenland. Hitler occupies Prague, disgracing Britain's appeasement.

France

The Revolutions of 1848 first erupted in _____________.

b

The Romantic movement has its roots in all of the following EXCEPT: a. the individualism of the Renaissance b. the neoclassicism of the eighteenth century c. Protestant devotion and personal piety d. the sentimental novels of the eighteenth century e. dramatic German poetry

Baron de Montesquieu

The author of "Spirit of the Laws", he believed in the creation of a balance of powers between different branches of government.

c

The basic challenge facing the Habsburg Empire was: a. lack of resources b. the homogeneity of the population c. the profound diversity of the territories contained within the empire d. the weakness of the Habsburg emperors e. the extreme poverty of most central European peasants.

Empiricism

The belief that scientific knowledge must be gained by experience and observation

15, 15, 25

The casualties of WWII amounted to ___ million military deaths and ___ to ___ civilian deaths.

French

The cause of Italian unification was strengthened by the help of the:

Second Industrial Revolution

The emergence of new industries during the 3rd quarter of the 19th century associated with the new introduction of steel, chemicals, and oil.

Successor States

The emergence of traditional conservative regimes in the ____________ of Eastern and Central Europe resulted from all of the following: 1. lack of a tradition of self-government 2. belief that authoritarian dictatorship would preserve national unity 3. large landowners who turned to dictators to protect them from radical political movement

Battle of Sedan

The end of Napoleon III's reign occurred at the ________________ during the Franco-Prussian War.

North African Campaign (November 1942 - May 1943)

US and UK fight Italy and Germany in North Africa. This is the first place the US will fight during WWII.

Marshall Plan (European Recovery Program) (1947-1951)

US policy of providing economic aid to help European nations recover from WWII. Was an additional step to preventing the spread of communism. Soviet refuse to participate and prohibit the countries it had control over from joining.

Containment Policy (1940s-80s)

US policy with the purpose of resisting Soviet expansion and influence in the hopes the Soviet Union would eventually collapse from its own foreign oppression. Marked a major departure in American foreign policy.

Harry S. Truman

US president that came into office after Roosevelt died. Accepted Japanese peace conditions of allowing Japan to retain its emperor despite the Allies' wishes of an unconditional surrender by Japan.

Johann Gottfried Herder

Used the words "Romantic" and "Gothic" interchangeably, for he believed it applied to literature that did not observe classical forms and rules and gave free play to imagination (this view began within Germany and England at first). Was a strong proponent of the German folk culture. Because he believed each language and culture was unique, opposed "common" language (like French) and "universal" institutions (such as those Napoleon had imposed in Europe). Also was a strong critic of European colonialism. Resented French cultural dominance in Germany. Vigorously rejected the mechanical explanation of nature. Saw human beings and societies as developing overtime. Revived German folk culture.

Indochina

American resistance to Japanese expansion became much stiffer after the 1941 Japanese occupation of __________.

General Georges Boulanger (France)

Would have imposed stronger executive authority on the Third Republic

French Revolution

Among the legacies of the ______________ are: 1. diffusion of republican ideals 2. the idea of "right" (conservative) and "left" (radical) in policies 3. citizen armies 4. metric system

Jews

____ were singled out for particular abuse by the Nazis based on biological racial theories from the late 19th century.

Jews

_______ were the least likely to return to Europe.

Adolph Hitler

__________________'s popularity was based on the following: 1. German economic recovery 2. perception of greater equality and social mobility for all Germans 3. successes in foreign policy

Rapid industrialization

_____________________ in the Soviet Union was accompanied by a fall in the standard of living because factories were not making consumer goods.

Holy Monday

a day of relaxation for cottage workers

Plebiscite

a direct vote in which a country's people have the opportunity to approve or reject a proposal

Peter Paul Rubens

a famous Baroque artist who studied Michelangelo in Italy and took that Renaissance style to the next level in drama, motion, color, religion and animation, which is portrayed in his paintings; known for his paintings of religious subjects and for his voluptuous female nudes.

Peter Paul Rubens

a famous baroque artist employed by Charles I to decorate the ceiling of the Banqueting Hall at Charles's palace in London with paintings commemorating his father, James I. A leading painter of the Catholic Reformation.

Detente

a flexible diplomatic policy followed by Richard Nixon that sought to reduce tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union.

Girondists

a group of Jacobins named as so due to the fact that many came from the department of the Gironde in southwest France. They were determined to oppose the forces of counterrevolution. Lead the Legislative Assembly to declare war against Austria and Prussia. More conservative than their fellow Jacobins, the Mountain, and did not wish for Louis to be executed, but the decision was overruled by the Mountain. Later forced out of the Convention by the sans-culottes in 1793, and executed. After the execution of Robespierre, those held in prisons were allowed to return to their seats in the Legislative Assembly.

Corn Laws

repealed in 1846 by Robert Peel. The repeal was desired for the purpose of abolishing tariffs to lower the price of goods and thus, strengthening Britain's competitive position in the world market. Robert Peel had actually repealed these laws because of the Irish famine. The repeal would mark the opening of an era of free trade that continued until the 20th century.

Dom Pedro (Brazil)

son of King Joao VI, who leaves his son as regent in Brazil before returning to Portugal. Embraced the cause of Brazilian independence against the recolonizing efforts of Portugal. Soon became emperor of an independent Brazil, which remained a monarchy. Thus, in contrast to other nations of Latin America, Brazil achieved independence that left no confusion about where the political authority lay. Also, the Brazilian revolution preserved slavery.

"Cuius Regio, Eius Religio"

the ruler of the land determines the religion of the land

Nationalism

the single most powerful ideology of the 19th century; based on the concept that a nation is composed of people who are joined together by the bonds of a common language, customs, culture, history, and because of these bonds, should be administered by the same government. Protested against multinational states and against people of the same ethnic group living in political units smaller than that of the ethnic nation. A difficulty was determining which ethnic groups would reign a particular domain.

Centralized Episcopal System

An hierarchical governance structure within both the Roman Catholic and the Church of England (Anglican Church)

Western liberalism

Nazi Germany, fascist Italy and the Stalinist Soviet Union all shared a profound hatred of _______________.

right-wing

The Great Depression in France led to the rise of _______ fascist organizations such as Croix de Feu and Action Francaise.

Puritan Republic

The state of which England took under Oliver Cromwell, where there was no monarch and Puritanism was the state religion

"Old Bolsheviks"

Were among one of the first targets of Stalin's Great Purge.

"Crush the infamous thing"

"Ecrasez l'infame", as said by Voltaire. Summed up the attitude of a large number of philosophers toward the Roman Catholic churches and Christianity. Here, he cries out against the rigid authority of the church officials, and all religious institutions in general.

Rene Descartes

"I think, therefore I am"

I am the state

"L'etat, c'est moi"; said by Louis XIV, translates to?

Laissez-faire

"Let people do as they please"- Favored economic growth through competitive free enterprise while letting government maintain a sound currency, enforcing contrasts, protecting property, imposing low tariffs and taxes and leaving the remainder of economic life to private initiative. Advocated by Adam Smith and classical economists.

Rousseau

"The Social Contract" is one of the best known works of ___________.

David Lloyd George

"new" Liberalism. Prime Minister who transformed Gladstone's Liberal Party by rejecting laissez faire (while keeping political liberalism). His efforts represented some of the first steps toward the future British Welfare state. National Insurance Act of 1911( provided benefits for workers in the case of sickness and unemployment). Pensions for those over 70 and compensation for those injured while working. Increased the tax burden on the wealthy class.

Baron D'Holbach

( 1723-1789) wrote "System of Nature"; argued that humans were essentially like machines, completely determined by outside forces (determinism); sought for the abolition of religion; held views very closely related to atheism.

Mary I

(r. 1553-1558) came to throne after Edward VI of England died. Daughter of Catherine of Aragon and Henry VIII. She restored Catholic doctrine to England alike her father.

bohemian period

(1618-25) HRE Ferdinand II tries to make all Bohemians catholic. Bohemians rejected the Hapsburgs as king in favor of Calvinist ruler of Palatinate, Frederick V. Threw two Hapsburg officials out a window (Defenestration of Prague). After Frederick V's defeat at White Mountain in 1620, Bohemia was made catholic and Spanish took over.

January Edict

(1562) granted by Catherine de Medici, this edict allowed Protestant in France to worship outside towns publicly and privately inside them.

swedish-french period

(1635-1644). 4th and final period of the 30 Years' War. Longest period of the Thirty Years' War in which an estimated one third of the German population died. French entered the war, sent men, munitions, and money. French, Swedish, and Spanish soldiers looted Germany. Worst European catastrophe since the Black Death.

Leviathan

(1651) Written by English philosopher Thomas Hobbes, maintained that sovereignty is ultimately derived from the people, who transfer it to the monarchy by implicit contract.

Battle of Poltava

(1709) Amidst the Great Northern War, Peter the Great drew Charles XII into Russian southern plains and defeated him, destroying the entire Swedish army. Went on to conquer other Baltic states and even came close to Stockholm itself. Baltic was no longer a Swedish lake and Peter gains a warm water port. These developments ended the Great Northern War (1709-1721) and concluded in Peace of Nystad in 1721.

Peace of Nystad

(1721) confirmed the Russian conquest of Estonia, Livonia, and part of Finland when the Great Northern War came to a close. Henceforth, Russia possessed ice-free ports and a permanent influence on European affairs. Concluded the Great Northern War (1700-1721), in which Russia dominated.

Corn Law

(1815) passed by Parliament to maintain high prices for domestically produced grain by levying import duties on foreign grain. Designed to protect the interests of the wealthy.

Carlsbad Decrees

(1819) issued by the German states from the persuasion of Metternich; it dissolved the Burshenschaften student groups. Also provided for university inspectors and prosecutors.

Crimean War

(1853-1856) Russia, protector of the Orthodox Christians, wanted to annex additional territory and uses its position as protector to occupy the provinces of Moldavia and Walachia. However, the French and British are against Russian expansion of territory, and join the Ottomans against Russia. Russia loses the battle. This was the first war covered by war correspondents and photographers.

Danish War

(1864) Prussia and Austria fight Denmark to prevent Denmark from incorporating the two provinces of Schleswig and Holstein into its territory.

Battle of Stalingrad

(1942) World War II battle between invading German forces and Soviet defenders for control of this city on the Volga River. Russians lose more men than Americans lost in the whole war. Hitler loses his whole army because he would not listen to his generals and refused to retreat. Germany's defeat marked turning point of the Russian campaign. Thereafter, the Americans provided material help. An increase in Russian production allows the Soviet Union to gain and keep offensive.

Holy Roman Empire

(962-1806) The West German princes withdraw under its rule, and Francis II dissolves this body, calling himself Emperor Francis II of Austria.

William Gladstone

(Liberal) rival of Disraeli .Liberal Party prime minister of Britain who passed many reforms, including the Reform Act of 1884, giving the vote to all men who paid regular rents or taxes. He also attempted to alleviate Irish discontent by enacting failed limited land reform and Irish Home Rule. - Gladstone's Liberals focused on individualism, free trade, and competition to solve social problems.Tried to create a level playing field for all individuals to compete (based on ability and merit)- His reforms included civil service exams, ending aristocratic privileges, secret ballots, Public Education.

Henry II

(r. 1556-59) As king of France, he succeeded his father, Francis I, and began a religious repression that created Calvinist martyrs, perhaps further encouraging Protestant dissent. He established new measures against Protestants in the Edict of Chateaubriand in 1551. The spread of Calvinism led him to sign the Treaty of Canteau-Cambresis in 1559. After decades of reckless invasions, he agreed to respect Habsburg dominance in Italy and control over Flanders (Netherlands). In 1559, he was accidentally killed by an errant lance during a jousting tournament celebrating peace with Spain, and so his sickly son, Francis II, succeeded him.

Elizabeth I

(r. 1558-1603) daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, and Queen of England. She followed a policy that was a middle course between Catholic and Protestant extremes. She sets up a national Church, is declared head of the Anglican Church, establishes a state Church that moderates Catholics and Protestants, allowed priests to marry, allowed sermons to be delivered in English, and made the Book of Common Prayer more acceptable to Catholics. Never married, and died without an heir. As a result, the Tudor Dynasty ended with her reign.

English Factory Act (of 1833)

1. Forbade the employment of children under the age of 9 2. Work day for children between the ages of 9 and 13 could not exceed 9 hours 3. Factory owners required to pay for 2 hours of education per day. The effect of this further divided work and the home life. Caused adult workers to demand shorter workdays to fit that of their kids or for the purpose of spending more time with their kids. Was originally meant to create more job opportunities for adults.

peace of prague

1635, German Protestant states, led by Saxony, reached a compromise agreement with Ferdinand. It repealed the Edict of Restitution and guaranteed amnesty for all who fought against the Hapsburgs. The Swedes refused to join in this agreement.

Bundesrat

federal council of the North German Confederation's legislature. Composed of members appointed by the governments of the states.

intolerance, rationalism

18th century French philosophes opposed religious _________ and superstition, and instead, valued _________ and reason.

Philosophes

18th century writers and critics who flourished in and emerged from the expanding print culture during the Enlightenment. Took the lead in forging the new attitudes favorable to change, championed reform, and advocated toleration. Sought to apply the rules of reason, criticism, and common sense to nearly all the major institutions, economic practices and religious policies of the day. A few were university professors in Germany, but most were free agents who wandered abroad in coffeehouses.

Robert Bakewell

A British agricultural improver that pioneered new methods of animal breeding that produced more and better animals and more milk and meat.

Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh

A British statesman, he attended the Congress of Vienna, thinking that the Holy Alliance was absurd, before renewing the Quadruple Alliance

Martin Luther

A Catholic monk and theologian who noticed big differences between scripture and Church practices. He brought the public's attention to the hypocrisy he saw among high church officials, first with the 95 Theses, and then with many other written works. German princes supported and protected him, because freedom from the Catholic Church would mean freedom from the taxes, tax exemptions, and power the Church held over them. Pope Leo X and Charles V ordered him to recant at the Diet at Worms, but he refused.

Louis Joseph de Montcalm

A French general who was defeated by the British under James Wolfe at Quebec, leading to the end of the French Empire in Canada

Jansenists

A Roman Catholic religious movement that opposed the theology and political influence of the Jesuits. Blaise Pascal was a famous member of this group

James Watt

A Scottish engineer who perfected the steam engine that worked faster and more efficiently than earlier engines, this man continued improving the engine, inventing a new type of governor to control steam pressure and attaching a flywheel.

Eduard Bernstein

A Social Democratic member of the Reichstag in the German Empire. Led Marxist revisionism in Germany. Said Marxist expectations were not occurring. Held that class conflict was not inevitable and social revolutionary change may occur through parliamentary methods with the new expansion of franchise to workers. Disapproved of labor unions. Was one of the main critics to orthodox Marxism. He did not see an inevitable destruction for capitalism, and believed that the achievement of socialism would come through capitalism, not through its destruction.

"Spirit of the Laws"

A book by Baron de Montesquieu in which he argued for the idea of the balance of power in government. He continued that one could not determine one kind of government that would work universally, as the various factors of nations varied to too much of a degree

"Novum Organum"

A book by Francis Bacon in which he attacked the Scholastic idea of only needing to explain already discovered explanations to natural events. Thus he released his ideas of empiricism.

"Utopia"

A book by Thomas More that features an imaginary society based on reason and tolerance that overcame social and political injustice by holding all property and goods in common and requiring everyone to earn their bread by their own work

"Wealth of Nations"

A book in which Adam smith presented the concept of the laissez-faire economic process, embraced the four stage theory, and presented several other ideas condemning Mercantilism and the idea of limited resources upon Earth.

Thomas More

A close friend of Erasmus, he was the best known English humanist. His most work was the book "Utopia"

"Ship Money"

A coastal defense tax that Charles I illegally levied on inland counties

Olympe de Gouges

A proponent of democracy, she demanded the same rights for French women that French men were demanding for themselves. In her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (1791), she challenged the practice of male authority and the notion of male-female inequality. Said that women should have the right to vote, hold office, own property, and serve in the military. Demanded that men recognize the paternity of their child, and equality of the sexes in marriage and education. She lost her life to the guillotine due to her revolutionary ideas.

Anabaptists

A radical fundamentalist Protestant group. Their identifying belief was that of adult baptism. Though they drew from all social classes initially, they later drew more from the agrarian class. They were widely persecuted by both Catholics and other Protestant groups

Ignatius of Loyola

A soldier in his youth, he began a spiritual pilgrimage after he was wounded by a canon in battle. During his healing, he studied Christian texts, which he then began to preach denying oneself and submitting without question to higher church authority and spiritual direction

Bavaria

A strictly Catholic state of the HRE, strongly influenced by the Jesuits. The duke of this land organized the Catholic league.

Charles "Turnip" Townsend

instituted crop rotation

Neoclassicism

A style of art that embodied a return to figurative and architectural models drawn from the Renaissance and the ancient world. Recalled ancient Republican values that criticized the Old Regime, and was embraced by the French Revolution. The books of Johann Joachim Winckelmann, who wrote about Greek art, and the simultaneous rediscovery and partial excavation of the ancient Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum in southern Italy fostered the rise of of this style of art in both art and architecture. The popularity of the city of Rome as a destination for artists, and aristocratic tourists contributed to its rise. Its paintings were didactic rather than emotional or playful. Its subject matter was usually concerned with public life or morals rather than depicting intimate family life, daily routine, or the leisure activity favored by the Rococo painters. Its painters often used scenes of heroism and self-sacrifice from ancient history to draw moral/political lessons. They also intended their paintings to be a form of direct political criticism. The most prominent of its artists, Jacques-Louis David used ancient republican themes in the 1780's to emphasize the corruption of French monarchical government.

Neolocalism

A term that referred to the practice of young men and women leaving home and marrying and forming an independent household of their own.

Peace of Augsburg

A treaty between HRE Charles V and the territorial German princes, it was a turning point in the historic reformation that ended German religious warfare in 1555. It declared that Lutheranism was a legal, permanent religion along with Catholicism. It also stated that German princes could determine the religion over his subjects. Calvinism and Anabaptism was not recognized.

Peace of Augsburg

A treaty between the protestant leaders and Emperor Charles V declaring that the ruler of a region would declare the religion of the region

Treaty of Dover

A treaty through which England and France formally allied against the Dutch. Charles II secretly pledged he would convert to Catholicism to appease Louis XIV

English Civil War

A war between the forces of Charles I (The Royalists or Cavaliers) and those of Parliament (The Roundheads or the New Model Army) under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell. For a time period, it ended the monarchy of England

Bill of Rights

Acknowledged by William III and Mary II, limited the power of the English monarchs and guaranteed the civil liberties of the English privileged classes. Monarchs had to follow the law and ruled by consent of the parliament which had to be called into session every three years. Also prevented a Catholic from occupying the English Throne

National Government

Actions the British ____________________ took to deal with the depression: 1. raised government taxes 2. cut insurance benefits to the unemployed and elderly 3. lowered government salaries 4. took Britain off the gold standard 5. Parliament passed the Import Duties Bill, which placed a tax on all imports except those from the British Empire

Thomas Cranmer

Adviser to Henry VIII during the English Reformation, wrote the "Book of Common Prayer". He was put to death by Mary I

Ballot Act of 1872

introduced voting by secret ballot in England

Ottoman Empire

After Napoleon's invasion of Egypt, this empire sought to apply European reforms. Copied European legal and military institutions and secular values flowing from liberalism. However, because of growing nationalism and power struggles, as well as independent, uncooperative rulers, failed to achieve genuine political strength and unity.

Vichy Government

After the Germans invade France, France signs an armistice, forcing France to rule Southern France from this resort city. Its government collaborated closely with the Germans to preserve autonomy. Was headed by the dictatorial regime of Marshal Petain. The Roman Catholic clergy gained status under the rule of this government. Set up religious instruction in schools, and increased financial support for Catholic schools. Made divorce difficult. Encouraged intense nationalism. Was anti-Third Republic and anti-democratic.

90

After the Holocaust, __% of the 2,625,000 Jews living in Poland die.

Russian Provisional Government

After the Russian tsar abdicates, the government of Russia falls into the hands of members of the Duma composed chiefly of Constitutional Democrats (Cadets) with western sympathies. Wanted to remain loyal to Russia's alliances and keep Russia in the war. Later, the Bolsheviks wrestle away Russian power from this group.

Roman Catholic

After the Thermidorean Reaction, a strong ______________ revival took place in France.

Britain

After the fall of France, Germany next turned its attention to ________.

Soviet Union

After the war, the __________ emerged as a world power second only to the United States.

Solemn League and Covenant

Agreement between Scotland and England during the English Civil War agreeing that England would adopt Presbyterianism after the war

existentialism

All of the following European intellectuals are identified with the movement known as _______________: 1. Albert Camus 2. Martin Heidegger 3. Karl Jaspers 4. Jean-Paul Sartre

Enclosures

All of the following are associated with what? -intended to use land rationally -would provide greater commercial profits -brought turmoil to the social life of the countryside -increased food production

assignats

All of the following are true about _____________: 1. lost much of their value 2. backed by the value of church land 3. later issued without anything of value backing them up

Great Britain

All of the following lead to ________'s position as an industrial leader in the 18th century: -newspaper industry publicized consumer goods -economy benefited from consumer demand from the colonies of America -the country's social structure encouraged lower classes to imitate the life styles of their superiors -London exposed numerous people to the latest fashions and style

population growth

All of the following lead to what in the 18th century? 1. earlier marriages 2. improvements in transportation and storage of grain 3. disappearance of the Bubonic Plague

Domestic System (Textile Production)

Also known as the putting out system, this system had textiles produced in homes in rural areas. An agent would bring wool to the homes of peasants, who would spin it into thread. The thread would then bring it to other homes, where the thread would be woven into a finished product.

Francis Bacon

An English lawyer, high royal official, and author. He is regarded as the father of empiricism and of experimentation in science. Bacon was not a natural philosopher, but he managed to create a climate for scientific work. He believed that scholastic thinkers paid too much attention to tradition and ancient knowledge and the knowledge should be used for the betterment of humankind

Jeremy Bentham

An English philosopher who advocated the philosophy of utilitarianism and increased the influence of the classical economists in Britain. He argued that people should judge ideas, institutions, and actions on the basis of their utility, or usefulness. He believed utility would overcome the special interests of privileged groups who prevented rational government, and that the government should try to promote the greatest good for the greatest number of people. He also argued that in general the individual should be free to pursue his or her own advantage without interference from the state.

Marquis Cesare Beccaria

An Italian aristocrat and philosophe who published "On Crimes and Punishment", in which he analyzed the problem of making punishments effective and just.

Ptolemy

An ancient Greek astronomer, living in Egypt, who proposed a way of calculating the movements of the planets on the assumption that they, along with the sun and the stars, were embedded in clear spheres that revolved around the Earth. His beliefs prevailed for nearly fifteen hundred years, until the modern model of the solar system, with the sun at the center, was developed from the ideas of Copernicus.

Edict of Nantes

An edict released by Henry IV of France, giving Huguenots religious rights in a country that would remain Catholic

New Science

An emergence of astronomy, physics, biology, and mathematics during the 16th to 18th centuries, including logarithms, analytic geometry, and calculus. The emphasis was on experimentation and tangible proof., Scholars also begin to use observation, experimentation, and scientific reasoning to gather knowledge and draw conclusions about the physical world. Came in frequent conflict with Church authorities.

Scientific Revolution

An era of rapid Scientific discovery taking place all over Europe. These discoveries were found amidst the growth of the concept of Empiricism, or the Scientific Method

Defenestration of Prague

An event in 1618 during which the three regents for King Ferdinand of Bohemia were thrown out of the window of his palace

Restoration of the Monarchy

An event that occured in 1660, ended with Charles II on the throne, resuming a hereditary monarchy and restoring the Anglican Church

Baron Georges Haussman

Appointed by Napoleon III to oversee the urban reconstruction of Paris. The construction of the sewer system was a famous part of his project.

Karl Marx (Marxism)

Approved workers and trade unions' efforts to reform the conditions of labor within the existing political and economic processes. However, in his private writings, he criticized reformist activity. From the activity of the First international, his socialism became the most important type of socialism.

passive citizens

Approximately 2.7 million citizens who enjoyed the civic rights provided by the Declaration of the Rights of Man, but paid insufficient taxes, and were unable to qualify for a vote.

Archbishop William Laud

Archbishop under Charles I, tried to impose the Anglican Church and all of its practices upon the Scots. He was impeached and executed by the House of Commons

Cavour

Architect of Italian unification a liberal-minded nobleman who was named prime minister of Piedmont in 1852 by Emmanuel II. Cavour was a moderate who favored constitutional government. He used France to oust Austria from northern Italy. This allowed him to unite much of northern Italy under the rule of Piedmont and in 1861 combined Piedmont with Garibaldi's southern section, forming the Kingdom of Italy.

Papal States

Area in central Italy governed by Rome & the pope. The area of danger between Cavour and Garibaldi

women

As a generality of the Industrial Revolution, ________ were typically relegated to low-paying, dead-end jobs.

Agricultural Revolution

As bread prices rose, this event was a series of innovations in farming production made by landlords as they worked to produce even more surplus grain. Among the innovations of this era were the concepts of crop rotation, enclosure methods, new crops, and new breeding techniques

Synthesis

As patterns of thought clash, a new thesis emerges

Nazis

As the Great Depression continued to worsen, the number of seats held by the _______ in the Reichstag continued to grow, reaching a high of 288 in March 1933.

Confection

As was present in France, goods are produced in standard sizes and styles rather than by special orders for individuals customers. Increases the division of labor in the workshop. Less skills are required for this method of production, therefore decreasing the value of the products produced.

Johannes Kepler

Assistant to Tycho Brahe, he improved upon the Copernican Model by introducing the idea of the elliptical orbit of the planets. He published these ideas in "The New Astronomy"

Austria-Hungary (1867) The Dual Monarchy

Austria became Austria-Hungary with the (Compromise) of 1867 with its largest ethnic minority, the Hungarians. Both parts of the empire now had its own constitution, its own bicameral legislature, its own governmental machinery for domestic affairs, and its own capital (Vienna for Austria and Budapest for Hungary). They still shared a single monarch, (Francis Joseph = Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary) an army, foreign policy, and system of finances. In domestic affairs, Hungary had become independent.

Bosnia-Herzegovina

Austria had occupied and administered this region since 1878. Austrians, wanting to annex this region officially, made a deal with Russia in which they would agree to support the opening of Dardanelles to Russian warships if Russia supported Austrian annexation. Both wanted to act quickly before Turks become strong enough to resist. But Austria annexes this region before Russia could act and Britain and France will not open the Dardanelles to Russia.

Thomas Paine

Author of "Common Sense", he pushed forth the idea of separating the US from GB

Thomas Cromwell

Became King Henry VII's close advisor following Cardinal Wolsey's dismissal. He and his contemporary Thomas Cranmer convinced the king to break from Rome and made the Church of England increasingly more Protestant. He commanded the monasteries of England to surrender their lands and possessions to nobles of the state.

Weimar Republic

Became an authoritarian government because the Reichstag was too divided to override the emergency decrees of the chancellors.

Mikhail S. Gorbachev

Became premier of the USSR in 1985. His primary goal was to revive the Soviets' economy and raise the country's standard of living. Introduced perestroika and glasnost. Later told his Central Committee to abandon its monopoly of power.

General Strike of 1926 (Great Britain)

Because of wage cuts, coal miners go on strike. Sympathetic workers in other industries join them in a strike the lasts nine days. Lots of tension but with little violence. In the end, the strikers surrendered. After the strike, British government tries to appease workers through new housing and reforms in the poor laws.

Germany, Great Britain

Before World War II, except in Scandinavia, the two basic models for social service legislation were ________ and _________.

H.S. Chamberlain

Believed most people are racially mixed and that this mixture weakens human characteristics needed for physical and moral strength. Also believed that people who were assured of their racial purity could act with self-confidence and arrogance. His views had a major impact on the Nazi Party and others who wanted to use their racial superiority for political reasons.

Friedrich Hegel

Believed that thought develops from the clash of thesis and antithesis into a new intellectual thesis. This concept greatly influenced Karl Marx.

c

Between 1500 and 1600, European men married in their: a. forties b. mid-late teens c. mid-late twenties d. mid-late thirties e. early teens

"Mein Kampf" ("My Struggle")

Book Hitler wrote while in prison. Hitler outlines key political views of anti-Semitism, opposition to Bolshevism (which he associated with Jews), and a belief that Germany must expand east into Poland and Ukraine to achieve greater living space. Was not taken seriously enough at the time.

"What Is to Be Done?" (1902)

Book written by Lenin that condemned any accommodation, such as those the German SPD practiced. Criticized trade unionism that settled for short term reformist gains, rather than working for true revolutionary change for the working class. Rejected the concept of a democratic party composed of workers. Believed revolutionary consciousness would not arise within workers by itself, but had to be brought on by others.

John Calvin

Born into a rich French family, he was converted to Protestantism in 1534. Joining the budding Reformation movement in Geneva, he pushed forth the doctrines of what would later by Calvinism. His chief doctrine was that of predestination, which meant that God had already selected his "elect", those who would go to heaven. His later became the majority protestant religion in Europe

serfdom

Both the Northern and Southern societies favored the abolition of _____________.

Mary Wollstonecraft

British feminist of the eighteenth century who argued for women's equality with men, even in voting, in her 1792 "Vindication of the Rights of Women." Accused Rosseau and others of attempting to narrow a women's vision and limit their experience. Argued that to confine women because of physiology (bodily features) was to make them the sensual slaves to men, as well as victims to male tyranny. Because of this, women may never achieve their own moral and intellectual identity. Denying good education to women would impede the progress of all humanity, she argued.

Labour Party

British political party founded in 1900 with the help of trade unions to represent the interests of the urban working class. MacDonald eventually leads this party towards becoming a ministry. Grew in power until it surpassed the liberal party, becoming a major party. Entered the House of Commons with votes from the Liberals. Were socialist in platform but were really democratic and non-revolutionary. Its decline in power in 1924 signaled a return to the conservative government.

Fabian Society

British socialist organization. Laborer-supporting intellectuals who stressed the need for the workers to use their right to vote to capture the House of Commons and pass legislation that would benefit the laboring class. They later combined with trade unions to form the Labor Party.

China

By 1960, the communist world had split between the Soviet Union and ________.

Soviet Union

By the early 1980s, the _________ possessed the largest armed force in the world and had achieved virtual nuclear parity with the United States.

75

By the end of the century, at least __% of Western European population lived in cities.

foreign oil

By the late 19th century, Europe was dependent on __________.

Palatine Calvinists

Calvinists that seemed to threaten the Peace of Augsburg, viewed as a major threat by Lutherans and created more conflict regarding the Eucharist

e

Camillo Cavour played an instrumental role in: a. ending the Crimean War b. settling the Irish question c. the leadership of the Paris Commune d. passage of the Second Reform Act e. the unification of Italy

St. Petersburg

Capitol city of Russia built by Peter the Great. It was on the coast of the Baltic Sea and considered Russia's window to the West and is a symbol of Peter's desire to westernize.

Thomas Wosley

Cardinal highest ranking church offical and lord chancellor. DIsmissed by Henry VIII for not getting the Pope to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. (1471-1530)

Paris (rebuilt by Napoleon III)

Centerpiece of Napoleon's improvement of France. Created a "modern" city with a new public water supply, and gaslights. The street design made it easier for troops to move rapidly through the city in the event of revolts

e

Cervantes's most famous work is: a. "Moll Flanders" b. "Valencia" c. "Under a Spanish Sky" d. "The Tale of Tomas Gatito" e. "Don Quixote"

Presbyterian Church

Church founded by John Knox in Scotland on the ideas of Calvin. Became nationalized government of Scotland, and in 1564, the Book of Common Order became the liturgical directory. Eventually spread to the New World.

Charles XII of Sweden

Comes to the Swedish throne in 1697, ruling until 1718. Was "headstrong" and "perhaps insane". Leads the Swedes in the defeat of the Russians at the Battle of Narva in 1700 amidst the Great Northern War. Later flees to Turkey following the Swedish defeat at the Battle of Poltava, in which Peter the Great's troops win. Does not return to Sweden until 1714. Is killed under uncertain circumstances four years later while fighting the Danes in Norway.

Heinrich Himmler

Commanded the SS, and became second in command to Hitler.

Cuban Missile Crisis (Oct. 1962)

Communist Cuban leader Fidel Castro allows the Soviets to place missiles in Cuba. Kennedy then calls for a blockade of Cuba to prevent the delivering of new missiles, and demanded the removal of existing ones, which succeeded. After the nuclear ban test treaty, there would be a lessening in the tensions between the two powers. However, the Soviets would be determined to build up their military forces.

d

Conditions in Germany changed rapidly when the German army failed to: a. conquer Britain b. subdue partisan forces in France c. fully occupy Poland d. quickly defeat the Soviet Union e. subdue Scandinavia

Otto Von Bismarck

Creator of modern Germany. Prime minister of Prussia under William I. Often portrayed as the ultimate realist (Realpolitik). Separated nationalism from liberalism and combined it with authoritarian government. Largely ignored parliament. Through war (blood & Iron) created the Second German Empire in 1871. Through his leadership Germany became the strongest power on the Continent.

Little Entente

Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia. Had much to lose from the revision of the Versailles treaty. France makes military alliances with these states and with Poland.

Catherine of Aragon

Daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, and aunt to Emperor Charles the V. Married Henry VIII in 1509. When Henry VIII needed a son to continue the Tudor dynasty, and he found out she could not give him one (only a daughter, Mary), he sought an annulment. Of course, the Catholic Church denied him one, and in return Henry VIII split England from the Catholic Church.

Tennis Court Oath

Declaration mainly by members of the Third Estate not to disband until they had drafted a constitution for France (June 20, 1789).

Existentialism

Defined European culture in the 20th century. The idea that human beings simply exist, have no higher purpose, and must exist and choose their actions for themselves. Badly divided faction. Was a revolt against reason.

a

Descartes divide existing things into two categories, mind and: a. body b. God c. metaphor d. modality e. mindlessness

Ludovico il Moro

Despot of Milan, he resumed the hostilities between Milan and Naples, ending the peace put into effect by the Treaty of Lodi. When Naples, Florence, and the Pope threatened Milan, he appealed to the French king, asking Charles VIII to make a dynastic claim to Naples. As Charles conquered most of Italy, he finally joined the League of Venice, which became strong enough to force Charles to retreat and end the threat he posed

Diplomatic Revolution of 1756

Due to fears throughout Europe and an attempt to maintain a balance of power, this surprising event allied Prussia and Britain against France and Austria

Liberalism

During 19th century Europe, this had referred to those things that challenged political, social, and religious values. Political ideas were derived from the Enlightenment, English liberties, and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Goal of this was a political structure that would limit the power of the government against citizens. Power of government came from the consent of the people. Wanted to see constitutional governments everywhere, but didn't want democracy. Sought to eliminate mercantilism.

Mazzini

During the 1830s and 1840s, romantic republican nationalism in Italy was led by:

Bands of Jesus

During the Thermidorean Reaction, these gangs of youths dragged known Jacobins from prisons and murdered them, much as alleged royalists had been murdered during September massacres of 1792.

b

Early factory owners: a. only hired women and children b. allowed husbands to hire their wives and children as assistants c. only hired men whose wives did not work d. forbade husbands and wives from working in the same factory e. only hired skilled artisans

free trade

Economic liberals favored:

Suez Intervention (1956)

Egypt tries to nationalize the Suez Canal by taking it away from a private company controlled by the British and French. Egypt then attacks Israel, and the British and French, who fear loss of access to Middle Eastern oil, intervene. The US and Soviet Union protest against this, and the war ends quickly. This even proved that without US support, the nations of Western Europe could no longer impose their will on the rest of the world.

Francis Joseph, Austrians

Emperor _____________ supported a centralized administration for the Habsburg empire. This system was essentially a military and bureaucratic regime, dominated by German-speaking _____________.

Fabian Society

England's most influential socialist society. Favored cooperation with the trade unions and labor representatives in Parliament to bring about legislative change. Preferred to approach major social reform gradually. Many followers were civil servants who believed the programs of industry, the expansion of ownership, and the state direction of production could be solved gradually, democratically and peacefully. Their ultimate goal was to have crucial parts of the economy (heat, water) should be owned and regulated by the state ("gas-and-water socialism").

Issac Newton

Englishman who made great discoveries including the breaking down of light into the ray of colors, the concept of universal gravitation, and calculus. He published books such as "Principia Mathematica"

Tanzimat

Era of "reorganization" in the Ottoman Empire. Lasted from 1839-1876. Started by the Hatt-i Sharif of Gulhane decree. During this era, millet system was abolished and the Ottoman empire sought to define all its citizens as Ottoman subjects rather than as members of particular religious communities.

Witch hunts

Erupted in every Western land in the 16th and 17th centuries. Were a result of religious divisions that led to social panic. Between 1400 to 1700, courts sentenced an estimated 70,000 and 100,000 people to death for harmful magic (maleficium) and witchcraft. In the late 13th century, the Church declared its magic to be the only true magic. Other magic performed magic outside and against the Church did so on behalf of the devil. To identify, try and execute witches was a demonstration of absolute spiritual and political control over a village or town. Factors that ended them: -emergence of a more scientific point of view -advances in medicine, insurance companies and lawyers that ended social panic -they were getting out of hand

Corvee

Essentially a tax, this was forced labor on public works which was done by the peasants of France

Polish Corridor

Established by the Treaty of Versailles, it provided Poland access to the Black Sea. It is seized by Germany in Sept. 1939.

Great Depression

European governments dealt with the _____________ by doing the following: 1. protective tariffs and bilateral trade agreements 2. deflationary fiscal and monetary policies 3. reducing expenditures in order to balance their budgets

Helsinki Accords (1975)

European nations, US, and Russia sign this, which recognized the Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe, but most importantly the responsibility to protect the human rights of citizens of each country that signed the agreement.

Adolph Hitler

Factors contributing to the rise of _______________ in power: 1. German anger over the "unfairness" of the Treaty of Versailles 2. failure of the Weimar Republic to solve the economic problems confronting Germany 3. struggle between Social Democrats and Communists 4. political machinations of Franz von Papen (that made Hitler seem like a better option)

Enlightenment

Factors that fostered the ideals of the ______________: 1. the stability and commercial prosperity of Great Britain after 1688 2. the need for administrative and economic reform in France after the wars of Louis XIV 3. the solidation of the print culture 4. the Newtonian worldview - the philosophes acknowledge the importance of the Scientific Revolution to the development of ideas on how to improve society.

Bolsheviks

Factors that led to the victory of the _________ in the Russian Civil War: 1. the creation of the Red Army by Leon Trotsky 2. the willingness of the Bolsheviks to use terror to crush their opponents 3. the disunity and weakness of the Whites.

Boulanger Crisis

Failed right-wing coup d'etat against the Third Republic. General Boulanger, a popular French military officer, rallied all of those discontented with the Third Republic; however, just when the time to strike was right, he lost his nerve and fled France. Significance: People ended up rallying to defend the Third Republic even though nobody really liked it. "It may be a crappy government, but it's OUR crappy government. "

Mary Wollstonecraft

Famously published "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman", she attacked Rousseau and his contemporaries on the policies that they had inspired that followed the French Revolution.

Ferdinand VII (Spain)

First Bourbon king to be restored to the Spanish throne after the Napoleonic Era. Had originally agreed to reign by a constitution, but later ignored this and dissolved the Cortes (Spanish parliament). Revolt breaks out and he then agrees to abide by the constitution. The Holy Alliance agrees to support the French effort to supress rebellion in his kingdom (all but England).

Ramsey MacDonald

First Labour Party prime minister of Great Britain. His version of socialism was not like Marx's. Wanted social reform instead of nationalization or seizure of industry.

Steam Engine

First developed by Thomas Newcomen for use in his machine that would drain mines, it was later perfected by James Watt. This machine efficiently harnessed steam power, and soon became the primary mover for all industries

Margaret Thatcher

First female prime minister of Brtain and leader of the Conservative Party. Tried to curb the growth of social service programs and the power of trade union. Her ministry also began the process of privatization, selling off previously nationalized industries.

Catherine of Aragon

First wife of Henry VIII and daughter of Isabella and Ferdinand. Because she wasn't producing a male heir, Henry asked the Pope to annul his marriage. When the pope refused, Henry broke off from the Catholic Church and moved to create the Anglican Church

Second Republic

Following the abdication of Louis Philippe, a predominately conservative new National Assembly is in effect. Features the arise of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who eventually overpowers the National Assembly.

e

For the mass of the British population: a. the war was a welcome relief from the tensions of the 1930s b. standard of living declined c. war had little impact d. war was an economic disaster e. standard of living improved

Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh

Foreign minister of Britain who represented Britain at the Congress of Vienna. When Tsar Alexander I suggests that the Quadruple Alliance upholds borders and governments of all European countries, he rejects the proposal, saying that the Quadruple Alliance was meant only to prevent future French aggression. Commited suicide before the final postwar conference that was called to resolve the situation in Spain, and George Canning succeeds him.

Methodism

Founded by John Wesley during Romantic movement. Emphasized emotion in Christianity and Christian perfection. Originated as a revolt against deism and rationalism in the Church of England.

Joseph Stalin

Formed a non-aggression pact with Hitler in August 1939, and allowed Russia and Germany to divide Poland among themselves. The Pact ultimately failed to sustain itself, and he ended up claiming it allowed the USSR an extra year and a half to prepare for war. Made peace with the Russian Orthodox Church to increase support for himself in Russia and in Eastern Europe. Supported partisan forces in the German-occupied areas of the Soviet Union to aggravate the Germans and to remind the peasants of their ties to the government. The war consolidated his power more than his social and political policies had in the 1930s.

Arthur Griffith

Founder of the Sinn Fein. He was very involved in the Irish fight (both diplomatically and militarily) for Home Rule.

Locarno Agreements

France and Germany both accept the western frontier as legitimate; however, nothing is said about the eastern frontier. It also allowed Britain and Italy to intervene if one side violated the agreement or if Germany sent troops into the Rhineland. As a result: - Germany: respectability and a guarantee against another Ruhr occupation in the East. - Britain: allowed to play a more evenhanded role. - Italy: recognized as a great power. - France: Germans accept the permanence of their western front.

1970

France continued to use the guillotine until the late ______'s.

Estates General

France's traditional national assembly with representatives of three classes in French society: the clergy, nobility, and commoners. Their calling in 1789 led to the French Revolution. Had not been convened since 1614. Louis XVI, wishing for approval to issue taxes for all citizens, agrees to reconvene this assembly.

Emigres

French Aristocrats who fled the revolution and settled in nearby countries, with plans to return in the case of a counter-revolution.

Blaise Pascal

French mathematician, philosopher, and Jansenist. In his "Pensees", he repeats that of which Christian critics have said for centuries: -Islam is a false religious and Muhammed is an imposter/false prophet because he did not perform miracles -Attacked Islam as a sexual religion because of its acceptance of polygamy and the belief that heaven was a void of sensual delights.

Victor Hugo

French writer who helped bring the Romantic Movement to France

"Time of Troubles"

From 1598-1613; a period that followed Ivan IV's death. Michael Romanov elected by nobles in 1613 in hopes of ending the uncertainty in Russia as there were previously no definite lines of succession and thus many civil wars

10

From 1922 onward, the British economy was depressed with unemployment never less than ___%. The government expanded insurance programs to cover unemployment, widows, and orphans.

Ecclesiastical Reservation

From Peace of Augsburg, any Catholic bishop or churchman who turned Lutheran from 1552 forward should not carry territory and its people with them. Disregarded later.

Arab Oil Embargo (1973 -4)

From this, Europeans conclude that natural resources are finite an that the Arab countries with oil could be dangerous.

Friedrich Schlegel

German Romantic author of "Lucinde" (1799), which attacked prejudices against women.

Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe

German Romantic writer. His novel, "The Sorrows of Young Werther" (1774) is considered a prime example of the German "Sturm and Drang" movement. His masterpiece is "Faust". Part of his literary production fits in the Romantic world, while the other half defies its excesses.

Battle of Verdun (1916)

German general, Falkenhayn, had planned an attack near this French fort with the aim of killing as many French troops as possible. Many French troops were slaughtered; however the fort proved capable of resisting a massive onslaught and the few surviving French soldiers were able to kill as many German soldiers as French men had died. This battle was was a huge moral victory for the Allies as the quote "They shall not pass" by Henri Petain, the commander the fort, became a slogan of French national defiance against Germany.

(Hyper)inflation

Germany suffers from this after the war. French invasion of the Ruhr makes this situation worse. Eventually leads to unemployment, which creates a new drain on the treasury and reduces tax revenues. Middle and lower middle class suffered the most from this, and their savings, pensions insurance policies and investments in government bonds were all wiped out. However, farmers, speculators in land, real estate and industry did relatively well, and mortgages and debts could be easily paid off.

German mark

Germany's currency, soon became worthless. Early 1921: German mark traded with American dollar is 64 to 1 compared with 4.2 to 1 in 1914. By 1923, American dollar is worth more than 800 million German marks.

The Franchise Reform Bill of 1867

Granted the vote to lower class urban workers! passed by conservatives headed by Disraeli, it expanded the vote by lowering the monetary requirements, including many male urban workers. Disraeli expected to create an conservative coalition of the Upper classes and the lower classes against the Liberal middle class. The plan backfired. They instead voted for the Liberals, and helped produce a Liberal victory in 1868. Put it in the context of 1832, 1867, 1884 for the expansion of the right to vote in England. England is slowly becoming a democracy.

Aristotle

Greek philosopher and teacher of Alexander the Great from most of the 4th century BC. Disagreed with Plato's theory, promoted a moderate democracy, order, and acceptance of roles. Also, taught geocentrism (earth is center of universe) and defined the four elements

Suffragettes

Group of women in England in second half of 19th century who were seeking vote for women. Followers of British Feminist Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters Christabel and Sylvia. Resorted to amazingly unEnglish behavior: chained themselves to railings, public buildings, smashed store windows, broke porcelains. When imprisoned, they went on hunger strikes. Also wanted educational, professional, legal and occupational equality with men.

swedish period

Gustavus II (Gustavus Adolphus) of Sweden now came into the war. His territorial ambitions had embroiled him in wars with Poland, and he feared that Ferdinand's maritime designs might threaten Sweden's mastery of the Baltic. Moved also by his Protestantism, he declared against the emperor and was supported by an understanding with Catholic France, then under the leadership of Cardinal Richelieu. Swedish troops marched into Germany. Meanwhile, Ferdinand had been prevailed upon (1630) to dismiss Wallenstein, who had powerful enemies in the empire. Tilly now headed the imperial forces. He was able to take the city of Magdeburg while the Protestant princes hesitated to join the Swedes. Only John George of Saxony, vacillating in his support between Tilly and the Swedish king, joined Gustavus Adolphus, who offered him better terms

Frankfurt Parliament

Had been given the task of writing a constitution for a united Germany, but made it liberal, which alienated German conservatives and the working class. Conservatives thought this body was a challenge to the political order, and the working class disliked its refusal to restore its protection of the guilds. They were also too attached to the free labor market to offer good legislation to the workers. When they showed their constitution to the chosen Frederick William IV of Prussia to be Germany's king, he rejected their offer, and this group began to dissolve.

Franklin D. Roosevelt

He and Churchill corresponded before the US went into the war, and America was able to supply Britain with warships and military supplies.

Emperor Francis Joseph

He lead the Austrian Empire after revolutions of 1848 and relied on military force to subdue all forms of liberalism and nationalism. Was defeated by the Prussian army in the Austro-Prussian War. Pressure from the Hungarians resulted in him dividing the Austrian Empire in half, creating the Dual Monarchy.

pope sixtus v

He learned of Mary's death on March 24, slowness of comm., and promised to pay Philip 1 million gold ducats the moment Spanish troops landed in England.

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon

He was a French social thinker that was against the industrial side of society, and he also favored education and opposed violence. He wrote "What is Property?" (1840) and explained that industrialization will ruin worker's rights, including the right to profit from their own labor. Attacked the banking system, which failed to extend credit to mall property owners. Argued that the private ownership of property robbed those without property of their share of the planet's benefits. Believed society should operate on the basis of mutualism, and with that, governments are obsolete as the protector of property.

Marshal Petain

Headed the French Vichy government. Signed an armistice with Hitler. Set up a dictatorial regime in Vichy, and collaborated with the Germans in hopes of preserving autonomy.

Social Democratic Party (Germany)

Headed the Weimar Republic.

"Paris is worth a mass"

Henry IV declared this when converting to Catholicism.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

His claim that society corrupted human nature influence Romantic writers. Stressed the difference between kids and adults in his Emile. Saw humankind, nature, and society as organically interrelated. Urged that children be raised nearly independent of adult influence.

Napoleon Bonaparte

His policies were mostly intended for the good of himself and/or for France, not for all of Europe, which angered other nations. Divorced his wife to marry Marie Louise, the Austrian archduchess. His invasion into Russia failed. Allies defeated him at Leipzig. Went into exile in Elba. Returned and gained power, but was defeated again and sent into exile at Saint Helena. Died there.

Rhineland

Hitler rearms this area regardless of the terms of the Versailles Treaty and the Locarno Agreement.

Russia

Hitler's biggest strategic mistake was the invasion of ______.

"New Order"

Hitler's plan for organizing Europe into a single political and economic system ruled by Germany. Would establish colonies of Germans in Poland and Russia, and would make all the local people do slave labor. Would drive Russians back into Central Asia and Siberia while Germans settle in previous Russian territory. Plan also included Germanizing people from Scandinavia, Netherlands, Switzerland.

Final Solution

Hitler's plan for the extermination of all Jews. Killed 6 million Jews, mostly from Eastern Europe.

Munich Beer Hall Putsch (1923)

Hitler, his followers, and General Ludendorff attempt a coup. Local authorities stop uprising, killing 16 Nazis. Hitler and Ludendorff are arrested for treason. Hitler uses the trial to make himself a national figure. In his defense, he condemns the republic, the Versailles treaty, the Jews, and the weakened condition of his country.

National Liberation Front

Ho Chi Minh wanted to unite Vietnam under Northern rule and aided this group of communist rebels trying to overthrow Diem in the south. Official title of the Viet Cong. Was also a radical movement of Algerian nationalists who wanted independence from France.

e

Ignatius of Loyola was the founder of the: a. Brotherhood of Christ b. Dominicans c. Quakers d. Franciscans e. Jesuits

Russian Revolution of 1905

Imperialist ambitions brought defeat at the hands of Japan in 1905 and political upheaval at home. The Bloody Sunday massacre, when the tsar's troops fired on a crowd of protesting workers, produced a wave of indignation. By the summer of 1905, strikes, uprisings, revolts, and mutinies were sweeping the country. This revolutionary movement forced Nicholas II to issue the October Manifesto, which granted full civil liberties and promised a popularly elected parliament (Duma).

Principia Mathematica

In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton wrote this. It was filled with contributions to many areas of science, and included the three well-known laws of motion.

Peterloo Massacre

In 1819, during a public meeting in St. Peter's Fields (Manchester, England), local armies charged into the crowd, killing 11 people. The purpose of the meeting was to protest the Corn Laws.

Ottoman Empire

In 1908, a group of modernizing reformers called the Young Turks seized power here and breathed new life into the empire, interfering with the plans of the other European nations to act and gain territory. Entered war on the German side in November 1914, and this ultimately led to its end. The peace treaty dismembered this territory, placing large areas of it under British and French control. A new Turkish Republic after the Greek invasion of the Turkish homeland in Anatolia by Ataturk.

inflation

In 1923, France occupies the Ruhr to ensure German payment of its reparations. Germans refuse to work, so France sends French civilians to run the mines and railroads. However, the cost of the occupation led to dramatic ___________ in both Germany and France.

c

In Hobbes's view, obedience to the sovereign was: a. conditional b. conditional if the sovereign was a legislature c. absolute d. absolute, but only if the sovereign was a monarch e. absolute, but only if the sovereign was a legislature

middle class

In 19th century Britain, the following were considered ____________: 1. factory owners 2. lawyers 3. shopkeepers 4. physicians

Henry Cort

In the 1780s, he developed a new method of puddling, which allowed the removal of impurities from iron. He also developed heavy-duty steam-powered rolling mills, which were capable of spewing out finished iron in every shape and form.

Colonial trade

In the 1830's, Great Britain was the most industrialized and technologically advanced country in the world. _________________ was a major factor in its early industrialization.

e

In the 1860s, Napoleon III did all of the following except: a. sign a free trade treaty with Britain b. permit labor unions c. relax press laws d. permit freer debate in the legislature e. form an alliance with Prussia

a

In the late 1660's, France was superior to any other European nation in all of the following EXCEPT: a. naval power. b. national unity. c. population. d. administration bureaucracy. e. military power on land.

Louis XIV (France)

King of France, was building relationships with Charles II of England which helped lead Charles II towards many policies appealing to Catholics

Crop Rotation

Instituted by Charles (Turnip) Townsend, using wheat, turnips barley and clover. Developed by scientific farmers, with the idea that a farmer can rotate the crops planted in certain fields each year to make sure that they are replenishing the nutrients of that field, as well as supplying animal fodder. Additional fodder increases the amount of livestock raised, allowing a year-round supply of meat. Increased amount of manure available for fertilization

First International

International organization of various radical groups (socialists, anarchists, Unionists) designed to support reform in the lives of workers. It gathered statistics, kept labor groups informed of various problems, & provided a forum to debate socialist doctrine. Marxism will emerge as the dominant strand of socialism because of the First International.

Spinning Jenny

Invented by James Hargreaves, this machine allowed 16 spindles of threat to be spun simultaneously. By the end of the 16th century, it could operate 120 spindles

Water Frame

Invented by Richard Arkwright, it permitted the production of purely cotton fabric, rather than a cotton fabric containing linen fiber for durability. This invention allowed for the factorization of textile production

Nicholas Appert

Invented canning as a way of preserving food nutritiously. Allowed Napoleon to rapidly move his armies through Europe and Russia. Originally used glass jars filled with fresh veggies or etc., added water/sauce, then sealed them with tight stoppers.

James Hargreaves

Invented the Spinning Jenny in 1765, which allowed multiple spindles of thread to be spun.

October Manifesto (1905)

Issued by Nicholas II, it promised Russia a constitutional government. Created the Duma, a legislative body.

catholic league

It was brought on by the concessions given by Henry III to Protestants. Led by Henry, Duke of Guise, it was organized by a nobleman in the northern province of Picardy and was more extensive than smaller local anti-Protestant organizations that had sprung up in the 1560s. Despite an insincere oath of loyalty taken to the king, it posed a threat not only to Huguenots but also to the monarchy. Henry, duke of Guise, who was subsidized by Philip II of Spain, vowed to fight until Protestantism was completely driven from France.

Black Shirt March (1922)

Italian fascists under Mussolini march on Rome. King Victor Emmanuel refuses to sign a decree that would allow the army to stop them. Results in the cabinet resigning. The monarch then tells Mussolini to become the prime minster. Mussolini would not have become PM if he had not made allies within the government months prior to the march.

c

Jansenists believed that: a. original sin had been redeemed through Christ's death b. Cornelius Jansen should be canonized c. original sin could not be redeemed without special grace from God d. St. Augustine had incorrectly interpreted the concept of original sin e. the pope was the anti-Christ

Moses Mendelsohn

Jewish philosopher of the eighteenth century. Named the "Jewish Socrates" that promoted the integration of Jews into modern European life. Said that Jew could combine loyalty to Judaism with adherence to the rationalism of Enlightenment values. His "Jerusalem" (1783) promoted religious toleration. Argued that religious diversity within a nation did not harm loyalty to the government of a nation; therefore governments should be religiously neutral, and Jews should enjoy the same civil rights as others. Wished to sustain Jewish traditional religious practices while also advocating religious toleration, differing with Baruch Spinoza. Believed Jewish communities did not have the right of excommunication.

c

John Locke was a defender of: a. equal rights for woman b. absolute monarchy c. religious toleration d. the idea that governments were based on the model of fathers ruling families e. the universality of Catholicism

Elector of Hanover/George I

King after William III, fought off the son of James II and maintained local peace. Kept the local level magistrates happy

Ferdinand and Isabella

King and Queen who ruled Castile and Aragon respectively. When they married in 1469, they joined their nations into the powerful nation of Spain. Together, they drove the moors out of Spain, Christianized the entire nation, ventured abroad militarily, and strengthened their border. Castile and Aragon remained culturally separate for a long time, but Spain eventually became the unified champion of the Catholic world and a world power

James II

King following Charles II, was a Catholic who passed a series of laws which expanded Catholic freedoms... We overthrown in the glorious revolution

Ferdinand (Archduke of Syria/King of Bohemia/Ferdinand II-Holy Roman Emperor)

King of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor who revoked religious freedoms of protestants. The growing revolt against him began the Thirty Years' War

James I (of England)

King of England after Elizabeth I. His rule was unpopular with the Puritans. HIs court was a center of scandal and corruption, and his many policies made many doubt his Protestant loyalties. He also rubbed Parliament the wrong way by levying new custom duties known as impositions

William III of Orange/England

King of England after James II was overthrown in the Glorious Revolution. Ruled jointly with his wife Mary II of England. During their reign over England, they expanded civil rights and moved to restrict monarchical power

Phillip II (of Spain)

King of Spain. Under his rule, new American wealth helped a growth of population and the a bureaucracy was strength. Furthermore, the Moors were defeated in the Mediterranean, and Portugal was annexed. He was also responsible for dealing with the revolt in the Netherlands

Fredrick II (of Prussia)

Known as "The Great", this king of Prussia began the War of the Austrian Succession by invading Silesia and opened what would become the Seven Years' War by invading Saxony. These wars resulted in Prussia being considered a world power

Ivan IV of Russia

Known as both 'the Great' as well as "the Terrible". added new territory to the area ruled by Moscow and defeated the Mongol army in Russia in the first, better half of his reign. In the second half, he continued to expand the Russian state and set out to break the power of nobility. His methods were effective but also ruthless. Began to rule ruthlessly as a tyrant. A period known as the "Time of Troubles" resulted from his death. Ruled from 1533 to 1584

duke of alba

Lead a Spanish army into the Netherlands on orders from Phillip II of Spain. Made a council in the Netherlands and he was known for inspiring terror. His percecution send many fleeing from the Netherlands for safety

Ngo Dinh Diem

Leader of South Vietnam who was anti-communist, and was supported by the US. Established the Republic of Vietnam in the area the French had left. Later, he is overthrown by the National Liberation front of North Vietnam, with the purpose of unifying Vietnam.

Marshal Josip (Joseph Tito)

Leader of communist Yugoslavia that was successful in freeing his country from Soviet domination. This success was the catalyst for the harsh tightening of Stalinist policies in the Soviet satellite countries during the late 1940s by the Soviet Union.

Jose de San Martin (Argentina)

Leader of independence movement of the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata (modern Argentina) in1816; later led independence movement in Chile and Peru as well, and became Protector of Peru. At a meeting in Guayaquil, he and Bolivar disagree over the future political structure of Latin America, him wanting monarchies for Latin America.

Vladimir Lenin (Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov)

Leader of the Bolshevik (later Communist) Party. He lived in exile in Switzerland until 1917, then returned to Russia to lead the Bolsheviks to victory during the Russian Revolution and the civil war that followed. Criticized the German SPD. Rejected Kautsky's view that revolution was inevitable and Bernstein's view that democratic means could achieve revolutionary goals. Substituted the small, professional, nondemocratic revolutionary party for Marx's proletariat group as the chief instrument of revolutionary change. Urged the peasants and workers to work together for social revolution, because he believed the government would not be able to suppress such an alliance.

Charles Stewart Parnell (Ireland)

Leader of the Irish movement for a just land settlement and for home rule. Organized 85 Irish members of House of Commons that would frequently disrupt Parliament to bring up the topic of home rule. Voted for liberal ministry of Gladstone because Gladstone had announced that he would support home rule. Was the founder and leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party. Served in the British House of Commons from 1875-91.

William of Orange

Leader of the Revolt in the Netherlands, his dynasty became the executive power in the Netherlands after the Treaty of Westphalia named the Netherlands its own nation

Ulrich Zwingli

Leader of the Swiss reformation, he believed that the Eucharist was merely a symbol, rather than actual occurance

Sadam Hussein

Leader of the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq that turned the radical Muslims' attention to the United States during the Persian Gulf War of 1991.

Spartacist Group (Movement)

Led a communist uprising in Berlin that supported the efforts of the Bolsheviks.

c

Liberalism and nationalism posed the greatest threat to the status quo in: a. France b. Italy c. Austria d. Spain e. Britain

First Treatise of Government

Locke argues against absolute government that based political authority on fathers ruling over a family. After this publication, no major political philosopher again appealed to this model.

Second Treatise of Government

Locke presents an extended argument for government that must be both responsible for and responsive to the concerns of government. Natural human state is portrayed as one of perfect freedom and equality in which all enjoyed the rights of life, liberty and property.

Second Empire (France) 1852-70

Louis Napoleon became Napoleon III, Emperor of the French by a plebiscite in 1852. The Second Republic became the Second Empire. The French created an Authoritarian State (albeit a well run one) through universal male suffrage. (idiots).

Syndicates

Major industries were divided into these that represented labor and management. Settled with labor disputes and differences. The Fascists believed class conflict could be avoided with these. Were later organized into corporations, grouping industries by their area of production.

Denmark

Managed to save almost its entire Jewish population (8000 Jews).

Elector Frederick (of Saxony)

Martin Luther's protector and leader of the Schmalkaldic League.

Velvet Revolution

Mass protests in Czechoslovakia, led by playwright Vaclev Havel, that led to the fall of communism in that country in November 1989. Before this, the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact countries had apologized for the invasion in 1968 during the Prague Spring.

Risorgimento

Mazzini's Liberal & nationalistic movement for a unified Italy (a republic free from foreign control). His liberal nationalism failed in 1848, and Italy was eventually unified by the actions of Cavour's more conservative Piedmont. (Liberals support republics, not monarchies) (sounds like Germany doesn't it?)

Young Italy Movement

Mazzini's failed republican cause for a unified Italy (supported by Garibaldi) back in 1848

Oliver Cromwell

Member of Parliament. Reorganized and led the New Model Army of "Roundheads" against the Royalists, won the English civil war. He and his allies created a Puritan England which conquered Scotland and Ireland and ruled as Lord Protector

active citizens

Men paying taxes equal to three days pay. They were allowed to vote for electors who voted for members of the National Assembly.

conservatism

Metternich's beliefs epitomized:

Cardinal Mazarin

Minister under Louis XIII and XIV, whose policies led to the Fronde.

Cardinal Richelieu

Minister under Louis XIII, he attempted to impose direct royal administration on France, attempted to circumscribe the political privacy given to French Protestants by Henry IV, and tried to limit the privileges of nobles, leading to the Fronde

Alexander Kerensky

Moderate socialist that was prime minister of Russia.

"Jewish Socrates"

Moses Mendelsohn was known as:

Witches

Most of the accused were woman. Performed harmful magic, and were said to attend sabbats (mass meetings) in which they were said to fly. Accused of having sexual orgies with the devil, devouring Christian children and a variety of ritual acts, often sexual in nature, that denied or perverted Christian belief. Common targets were: widows, poor women, midwives, female orphans, healers/herbalists.

landowners, craftsmen

Most people who left Europe were small __________ and village ___________.

monarchy

Most philosophes favored ____________.

d

Most philosophes sought the: a. abolition of religion b. abolition of monarchy c. reform of gender relations d. reform of monarchy e. imposition of democracy

b

Most proponents of the new science sought to explain the natural world through a. the lens of Christian revelation b. mechanical metaphors c. metaphysical concepts d. religious analogies e. Aristotelian logic

Solidarity Movement (1980-9)

Movement in Poland that started off as an independent labor union movement in 1980. Reemerges in 1989 from new strikes that force the government to legalize the union. Under Lech Walesa, its candidates would be able to hold free elections for parliament, and the communists lost overwhelmingly to this group. As a result, the government appointed the first noncommunist prime minister since 1945.

Jerome Bonaparte

Napoleon's brother who ruled the Kingdom of Westphalia in Germany.

Mechanicism

New philosophy arising from the proponents of the new science. Nature is concieved as machinery; removes much of the mystery of the world and the previous assumption of the presence of divine purpose in nature. God is a divine mechanic who had arranged the world as a machine that would thereafter function automatically.

d

Newton was a great opponent of: a. Galileo's mathematical bias b. Baconism empiricism c. Galileo's ideas about inertia d. the rationalism of Descartes e. organized religion

serfdom

Nicholas I refuses to abolish this because he knows to do so would destroy the nobles' support for him.

Ho Chi Minh

North Vietnamese communist and nationalist who established himself as a major anti-colonial leader after World War II when he and other nationalists fought against the invading Japanese. His Viet Minh forces defeated French forces at Battle of Dien Bien Phu in May of 1954, and gained independence for Vietnam.

Millets

Officially recognized religious communities of the Ottoman empire to whom various laws and regulations applied.

Boyars

Old Russian nobility. Under the reign of the Romanovs, they largely controlled the bureaucracy, and owned land. Yet, they did not compare to their Western European counterparts. Peter the Great made an attack on their attachment to traditional Roman culture. After his journey into Western Europe, he returned to Russia and shaved their long beards, as well as sheared off the customary long handcovering sleeves of their shirts and coats. They became the center of jokes among other European courts.

Royal Society of London

Oldest and most prestigious scientific society in Britain—formed by followers of Francis Bacon in 1660; founded by Charles II to encourage advances in scientific knowledge. An institution of many that allowed information and ideas associated with the new science to be gathered, exchanged, and debated.

Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre

On August 24, 1572, Coligny and 3000 other Huguenots were butchered in Paris, with 20000 other killed within three days. This resumed the religious wars in France

Leonardo da Vinci

One of the greatest painters of all times, he advised Italian Princes and King Francis I of France. He advocated scientific experimentation, dissected corpses, and was a self taught botanist. His most famous work is the "Mona Lisa"

Russia

One of the primary factors in Lenin's acceptance of the treaty was his reluctance to risk his limited control over __________ by continuing to fight in the war.

palatinate

One of the western German states that eventually became Protestant. In 1608, the Protestant German states, led by the this state, formed the Protestant Union.

Mensheviks

One wing of the Russian Social Democratic Party. In 1904, the Russian Social Democratic Party divided into two factions: the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks. The Mensheviks wanted the Social Democrats to be a mass electoral socialist party based on a Western model. Like the Social Democrats of Germany, they were willing to cooperate temporarily in a parliamentary democracy while working toward the ultimate achievement of the socialist state.

slowly rose

Over the course of the 18th cent., bread prices:

Pablo Picasso

Painted "Guernica".

"What is the Third Estate?"

Pamphlet written by Abbe Sieyes in January 1789. It declared the nobility to be a useless caste that did not pay its taxes, and therefore should be abolished. Only the Third Estate was necessary as the working class in French economy, and should therefore be sovereign, or have an increase in power.

Austro-Prussian War

Part of Bismarck's plan to weaken Austria. Started over Schleswig-Holstein and was over in 7 weeks. Prussia dominated Austria, weakened it, and made German unification under Prussian dominance possible.

Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)

Peace negotiation between France and Prussia after the Franco-Prussian war. Negotiated by Adolphe Thiers. Also led directly to the creation of the Paris Commune.

Third Estate

Peasants, artisans etc. Every one not in the First or Second Estate. The aristocracy had made attempts to limit its influence. Later on, the royal council "doubles the Third Estate" in 1778, giving them twice as many members as the other estates. Its electors later form a citizen militia in 1789 after royal troops are made to guard Paris. Forms the National Constituent Assembly.

peninsulares

People born in Spain living in the colonies. The Spanish policies favor them. Had political superiority over the creoles, gaining positions in the government, army, and church.

Creoles

People of Spanish descent living in America. Wanted to trade more freely and resented tax increases by Spain. Resented Spanish policies that favored the peninsulares instead of them. Wanted freedom from Spain and Portugal,but were wary of not causing social disruption, or lost of their own privileges. When Napoleon invades Spain, they take the opportunity to act through their juntas, claiming the right to govern different regions in Latin America, allowing them to take over positions in the government and army that were denied previously.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Philosophe and radical thinker, he viewed society as more important than its individual. His most famous work is "The Social Contract", opening with "men are born free, but everywhere they are in chains". He was also a strong advocate of General Will

Napoleon III (Louis Napoleon Bonaparte) (France)

Plotted with Cavour to provoke a war in Italy that would allow them to defeat Austria. Initially was an authoritarian, he became more liberal to get domestic support to compensate for his failures in foreign policy.

Nicolaus Copernicus

Polish priest and astronomer who developed the heliocentric model

Pope Sixtus V

Pope that supported the Spanish invasion of England after withholding for some time

Pope Pius V

Pope who excommunicated Elizabeth I for heresy in 1570

Hohenzollern Dynasty

Powerful German Family of Northern Germany situated in Prussia. Will become rivals of the Hapsburgs for supremacy in central Europe. Ruled Brandenburg since 1417; acquired the duchy of Cleves, as well the countries that border Brandenburg. East Prussia lay inside Poland and outside the authority of the Holy Roman Empire; Frederick William establishes these areas into a modern style. This dynasty did not possess a crown.

Political Absolutism

Practiced by these three nations of Eastern Europe: Austria, in which the Habsburg Dynasty dominated; Prussia, in which the Hohenzollern Dynasty dominated; and Russia, in which the Romanov Dynasty dominated. Consisted of a powerful nobility, weak middle class, and oppressed peasantry composed of serfs. Louis XIV's __________ functioned primarily in the classic areas of European state action: the making of war and peace, the regulation of religion, and the oversight of economic activity. Even at the height of his power, local institutions, some controlled by townspeople and other by nobles, retained administrative authority.

Liberum Veto

Practiced in Polish government; the staunch opposition of any single member could disband the group. Was a major block in effective government. Would cause the disappearance of Poland from the world map.

Count Camillo Cavour (Italy)

Prime minister of Piedmont. Transformed Italy into a nation-state under a constitutional monarchy. Had began as a conservative, but became moderately liberal. Inspired by the ideals of the Enlightenment and classical economics (laissez-faire). Was a strong monarchist who rejected republicanism. Believed that if the Italians proved they were efficient and economically progressive, the great powers may recognize their independence. Therefore, he promoted free trade, railway construction, expansion of credit, and agricultural improvement. Believed only French intervention could defeat Austria and thus, unite Italy. Provoked a war with Austria, and due to French intervention, Austrians were defeated. However, France concluded peace before all of Italy could be regained from Austria. He then stopped Garibaldi before he could form a republican Italy, and united Italy under a constitutional monarchy.

Soviet Union

Prior to June 1944, most of the fighting against Germany in Europe was done by the ___________.

Philadelphia System

Prisoners kept rigorously separated from each other at all times; Example is the Pentonville Prison near London.

Ethnic cleansing

Process in which more powerful ethnic group forcibly removes a less powerful one in order to create an ethnically homogeneous region. What the Serbs used on the Bosnian Muslims when Croatia and Serbia divided Bosnia-Herzegovina.

Louis Philippe (France)

Proclaimed the new king after the exile of Charles X by the Chamber of Deputies during the July Revolution.

Twenty-five Points (1920)

Program issued by the National Socialist German Workers' Party. It called for: 1. the rejection of the Versailles treaty 2. the unification of Austria and Germany 3. exclusion of Jews from German citizenship 4. Agrarian (agricultural) reform 5. the prohibition of land speculation 6. the confiscation of war profits 7. state administration of giant business cartels 8 . the replacement of department stores with small retail shops

Charles Fourier

Proposed the creation of small model communities, each consisting of 1,620 people, to demostrate the advantages of cooperative living. The inhabitants would live and work together for mutual benefit and work assignments rotated frequently to relieve workers of undesirable tasks. Believed the industrial order ignored the passionate side of humanity, and that social discipline ignored all the pleasures that human beings naturally seek. Advocated the construction of communities called phalanxes, meant for the purpose of liberating people from the dullness of industrial living. Sexual activity to be free, marriage later. No person needs to perform the same work for the entire day. Put emphasis on boredom, and its needlessness.

Puritans

Protestant sect in England hoping to "purify" the Anglican church of Roman Catholic traces in practice and organization.

Queen Victoria (r. 1837-1901)

Queen of Britain who ruled during much of Gladstone's and Disraeli's governments.

Mary Tudor/Mary I (England)

Queen of England and daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, married Phillip II and began a sudden turn around of English religion, returning to the Catholic Church and burning several major Protestant leaders at the stake

Mary Queen of Scots (Scotland)

Queen of Scotland but raised in France, a driven Catholic who practiced regardless of Scottish law. Was eventually forced to flee to England and was executed by Elizabeth I

d

Rebellion against French rule in Spain came from the: a. nobility and upper clergy b. peasants and monastic leaders c. upper classes d. peasants and the lower clergy e. merchant elites

Ramsay MacDonald

Reelected as prime minister again and his Labour govt. took office. Was conservative and wanted to slash the budget, reduce govt. salaries, and cut unemployment benefits. Formed a coalition ministry called the National Government. Was believed to have sold out and was rejected by his fellow party members.

a

Reform efforts of the Council of Trent included all of the following EXCEPT: a. several doctrinal concession to the reformers b. creation of new seminaries c. reform of the office of bishop d. machinery to control the morality of churchmen e. steps to curtail the selling of church offices

Reform Bill of 1884

Reform passed by Gladstone's Liberal Party. It gave "the vote" to all men who paid regular rents or taxes, thus largely enfranchising the agricultural workers who were previously excluded. . Put it in the context of 1832, 1867, 1884 for the expansion of the right to vote in England. England is slowly becoming a democracy.

Tsar Alexander II

Reformist Russian tsar.He was a realist who knew that reforms could not be postponed. He issued the Emancipation Edict of 1861, freeing the serfs. He also instituted zemstvos, providing some self-government.

Magyars

Refused Emperor Francis Joseph's new government proposals because they refused to cooperate in a system designed to give political dominance in the empire to German-speaking Austrians. The Dual Monarchy solved this. Aka Hungarians.

Samuel Taylor Coleridge

Regarded imagination as God's work in the mind, and poetry, the highest of all human acts. Was an English author of Gothic poetry. His best-known poem is "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" (1798)

Vendee

Region in Western France where royalists (supporters of monarchy) and priests led peasants in rebellion against the revolution.

Clement Attlee

Replaced Churchill as Prime Minister. Was leader of the Labour Party.

Winston Churchill

Replaces Chamberlain as PM of Britain in May of 1940. Was a critic of Hitler, the Nazis, and appeasement. Would refuse to compromise with Hitler. Developed a close relationship with Franklin D. Roosevelt, providing for American assistance during the time Germany attacked Britain.

David Lloyd George

Representative for Britain at the Versailles Peace Conference. Made up one of the Big Four.

Georges Clemenceau

Representative for France at the Versailles Peace Conference. Made up one of the Big Four.

Vittorio Orlando

Representative for Italy at the Versailles Peace Conference. Made up one of the Big Four.

League of Nations, Treaty of Versailles

Repudiation of Disarmament: 1. Germany withdraws from ______________ (October 1933) 2. Hitler renounces the disarmament provisions of the ___________ (March 1935)

Populism Movement (Russia)

Revolutionary movement in Russia that was drawn from ideas of Herzen and other radicals. Sought a social revolution based on the communal life of the Russian peasants. Their chief radical society was called the Land and Freedom Society.

Kulaks

Rich peasants in the Russian Empire who owned larger farms and used hired labour. They were their own class.

18th century France

Rococo architecture and decoration originated in ___________.

Middle

Romantics were inspired by the architecture, art, and literature of the ______________ Ages. Romanticism was a reaction to the classicism of an earlier period.

Yalta Conference (February 1945)

Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin meet to make final war plans, arrange the post-war fate of Germany, and discuss the proposal for creation of the United Nations as a successor to the League of Nations. They announced the decision to divide Germany into post-war zones of occupation. Russia also agreed to enter the war against Japan, in exchange for the Kuril Islands and half of the Sakhalin Peninsula, as well as Korea and Manchuria.

Charles X (France)

Ruled after Louis XVIII's death. He is not a conservative, but a reactionary. He considered himself a monarch by divine right and moved to restore lands that the aristocrats had lost during the revolution, restored primogeniture, as well as issued a law that punished those who committed sacrilege. The French liberals wanted a legitimately constitutional regime, and when matters came to a head in 1829, he abandoned efforts to accommodate liberals and appointed an ultraroyalist ministry.

Catherine de Medicis

Ruled as Queen of France for Charles IX following her son, Francis II's death. She struggled to reconcile French and Protestant relations, and fought to maintain the monarchy against the powerful Guises, whom she feared would take over the throne. She wanted a Catholic France, but allied with the Protestants to accomplish her goals of keeping the Guises out of line. Later, however, she was forced to cooperate with the Guises as Protestant influence grew.

Boris Pasternak

Russian author of Dr. Zhivago, a novel condemning the brutality of the Stalin era. He won the Nobel Prize for it but the government would not allow him to accept the award because he went against Russian protocol and government.

Alexander Herzen

Russian exile who believed that the Russian peasant must be the catalyst for social reform. Critic of tsarist regime. Published a newspaper called The Bell in which he called for reform. His ideals would lead to the movement of Populism.

John Law

Scottish mathematician and fellow gambler who managed the financial welfare of France under the regency of the Duke of Orleans for Louis X. Set up the Mississippi Company, an official trading company for North America and a state bank that issued paper money and stock (both crashed and burned)

David Hume

Scottish philosopher and skeptic who uses empiricism to disprove the existence of God. In his "Of Miracles", a chapter in his text, "Inquiry into Human Nature" (1748), he states that no empirical evidence supported the belief in divine miracles centered in much of Christianity. For him, the greatest miracle was that people believed in miracles.

Southern Society (Russia)

Secret liberal society that arose under Tsar Alexander's repressive policies in Russia. Led by Pavel Pestel. Advocated representative government, and abolition of serfdom.

Northern Society (Russia)

Secret society formed under Tsar Alexander's repressive policies in Russia that favored constitutional monarchy and abolition of serfdom, but wanted to protect the interests of the aristocracy.

Kosovo

Serbian aggression against ethnic Albanians here would draw NATO forces into Yugoslav Affairs that would cause NATO to conduct an air campaign.

William Gladstone

Served as prime minister for Britain between 1830s through 1890s. Was a liberal who supported Robert Peel, free trade, and the repeal of the Corn Laws. Had lowered taxes and government expenditures while he was finance minister. Ironically, he had refused a new reform bill until the 1860s, when he became the spokesperson for Lord Russell's unsuccessful liberal reform bill.Under his ministry, the Education act of 1870 was passed.His reforms sought to remove abuses without destroying institutions and to permit all able to citizens to compete on the grounds of ability and merit.

Catherine II (the Great of Russia)

She sought to create the image of being an enlightened ruler. Read and cited works of other philosophes, gave Diderot a subsidy, corresponded with Voltaire, all in hopes she would be favored. Wife of Peter III (that one guy who made peace with Frederick II in the Seven Year's War because he admired him), and became empress after his death. Was familiar with the Enlightenment of Western Europe, and understood that Russia needed reforms to remain a great power. Understood that those reforms would need public support. Commissioned a legislative group to help her revise law and government, in which she presented a set of ideas, derived partly from the ideals of the philosophes (this group was later dissolved). Made limited administrative reforms, and gave strong support to the rights and local power of the nobility. Put local offices in the hands of nobles rather than creating a royal bureaucracy. Attempted to supress barriers to trade, and exports grew. Successfully expanded the size of Russia.

Second Vatican Council

Since the _____________ completed its work in 1965, the Catholic Church has embraced Ecumenicism, which emphasizes tolerance among Christians.

Charles I (England)

Son of James I, wanted a war with Spain but could not get it funds without recognizing the Petition of Rights. His attempt to achieve religious uniformity with Scotland led to a war. Parliament then attempted to get him to pass another series of laws before they would fund it. Long story short, Charles I fought a long Civil War against Parliament and Scotland

400

Soviet industrial production rose approximately ___ percent between 1928-1940.

Brezhnev Doctrine (1968)

Soviet policy of interfering in the domestic politics of other communist countries to prevent them from liberalization. The invasion of Czechoslovakia was an example of this. Gorbachev later denounces this during the revolutions of 1989 and refuses to help the communist governments.

Berlin Blockade (1948-9)

Soviets blockade this city from Allied access when Allies decide to create a democratic government in Western Germany. Allies are able to send materials to the city through the Berlin Airlift. Stalin then lifts this blockade without warning a year later.

Czechoslovakia Invasion (Revolt) (1968)

Soviets invade Czechoslovakia to halt "Prague Spring" under their policy of the Brezhnev Doctrine. The US doesn't do anything to prevent the invasion because Czechoslovakia is under the "Iron Curtain".

War of the Spanish Succession

Spanish Habsburg king Charles II dies, giving Spanish territories to Louis XIV's grandson, Philip of Anjou. The other countries feared European domination by Louis XIV, forming the Grand Alliance (England, Holland, and Holy Roman Empire) against a French and Spanish alliance. French poorly equipped in war against England. Peace finally made between France and England at Utrecht in July 1713, and with Holland and the emperor at Rastatt in March 1714. Philip of Anjou remains king of Spain as Philip V, but England recieves Gibraltar and the island of Minorca, making it a Mediterranean power. Louis also recognized the right of the House of Hanover the English throne.

Mississippi Bubble

Speculative fiasco undertaken by John Law that created a fear of paper money in France for decades. In 1719, the price of stock rose. Smart investors took their profits by selling their stock in exchange for paper money. However, the bank established by John Law lacked enough gold to redeem all the paper money brought to it. In February of 1720, all gold payments were halted. It brought disgrace on the government that sponsored Law.

Great Purges

Stalin was paranoid that rival party leaders were plotting against him and launched this reign of terror, in which the Communist Prarty eliminated old Bolsheviks and other party members. "Show trials" in which Communist leaders (often falsely) confessed to political crimes were held in Moscow. Many purged people were sent into exile or slave labor camps. Initally, had been used to settle old scores, and to discipline and gain more control over lower levels of the Communist party. Later, became Stalin's method of wiping out members of his own supporters whom he distrusted.

July Revolution

Started as a revolt against the Four Ordinances. Saw the overthrow of Charles X and the ascension of Louis-Philippe to the French throne. Marked the transition of power from the House of Bourbon to the House of Orléans.

Treaty of Versailles (Versailles Treaty)

Stated that Germany army was to be reduced to 100,000 men and no tanks were allowed, Germany was only allowed 6 ships and no submarines, Germany was not allowed an air force, the Rhineland area was to be kept free of German military personnel and weapons, Germany was not allowed to unite with Austria. Colonies would be controlled by the League of Nations, and Germany will be forced to make reparations, or payments to the nations that won the war.

Balfour Declaration (1917)

Statement made by the British foreign secretary during WWI that declared Britain favored establishing a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine, which leads to violence between the Jews who immigrated to and the Arabs originally in Palestine between WWI and WWII.

Power loom

Steam-powered, mechanically operated version of a regular loom, an invention that combined threads to make cloth. It was invented by Edmund Cartwright in 1785. Sped up textile production.

baroque

Style in art and architecture developed in Europe from about 1550 to 1700, emphasizing dramatic, curving forms, elaborate ornamentation, and overall balance of disparate parts. Presented life in a grandiose, three-dimensional display of raw energy. Associated with Catholicism.

Pope Paul VI

Successor to Pope John XXIII, led the 21st Ecumenical Council, and also appointed several cardinals from the former colonial nations, transforming the church into a world body. However liberal the changes he introduced into the Church were, he still upheld the celibacy of priests, non-allowance of contraception and abortion, and opposed opening the priesthood to women.

Thomas Malthus

Suggested that nothing could improve the condition of the working class, and that the condition would only get worse. Reasoned that if the human population continued to grow unchecked, sooner or later there would be insufficient living space and food for everyone. Believed that only late marriage, chastity, and contraception could avert the possible outcomes. Said working class would keep producing children, and if wages were raised, they would only use up their extra wages on their children. However, it they didn't, their wages could perhaps be spent on consumer goods instead of kids.

e

Supporters of rational deduction believe that when studying nature, one should: a. rely only on sense information. b. ignore all sense information c. reason from the specific to the general d. embrace all accepted truths e. reason from the general to the specific

Cavaliers

Supporters the King during the English Civil War, also known as Royalists

migration

The Great European ____________ of the 19th century was caused by all of the following: 1. population pressure 2. desire of political and social rights 3. lack of employment

John Calvin

Swiss theologian, born in France, whose tenets of predestination and the irresistibility of grace and justification by faith defined Presbyterianism (1509-1564). Developed Calvinism at Geneva. Wrote the "Institutes of Christian Religion" (1536). Born into a well-to-do French family, he was the son of the secretary to the Bishop of Noyon. At 12, he received church benefices that would help educate him. However, in the spring of 1534, he became Protestant and surrendered the benefices that had secured his education.

Dominion Status

Term describing the self-governing lands under the British empire. The Irish Free State was provided this as a provision of the treaty that ended the guerrilla war between the British army and their Irish supporters, the Black and Tans, and the IRA (Irish Republic Army).

Mandates

Territories that were legally administered under the auspices of the League of Nations, but were in effect ruled as colonies.

Serbia

Territory of the Ottomans in the Balkan peninsula that had sought independence from the Ottoman Empire since 18th century. After an unsuccessful guerilla war, and negotiations by Milos Obrenovitch that only declared independence for part of this territory, Ottomans agree to grant its independence, and the Great Powers grant it diplomatic recognition. Russia becomes its protector, for both nations are Slavic states that practice Eastern Orthodox Christianity.

Schleswig-Holstein

Territory taken from the Danes by Prussia/Austria as part of Bismarck's grander scheme against the Austrians. Bismarck got Austria to join Prussia in declaring war on Denmark in 1864, quickly defeating the Danes and takin _________. Austria and Prussia governed the region. Bismarck did all this just so he could have an excuse later to begin a war with Austria over the joint administration of these newly gained territories.

Manchuria

Territory that Japan occupies.

6

The "Final Solution" would result in the death of more than __ million Jews before World War II ended in Europe in May 1945.

Fourteen Points

The American War aims, list created by President Wilson. Were idealistic principles, including self-determination (ethnic groups had the right to their own sovereignty), open diplomacy, freedom of the seas, disarmament, and the establishment of the League of Nations to keep the peace.

e

The Anabaptists were: a. embraced by the Lutherans b. embraced by Zwinglians c. convinced that all babies should be baptized at birth d. convinced that they had not really broken fromt he Catholic church e. seen as a threat to good order by the political authorities

Gamal Abdel Nasser

The Arab-nationalist president of Egypt during the Suez Canal crisis in 1956. He seized the Suez Canal from the English and French.

Arc de Triomphe

The Arch of Triumph, an archway in Paris engraved with Napoleons many military victories

appeasement

The British adopted a policy of _____________ for all the following reasons: 1. guilt over the Versailles settlement 2. strong pacifist movement in Britain 3. belief that Hitler could be used to stop communism

India

The British surrender of ______ marked the beginning of its retreat from colonialism.

d

The Catholic Counter-Reformation spirit was expressed in: a. mannerism b. modernism c. classicism d. the baroque e. neo-classicism

France

The Enlightenment reached its highest development in _______ for the following reasons: 1. French was international language of the educated classes after the Peace of Westphalia. 2. Censorship and repression was somewhat less here than in most of Europe 3. This nation's philosophes asked fundamental questions and sought actively to influence the educated public

Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

The European powers, Japan and the United States agree to renounce "war as an instrument of national policy."

Alexander Dubcek

The First Secretary of the Czechoslovak Communist Party, who began to experiment with liberal reforms, such as the freedom of discussion, press, and to travel abroad. His attempts at loosening communist control was called the "Prague Spring." He was later replaced when the Soviet Union sent troops to force a return of Communist control.

socialists

The French Congress would not allow the act of _______ to be in the cabinet (opportunism) and required they form a single party after the admission of socialist Alexander Millerand. Their leader, Jean Jaures, wanted them to cooperate with the middle class Radical ministries to ensure social change.

Sinn Fein ("Ourselves Alone") Movement

The Irish Party in Parliament becomes this after the execution of leaders of the Easter Monday Uprising. Refused to attend Parliament in Westminster after they won a majority of the seats, but instead formed their own Parliament, the Dail Eireann. Declared Irish independence in January 21, 1919. Created the IRA (Irish Republican Army) who fought a guerrilla war with the British. The treaty that ends the war results in a division between the Irish moderates and diehards. Eventually abolishes oath of allegiance to the monarch.

Kingdom of Italy 1861

The Kingdom of Italy was first proclaimed after the joining of the expanded kingdom of Piedmont with Garibaldi's southern Italian states in 1861. The only remaining lands left to be gained were Venetia (Austrian controlled) and Rome (French protected) Through a series of wars, the unification was completed in 1870 when Rome became the new capital of Italy. (Trick question: Kingdom of Italy created in 1861, Italian peninsula unified in 1870)

Alexander Herzen, populism, Russians, The People's Will

The Land and Freedom Society, a radical society which desired a social revolution in Russia: 1. adhered to the principles of __________________ 2. was based on the ___________ movement 3. Was comprised of young __________ 4. Was split into two factions, with the other faction being called _____________, of whom were involved in Alexander II's assassination.

b

The Marburg Colloquy sought to: a. unite Spanish and Italian Catholics b. unite Swiss and German Protestants c. establish a new Catholic council system d. establish religious tolerance throughout Europe e. outlaw Calvinism in Britain

biological

The Nazi anti-Semitism was based on ____________ superiority rather then religious superiority.

a

The Ottoman sultans governed their empire through units called: a. millets b. satraps c. janissary d. ulama e. jihads

violence

The Soviet Union urbanization arose directly from the ________ the government inflicted on the countryside.

Britain, Austria, Russia

The Third Coalition consisted of:

French Bourbons

The Treaty of Chaumont restores this family to the French throne.

a

The Treaty of Nantes: a. gave Huguenots qualified religious freedoms b. established universal religious toleration in France c. settled the border between France and Spain d. ended French involvement in northern Italy e. brought peace to the Holy Roman Empire

Jacobins

The ________ were heavily influenced by Enlightenment philosophes such as Voltaire and Rousseau.

a

The correct chronological order of Bismarck's moves leading to the unification of Germany was in victories against: a. Denmark, Austria, and France b. Austria, Denmark and France c. France, Denmark, and Austria d, France, Austria, and Denmark e. Austria, France, and Denmark

Velvet Divorce (1993)

The division of Czechoslovakia into two states: the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

John Knox

The exiled Scots protestant reformer, was pushed out by Mary I and Mary of Guise, helped Elizabeth I work against Mary Queen of Scots in order to overthrow the said queen

Potsdam Conference (July 1945)

The final wartime meeting of the leaders of the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union was held outside Berlin, in July, 1945. Truman replaced Roosevelt, and Clement Attlee had replaced Churchill. Allies agreed to divide Germany into occupation zones. A Council of Foreign ministers was established to draft peace treaties for Germany's allies. Disagreements and dissatisfaction between the Soviet Union and US over the peace treaty between US and Japan would lead to the Cold War.

Michel de Montaigne

The finest represent of the early modern skepticism, he developed a new literary genre: the essay. He rejected the claim that one culture may be superior to others and by doing this he inaugurated a new era of doubt. (1533-1592)

Poland

The first Eastern European country to move toward independence was ______ in 1989.

Thirty Years War

The first truly international war, involved almost all the powers of Europe. It took part in four periods: The Bohemian, the Danish, the Swedish, and the Swedish-French. This war, though originally Catholic against protestant, eventually had Catholics fighting Catholics and such.

six

The goal of the Schlieffen Plan was to crush the French within ____ weeks.

1792

The guillotine was introduced to France in ______.

cardinal granvelle

The head of a Spanish council of state in the Netherlands. Hoped to break down the traditional local autonomy of the seventeen Netherlands provinces by stages and establish a centralized Catholic government in its place. His goal was to est. a politically docile and religiously uniform country, a Catholic hierarchy, and to quicken the est. of the Netherlands as a Spanish ward.

Wet-nursing

The hiring of a servant, often with little or no contract, to nurse the child of the hiring, and more wealthy family at the expense of her own newly born child. This became a very wide-spread and flourishing business all over Europe in the 18th century. The nurses needed the money that many upper class women would gladly provide for the freedom from such a tiring and unsightly chore as nursing. However, economic necessity required the poor to apply this practice on their own children.

Mercantilism

The idea of bullion being a measure of a country's wealth and the idea that a country should have an active role in its economy. This led to the creation of Mercantile Empires

steam engine

The key invention that allowed industrialization to spread of one area of production to another was the:

Louis XVI (of France)

The king of France during the revolution, in his attempt to raise taxes and end the national debt caused by various wars, he lost power to the National Assembly, then later was forced out of the palace of Versailles by an assault by Women on his palace. After trying to flee to Varennes, he was brought back to Paris, and later executed for conspiring against the state and the freedom of the people

Heidelberg

The only major Calvinist stronghold within the HRE, converted when Fredrick III became Elector Palatine and made it the official religion of his region

Romania

The only revolution of 1989 that was violent occured in ____________, when President Ceausescu was eventually assassinated.

Corporatism

The planned economy of fascist Italy that combined private ownership of capital with government direction of Italy's economic life and the arbitration of labor disputes. The middle way between socialism and laissez-faire. The state determined what the industries produced, not the consumers or industrial owners. Increased bureaucracy and corruption in Italy. Led to a decrease in standard of living.

Neoclassicism

The popularity of travel to Rome contributed to the rise of ____________.

liberals, democracy

The problem for _________ in France and England was to protect civil liberties, define the respective powers of the monarch and the elected legislature, and expand the electorate moderately while avoiding _________.

Humanism

The scholarly study of Greek and Latin classics and of the ancient Church Fathers, both for its own sake and in the hope of reviving respected ancient norms and values. They advocated liberal arts. The first of this movement were orators and poets who wrote original literature in both Latin and the vernacular. Among its many followers were Francesco Petrarch, Dante, and Boccaccio

Napoleon III, liberal

The second empire of ______________ became more _______ after 1860 as demonstrated by the following actions: 1. free trade treaty with Britain 2. Relaxation of press laws 3. labor unions allowed 4. legislative debate was less restricted 5. a more liberal constitution was created in 1870.

computer

The single most important technological advancement of the 20th century that can be attributed to the US is the __________.

Revolution of 1830

The success of the _____________ in France was due in part to the revolutionary actions of the artisans, shopkeepers, and workers of Paris.

Balance of Power

The system by which different things do not gain power over the others. In Europe, this delicate balance was destroyed when France began to expand under Napoleon.

purges

The targets of Stalin's ________ and the public "show trials" that followed included the following: 1. senior military leadership 2. rivals for leadership 3. veteran Bolsheviks (aka "Old Bolsheviks") 4. ordinary workers

Prussia & Austria

The two rivals were considered by German nationalists as the only two states powerful enough to dominate German affairs. ______became the dominate power after the Austro-Prussian War of 1861. _________ defeat enabled Bismarck to create Germany by expanding Prussian control.

Jacobins

These were members of a radical revolutionary club of the Third Estate during the French Revolution. Conspired to take control of the government and make France a republic. Drew their ideas from Rousseau. Sought representative government and favored an unregulated economy. During the Thermidorean Reaction, its members were forbidden to correspond with each other. They were executed and beat by the "bands of Jesus" in the "white terror" of the Thermidorean Reaction.

second estate

They consisted of the Nobles; they received special privileges and paid no direct taxes to the king

First Estate

They consisted of the Roman Catholic Clergy; they received special privileges and paid no direct taxes

Franco-Prussian War

Third stage in German unification. Bismark sought to unify all Germans by creating a common enemy in France. Germany defeated France easily. Enabled the southern states of Germany to join the already established Northern German Confederation. Napoleon is captured after this war.

Danish War (1864) A & P vs D

This short war was a part of Bismarck's master plan to exclude Austria from his new Germany. Germany and Austria would administer the newly acquired Schleswig-Holstein.

Korean War (1950-3)

This war confirmed the US's faith in containment. Began with North Korea's invasion of South Korea across the thirty-eighth parallel and came to involve the United Nations (primarily the United States) allying with Republic of Korea in the south and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea allying with the Soviet Union in the north. The US intervened mainly to contain the spread and halt the aggression of communism. The war ends when President Eisenhower concludes an armistice ending the Korean War and restoring the border near the thirty-eighth parallel.

Auburn System

This was a European prison model that was named after the Auburn Prison in New York State. According to it, prisoners were separated during the night but could associate while working during the day.

Vesuvians

This was the most radical group of women in France who tried to demand rights after the emergence of the Second Republic and the Napoleonic coup. Named after a volcano in Italy. Demanded domestic household equality between men and women, the right of women to serve in the military, and similarity in dress for both sexes. Conducted street demonstrations. Unfortunately, they were too radical for some women and lost their support.

Giuseppe Manzini

Took over leadership of romantic republican nationalism in Italy. Became the most important nationalist leader in Europe. Founded the Young Italy Society to drive Austria from the Peninsula and establish an Italian republic. Was exiled after he set up a revolutionary Republic in Rome that was toppled by French forces, because in taking over Rome, they had ousted the pope. Although his revolution failed, it started the process of movement towards Italian unification.

Matthew Boulton

Toy and button manufacturer who teamed up with Watt to help make a precise cylinders for Watt's steam engine. He also suggested ideas to make the engine not only good for pumping water out of coal and iron mines, but also for running cotton mills.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Treaty between Bolsheviks and Germans to get Russia out of the war. Russia loses 1/3 of her population, including Poland, Finland, the Baltic states and Ukraine. This was signed at the height of German success in WWI.

Lateran Accord (Pact/Treaty) (1929)

Treaty between the church and Mussolini that allowed the Roman Catholic Church and the Italian state to make peace with each other. Recognized the pope as the temporal ruler of the independent state of Vatican City. The Italian government also agrees to compensate for the territory it confiscated by payment. Recognized Catholicism as the religion of the nation, exempted church property from taxes and allowed church law to govern marriage. Gave Mussolini respect.

"Island Hopping"

WWII strategy the American used of conquering only certain Pacific islands that were important to the Allied advance toward Japan, islands with major bases and strategic sites for the enemy supply line.

Adolf Hitler

Wanted to bring all the Germans together into a single nation. On the eve of the Second World War, he violates the provisions of Versailles by: rearming Germany, uniting Germany and Austria, rearming the Rhineland. Takes Sudetenland from Czechs, and promises not to take the rest of the Czech territory but does it anyway when he occupies Prague. Divides Poland among himself and Stalin. Despite the non-aggression pact, plans to invade Russia anyway (Operation Barbarossa).

thirty years war

War within the Holy Roman Empire between German Protestants and their allies (Sweden, Denmark, France) and the emperor and his ally, Spain; ended in 1648 after great destruction with Treaty of Westphalia

Wansee Conference (January 1942)

Was a meeting in Berlin to decide on a plan to completely eliminate all European Jews.

Nicholas II

Was later forced to issue the October Manifesto after the Russian Revolution of 1905 following Bloody Sunday.

e

What country did Austria compete with for influence in the Balkans? a. Germany b. Italy c. Britain d. Greece e. Russia

Charles de Gaulle

When Britain tries to join the EEC, he vetoes British membership and claimed that Britain was too closely tied to the United States to support the EEC wholeheartedly.

Afghanistan

When the Soviet Union invaded ____________ in 1979, it led to: 1. the depletion of Soviet military and financial resources 2. the deaths of 2,000 Soviet troops per year (1979-89) 3. CIA support of Afghan insurgents 4. US boycott of the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow

e

Which of the following practices did Zwingli NOT question and repudiate in the course of his reforms? a. worship of saints b. transubstantiation c. pilgrimages d. clerical celibacy e. church attendance

b

Which of the following rulers is an example of a politique? a. Mary I b. Elizabeth I c. Phillip II d. Oliver Cromwell e. Charles I

Iron Curtain

Winston Churchill describes European countries under control by the Soviets as being under this, "stretching from the Baltic to the Adriatic". Boundary dividing Western democratic and Eastern Communist countries. Would be breached when Hungary opens its borders to Austria, allowing East Germans to move to West Germany.

1400, 1700

Witch hunts occured during _____ to ______.

English Reform Bill (of 1812)

With greater representation, the House of Commons became the most important legislative body.

a

Women of what class had the most freedom to pursue the new sciences? a. artisan b. nobility c. urban elite d. gentry e. peasant

Bolsheviks

Worked against the provisional government that was set up after Nicholas II's abdication. Leader was Lenin. Communist. Wanted all political power to go to the soviets, which they controlled. Attempted a coup of power from the provisional government the first time, which is unsuccessful. The second coup is successful, and this group comes to rule Russia. All other political parties ceased to function as the government under the party nationalized the land and turned it over to its peasant proprietors, factory workers put in charge of plants, and the property of the church was turned over to the state. Also takes Russia out of the war, believing it benefited only capitalism. Agreed to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which lost Russia a lot of land, and also agreed to pay a war indemnity.

Joseph Stalin

Worked toward Russian economic improvement with the use of terror. Issued five year plans for rapid industrialization. His decisions were considered a departure against the policies of Lenin and aroused internal opposition. Conducted Great Purges against possible rivals, such as Sergei Kirov, because he feared he was losing control due to the turmoil in the countryside and the problems caused by industrialization.

"General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money" (1936)

Written by John Maynard Keynes. Was the first to set forth a body of economic thought as a result of the economic crisis.

"What is Property?" (1840)

Written by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon

Essay on the Principle of Population (1798)

Written by Thomas Malthus, he suggested that the population must eventually outstrip the food supply. There was little hope of averting the disaster, except through late marriage, chastity, and contraception.

John Maynard Keynes

Wrote "General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money". Advocated active government intervention in economy. Urged government spending to expand demand.

Emile Zola

Wrote "J'Accuse", in which he said that the army had denied due process to Dreyfus and had suppressed or forged evidence. Was later convicted of libel and fled to England to avoid being imprisoned.

Simone de Beauvoir

Wrote "The Second Sex" in which she explored the difference being a women made her life. Argued that women experience social and economic disadvantages.

David Ricardo

Wrote Principles of Political Economy (1817); also known for his concept, the "iron law of wages", in which a rise of population means rise of amount of workers, which cause wages to fall below the subsistence level, resulting in misery and starvation. Wages raised, parents have more kids, who would then enter the working field, thus lowering wages; lowered wages would lead to less kids, thus less workers in the working field, resulting in higher wages. Continuing, never-ending cycle.

Maximilien Robespierre

_______________________ embraced the following ideology: 1. wholehearted support of the republican government 2. renunciation of self-interested politics 3. foreign and domestic enemies of the revolution must be eliminated 4. creation of a civic religion - The Cult of the Supreme Being (1794)

Theodore Beza

a Calvinist leader, he targeted noble families to become Calvinist supporters (including the family of Henry of Navarre, specifically Henry's mother); also wrote "On the Right of Magistrates Over Their Subjects", in which he stated that regional rulers should have the right to be able to overthrow tyrannical central governments

Cornelius Vermuyden

a Dutch engineer hired by English landlords in the 17th century to drain thousands of acres of land around Cambridge. Worked in both Low Countries and Britain.

william of orange

a member of the council of state, he and the count of egmont led a revolt against spain; he placed the political well-being of his country above religious matters and was a confessed catholic, who turned lutheran, who turned calvinist after the SBDM. he and the count of egmont successfully kicked granvelle out of office in 1564. he was assassinated and succeeded by his son, maurice

Levee en Masse

a military requisition issued by Larazre Carnot of the Committee of Public Safety on the entire population of France, conscripting males into the army and directing economic production to military purposes. France's army became an army of one million men, the largest in history.

Adam Smith

a physiocrat who believed economic liberty was the foundation of a natural economic system. against the mercantile system, like that of england's (which includes the navigation acts governing colonial trade, tariffs, trading monopolies, the regulation of labor and manufacture), in which he said they hindered the expansion of wealth and production. said that the best way to encourage economic growth was to unleash individuals to pursue their own selfish economic interest. challenged the mercantilistic assumption that the earth's resources were limited. said instead that resources of nature (air, earth, etc.) were boundless. regarded as the founder of laissez-faire, and embraced the four-stage theory.

Anabaptists

a protestant group that believed in baptizing only those people who were old enough to decide to be Christian and believed in the separation of church and state; also were pacifists that were against the act of war and violence

War Guilt Clause

a provision in the Treaty of Versailles by which Germany acknowledged that it alone was responsible for WWI

Bolsheviks

a small faction of the Russian Social Democrats who came under the leadership of V. I. Lenin, who led the Bolsheviks to become a party dedicated to violent revolution. Lenin believed that only a violent revolution could destroy the capitalist system and that a "vanguard" of activists must form a small party of well-disciplined professional revolutionaries to accomplish the task. He also maintained that that the soviets of soldiers, workers, and peasants were ready-made instruments of power to execute his Marxist revolutionary plan. By the end of October the Bolsheviks had achieved a slight majority in the Petrograd and Moscow soviets (which had increased from 50,000 to 240,000 party members). The Bolsheviks took over the Winter Palace in the October/November revolution and retained power through the civil war. They became the new Communist regime.

Baroque art

a style of art associated with 17th century painting, sculpture and architecture depicted their subjects in a thoroughly naturalistic, rather than idealized, nature. This faithfulness to nature paralleled the interest in natural knowledge associated with the rise of the new science and deeper understanding of human anatomy. It was theatrical, and intended to draw the observer into a emotional involvement with the subject that is being portrayed. Associated with Roman Catholicism and absolutist politics. First emerged in papal Rome. Dominated the capitals of the rulers of the smaller German princes as well as the imperial court of the Habsburgs in Vienna

Rationalism

a system of thought expounded by Rene Descartes based on the belief that reason is the chief source of knowledge

Water Frame

a water-powered device invented to produce pure cotton fabric that was created without the assistance of a linen blend for durability; it led to the shift in the production of cotton textiles from households to factories

Midwives

aka "wise women" because of their extensive knowledge and medical skills. Among the few who carried out independent economic and public roles. This was a trade that was pursued by the elderly or widowed of the lower classes. They were not allowed to organize guilds to protect their trade, pass on their skills or stabilize their incomes. Civil or church authorities would license them and appoint upper-class women to supervise them. Often held the secrets of the family they attended to, and were expected to perform confidentially. Could perform religious and civil functions at births. Could also register births and testify a child's legitimacy.

Holocaust

aka the "Final Solution". Wipes out 6 million Jews. Although most of the destruction occurs in Eastern Europe and Russia, Jews were also deported from France, the Netherlands, Italy, and Belgium.

Carbonari

aka, carbon burners. Secret republican society that met to discuss Italian unification after the Congress of Vienna

John Kay

an Englishman who invented the fly shuttle. Made it possible for one person instead of two to operate a loom in textile manufacturing. It increased the output of woven material. Created a bottle neck in textile production.

Grand Alliance

an agreement of Holland, England and the Holy Roman Empire to preserve the balance of power in Europe and for securing Flanders as a neutral barrier between Holland and France, and by gaining for the emperor, also a Habsburg, his fair share of Spanish inheritance following the death of Charles II.

Socialists

applauded the new productive capacity of industrialism. But denied that the free market could adequately produce and distribute goods the way the classical economists claimed. Thought human society should be organized as a community, rather than merely as a conglomerate of atomistic selfish individuals.

Frederick II (the Great of Prussia)

associated with enlightened absolutism. Corresponded with philosophes by giving them a place at his court. Wrote history, political tracts, music. Forged his state through the nobility and military. Advocated promotion of nobility through merit, and due to this, created rather few nobles. Because he protected the nobility's local self-interest and maintained leadership through his army, there were few clashes between the Prussian monarchy and aristocracy. Allowed intellectual freedom and advocated religious toleration. Made the legal system more fair and efficient, eliminating any pecularities, reducing aristocratic influence, and reducing the number of capital crimes. Sought to develop Prussian agriculture and brought in workers from outside Prussia; but due to the remnants of heavy taxation, the economy of Prussia did not prosper.

Romantic Movement

began in the start of the 19th century. Was a reaction against the thought of the Enlightenment. Imagination and intuitive intelligence/reason is thought of as a means to perceive and understand the world. Artists and writers urge a revival of Christianity, and think highly of folklore, dreams, and other phenomena. Peaked in England and Germany before it became a major force in France. Had roots in the individualism of the Renaissance, Protestant devotion and personal piety, sentimental novels of the eighteenth century and the dramatic German poetry of the Sturm and Drang movement, which rejected the influence of French rationalism.

Industrial Revolution

begun about 1760 in England and later in other countries, characterized chiefly by the replacement of hand tools with power-driven machines, as the power loom and the steam engine, and by the concentration of industry in large establishments. Created new demands for commercial goods sparked by marketing and a more flexible sum of money to be spent on goods. Was a rather slow revolution, but had a lasting impact.

Otto von Bismarck

brought universal male suffrage to German Empire in 1871. Believed socialism would undermine German politics and society. condemned the SPD. Had used assassination attempt on William I to get antisocialist laws passed. The measures surpressed organization, meetings, newspapers, and other public activities of this group. The repression had bad outcomes. So then, adopted welfare laws, including health insurance, accident insurance, and old age and disability pensions hoping to appease socialists this way.

Versailles

built as a palace by Louis XIV to: 1. control the aristocracy 2. to rule outside of Paris 3. to make it a center of French culture 4. to show the wealth and power of the French monarchy

Final Solution

called for the expulsion of the entire Jewish race.

Haiti

colony that achieved its independence from France. When the French Revolution breaks out, the National Assembly of France decrees that free property-owning mulattos in this colony should enjoy the same rights as the white landholders, but the government in this colony disobeys orders. A slave rebellion ensues under the leadership of L'Ouverture against the white property owners, with French officials sent by the government of Paris to support the slaves. France proceeds to abolish slavery in this colony. When Napoleon's forces withdraw from this colony, its slave-led rebellion become the first successful assault on colonial government in Latin America.

Antithesis

conflicting ideas that challenge thesis

Kingdom of the Netherlands

consisted of the nations of Belgium and Luxemburg, established by the Congress of Vienna for the purpose of maintaining piece

Laissez-faire

developed by Adam Smith. A type of economic thought and policy, which favors a limited role for the government in economic life. However, the government is still responsible for providing schools, armies, navies, and roads. Also should undertake certain commercial ventures, such as opening dangerous new trade routes that were economically desirable, but otherwise too expensive for a private enterprise to want to take the risk in funding.

Cholera

disease that struck all classes, not just the poor. Was thought to have been casued by "miasmas" in the air that could be detected by their foul odors, caused by filth. Government officials believed to only way to rid of these miasmas was to clean up cities.

Scientific induction

drawing generalizations from, and also testing, hypotheses against empirical observations.

Assembly of Notables

drawn from upper ranks of the aristocracy and church, they met with French finance minister Calonne and refused his request to grant new taxes. Instead, they demanded that the aristocracy be allowed greater share in direct governing of the kingdom, called for reappointment of Necker, and claimed they had no right to consent new taxes--the right lay in the Estates General of France.

Potato blight

ecological disaster in Ireland in the 1840's that killed thousands and led many Irish to immigrate to the United States to escape death and starvation. Was one of the factors of the outbreaks of revolutions in 1848.

elliptical orbits

egg-shaped orbits that the planets travel around

Free trade

favored by the liberals. Abolished government regulation on the economy. Favored a removal of international tariffs and internal barriers to trade.

(Marshal) Patrice Macmahon (France)

elected by the monarchists of the National Assembly as president because the National Assembly couldn't decide between the House of Bourbons or Orleans to rule France. Was told to expect a monarchist restoration in France. Later, resigned because of arguments with the Chamber of Deputies about the new republican system of election of the C. of Deps. His departure meant that republicans now controlled national government despite opposition from the church, wealthy families, and some of the army.

Methodism

emphasized the conversion experience and the change of heart as a sign of received salvation. Was one of the prime religions in which the antislavery movement was fostered.

Frederick William

forged areas of scattered Hohenzollerns holdings into a modern state. Also known as "The Great Elector" established himself and his successors as the central uniting power by breaking the local noble of estates, organizing a royal bureaucracy and building a strong army. Collected taxes by military force when Sweden and Poland fought Catholics across his holdings in Pomerania and East Prussia. Had neither adequate army or tax revenue. He later used tax money to build a new army, allowing him to enforce his will without approval of nobility. Co-opted potential opponents into his service by choosing local administrators, those who would have been nobles in the old Parliament.

North German Confederation

formed after the Austro-Prussian war, it combined German states north of the Main River into a Confederation controlled largely by Prussia. Southern German states meanwhile were coerced into signing military agreements with Prussia.

Chartism

formed by the London Working Men's Association in 1838 on the basis of alleviating the economic plight of workers. The group issued a Charter, which listed six political reforms to better the economic depression, and demanded it be passed by Parliament. This charter included universal male suffrage, annual election of the House of Commons, the secret ballot, equal electoral districts, and the abolition of property qualifications for and the payment of salaries to members of the House of Commons. This national movement eventually failed and disbanded in 1848.

Louis XVIII (France)

former count of Provence and brother to Louis XVI. Bourbon rule is restored under his reign by the Congress of Vienna. Agreed to a constitutional monarchy, but only under a constitution of his own making called the Charter.

Ferdinand Lasalle

founded the German Social Democratic Party (SPD), because he wanted workers to participate in politics.

John Wesley

founder of Methodism. He attacked slaveholding in his "Thoughts on Slavery"

John Wesley

founder of the Methodist religion, became a missionary in England and won many converts. His religion stressed the importance of hard work and spiritual contentment.

wallenstein

gained territory by joining ferdinand in the conquest of bohemia; ruthless military strategist; carried ferdinand's campaign into denmark

Strelski/Streltsy

guards of the Moscow garrison in Russia. Supported Peter the Great in his rule, expecting to be rewarded. Later revolted while Peter was away on his journey into Western Europe. Peter returns, severely punishing them, and hanging their corpses in public display to discourage disloyalty.

Louis XVI

had favored the wars of France against Prussia and Austria to strengthen to power of the monarchy; hoped foreign armies would defeat the French and restore the Old Regime. Later put on trial as a "Citizen Capet". Was convicted for conspiring against the liberty of the people and security of the state. However, was condemned to death only by a small handful of people. Executed before his queen.

Ottoman Empire

had not changed its political and economic structures even when other nations did, and were getting more powerful. The other powers wanted to take advantage of this and steal territory and commerce. Powers also wanted access to Christian shrines. Had to relinquish its hold on Serbia when revolution broke out there.

maximilian of bavaria

he organized the catholic league

Thesis

ideas that are in favor as of current

intendants

imposed by Louis XIV, they were law officials who collected taxes and administered justice, and were cause of much discontent, "government agents"; took power from nobles and consolidated power of the King

Servant

in pre-industrial Europe, refers to one hired to work for the head of a household in exchange for room, bored, and wages. Usually young, but yet, not always socially inferior to the employer.

Sans-culottes

in the French Revolution, a radical group made up of Parisian wage-earners, and small shopkeepers who wanted a greater voice in government, lower prices, and an end of food shortages through price controls. Believed that all people have a right to subsistence (continuing to exist) and resented most forms of inequality. Anti-monarchical and pro-republican. Gained the most influence in Paris at meetings.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

issued in 1790, bishops and priests became elected as salaried officials. Reduced the number of bishopries from 135 to 83. Ended papal authority over the French Church and dissolved convents and monasteries. Many bishops and priests refused to accept it, and the pope condemned it. When the government punished clergy who refused to support it, a huge gulf opened between revolutionaries in Paris and the peasantry in the provinces.

Emancipation Edict

issued in 1861 by Alexander II, it gave Russian serfs the right to property, to marry as they chose, and to bring suits in the law courts. They were provided with land by the government that they could purchase from the landowners, but the landowners kept the best land for themselves, and the peasants soon found that they didn't have enough good arable land to support themselves. The situation unexpectedly worsened as the peasant population increased rapidly in the second half of the 19th century.

Flying Shuttle

its invention was one of the key developments in weaving that helped fuel the Industrial Revolution. Made weaving cloth much easier, but also created an imbalance or bottle neck in textile production--thread could not be spun quick enough to supply this machinery.

Enlightenment

its rational concepts and reformist writings enshrined the critical spirit and undermined revealed religion, that of which conservative churches feared.

Dhimmis

literally meaning "people of the book"; applied as an inclusive term to Jews and Christians in Islamic territories; later extended to Zoroastrians and even Hindus; were allowed to practice their religions in return for paying a special tax, and respecting Muslim religion. Were prohibited from serving in the military and wearing certain colors.

Zemstvos

local Russian provincial counties run by the nobility. Oversaw local matters, such as bridge and road repair. education and agricultural improvement. However, they were unfunded and many of them remained ineffective.

Soviets

local councils consisting of workers, peasants and soldiers. Took control of St. Petersburg when strikes broke out in October 1905 after Bloody Sunday.

christian iv

lutheran king of denmark who was so eager to extend danish influence that he entered the war, only to be humiliated by maximilian of bavaria

"Critique of Pure Reason"

major work of Immanuel Kant's that marked the end of the Enlightenment; examined the limitations of human reason and of human capacity to understand the world, challenging the boundless faith of the Age of Reason

Warsaw Pact (1955-91)

military alliance made up of the Soviet Union and its fellow communist Eastern European nations.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) (1949 - Present)

military alliance of Western European nations and US & Canada

Mensheviks

minority fraction of the Russian Social Democratic Party. Wanted a party with a mass membership which would function democratically, unlike its other fraction that wanted the SDP to consist of elite professional revolutonaries.

Great Fear

occurred from July 20 to August 5, 1789 in France at the start of the French Revolution. Rural unrest had been present in France since the worsening grain shortage of the spring, and the grain supplies were now guarded by local militias as bands of vagrants roamed the countryside. Rumors spread among the peasantry that nobles had hired these vagrants to prey on villages and protect the new harvest from the peasants. Led to the widespread destruction of manor houses and archives, and a refusal to pay feudal dues. Peasants wanted to reclaim rights and the property they'd lost through administrative tightening of the collection of feudal dues.

Cardinal Mazarin

one of Louis XIV's chief ministers. Continued the centralizing powers of Richelieu, but in 1648 his failing attempts to increase revenues and expand the state bureaucracy resulted in a widesread rebellion known as the Fronde. After his death, Louis XIV would assume complete control of the government at the age of 23, and would not appoint another chief minister. Therefore, nobles that rebelled would be rebelling directly to the king.

Pogram

organized riots against Jewish neighborhoods and villages. Russian state allowed police and right-wing nationalist groups to conduct these.

"Guernica"

painting by Pablo Picasso that depicts the Spanish Civil War. Commemorates the bombing of this Spanish Bosque village by German planes.

Scientific Revolution

period in the 16th and 17th centuries where many thinkers rejected doctrines of the past dealing with the natural world in favor of new scientific ideas.

August Wilhelm Von Schlegel

praised the "Romantic" literature of Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, Shakespeare, the Arthurian legends, Cervantes, and Calderon. According to him, Romantic literature was to classical literature what the organic and living were to the merely mechanical . Set forth his views in "Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature" (1809-1811)

Abbe Sieyes

priest whose comment on the Third Estate is published into a pamphlet in 1789. Declared that the Third Estate was the most useful component of French Society

gustavus adolphus

protestant, involved in the swedish period; won at breitenfeld

Joseph Lister

proved bacterial theory of disease; British scientist.

Louis Pasteur

proved bacterial theory of disease; French scientist.

Robert Koch

proved bacterial theory of disease; German scientist.

The National Insurance Act of 1911

provided benefits for workers in the case of sickness and unemployment, to be financed by compulsory contributions from workers, employers, and the state. Significance: 1) represents an early beginning of the British welfare system and 2) represents the shift in liberalism FROM laissez -faire TO a system of direct help to the poor.

deduction

reasoning from general principle to arrive at specific facts

Coup d'etat (of 18 Fructidor)

staged by the Directory in 1797 for the purpose of preserving the republic and preventing a peaceful restoration of the Bourbons. Put their own supporters into the legislative seats their opponents had won. Imposed censorship and exiled some of their enemies. Napoleon assisted the Directory, sending a subordinate to Paris to ensure its success.

Hatt-i Sharif of Gulhane

statement of royal intent from the sultan of the Ottoman Empire to all his subjects that attempted to reorganize the empire's administration and army along European lines. It included the abolition of tax farming, liberalization of economy, standardized military conscription and eliminated corruption. Opened the Tanzimat era in the Ottoman Empire. Featured civic equality for all subjects regardless of religion.

pacification of ghent

ten catholic provinces in the netherlands came together with seven protestant provinces in unified opposition to spain. it was accomplished on 11/8/1576

Trialism

the Czechs favored this, wanting a "Triple Monarchy" to rule beside Austria and Hungary. Wanted a position similar to that of the Hungarians. This would ultimately fail, regardless of Francis Joseph's willingness of this concept, because the Magyars of Hungary vetoed it. The Germans of Bohemia were also afraid the Czech language would be imposed on them.

Magyars

the Hungarian nationality that gained partial independence (mainly in domestic affairs) with the Dual-Monarchy in 1867

spanish armada

the Spanish fleet that attempted to invade England, ending in disaster, due to the raging storm in the English Channel as well as the smaller and better English navy led by Francis Drake. This is viewed as the decline of Spain's Golden Age, and the rise of England as a world naval power.

Muscovy

the capital of Moscow in Russia, and the regions surrounding it

Nationalism

the doctrine that one's national culture and interests are superior to any other. Began to emerge in Germany with the threat of Napoleon.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

the financial minister of Louis XIV, furthered prosperity in France by promoting good farming methods, building roads and canals (infrastructure), promoted existing industries with tariffs, aided new industries with subsidies, and increased mercantilism by establishing French trading posts in India and North American colonies. Because of his economic policies, Louis could afford to raise and maintain a large, powerful army.

Nobles of the Robe/Gown

the group of the French nobility that acquired their positions by service or purchase; the "new" nobility of France; created by Louis XIV to help him run his government.

Divine Right of Kings

the idea that kings receive their power from God and are responsible only to God; implanted into the mind of Louis XIV by Bishop Jacques-Benigne Bossuet. Kings were not to be bound to the dictates of mere nobles and parliaments.

Bourgeoisie

these middle-classmen won a great victory in the French Revolution in that they were granted access to political power due to the fact that they owned property under the new Constitution of the Year III

Unemployment

this term was coined during the last quarter of the 19th century

Slavophils

those that embraced the concepts of Official Nationality, which put emphasis on the glorification of Russian customs, language and religion. Viewed potential Westernization as a threat to the distinctive aspects of Slavic culture.

Philip of Anjou/Philip V of Spain

to whom Charles II of Spain leaves his entire inheritance after he dies.

Bloody Sunday

troops of Nicholas II fire on a peaceful procession of workers at the Winter Palace who sought to present a petition for better working and living conditions. Tsar was not even present in St. Petersburg. This was a turning point in Russian history; Russians came to believe that they could no longer trust the tsar or his government.

Scholasticism

truth thought of as already discovered, and only required explanation. Reveres authority in intellectual life.

Scorched-earth Policy

used by Russians to destroy food and supplies in Moscow as Napoleon's army advanced

Mir

village communes in Russia that ensured that the peasants freed by the emancipation edict were repaying the state for their newly gained land. In a way, the village communes owned the land that the peasants were purchasing (the peasants weren't yet truly free).

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (Mexico)

was a creole priest in New Spain. Issued a call for rebellion to the workers in his parish. Set forth a program of social reform, including changes in landholding. Led about 80,000 followers to capture cities, and then marched on Mexico City. He is later captured and killed before this revolt is successful.

National Constituent Assembly

was abolished in September of 1791, having completed its tasks of reconstructing the government and the administration of France. Passed a measure that forbid its members from joining the newly formed Legislative Assembly.

Elba

where Napoleon was sent on his first exile after he was defeated at Leipzig; off the coast of central Italy

Spinsters

widows and unmarried women who spun for a living; often recruited into a family enterprise by the wife of the family

Principles of Political Economy

written David Ricardo, he stated his belief on wages and workers. He also transformed the concepts of Malthus into the "iron law of wages".

"Reflections on the Revolution in France"

written by Edmund Burke in opposition to the French Revolution. Condemned the reconstruction of the French administration of a blind rationalism that ignored the historic realities of political development and the complexities of social relations. He also predicted the future turmoil as people without political experience tried to govern France, predicted the deaths of the king and queen, and forecast that the revolution would end in military despotism.

Great Britain

The Industrial Rev. came first to:

Primogeniture

right of inheritance belongs exclusively to the eldest son

Silesia

Conquered by Fredrick II of Prussia, the seizure of this state from the Habsburgs led to the War of the Spanish Succession

Perestroika

"Restructuring" movement in the Soviet Union under Mikhail Gorbachev that reduced the size and importance of centralized economic ministries, decentralized of the economy, allowed private ownership of property, and liberalized the economy toward free market mechanisms. These changes did not improve the Soviet economy. Gorbachev later applies this to politics, permitting free elections.

Giordano Bruno

(1548-1600) Italian polymath, philosopher, mathematician and astronomer. He taught the ideas of heliocentrism and the infinity of the universe and was burned at the stake after the papal inquisition found him heretic in 1600 for supporting Hermetic philosophy (supporting a pantheistic view of God). His books were put in the "Index". Some claim him the martyr of science, nonetheless his execution is a sad episode between the conflict of Church beliefs and scientific and liberal thinking.

Blitzkreig

"Lightning warfare", a new style of attack used by the Germans that employed fast-moving, massed armored columns supported by airpower. This type of attack was used when the Germans invaded Poland.

Act of Uniformity

(1549) an act of parliament that reasserted the "Book of Common Prayer" with some Catholic alterations as the chief book for all English churches

Charles II of England

"The Merry Monarch"; reopens theatres during his reign, which were shut down under Puritan Oliver Cromwell's reign. Founded the Royal Society of London in 1660. Many illegitimate children. Undergoes the Treaty of Dover secretly with Louis XIV; Harbored Catholic sympathies, angering Parliament; Issued the first Declaration of Indulgence in 1672, suspending all laws against Catholics and non-Anglican protestants. Parliament then asks him to remove this, and passes the Test Act, requiring all political officials to swear an oath against transubstantiation before being allowed to serve the state. Was able to get income for war from Louis XIV, ruling for four years without calling Parliament into session. Left James II a Parliament full of royal friends.

Louis XIV (of France)

"The Sun King" of France, he was the first truly Absolute monarch in Europe. He famously built the palace of Versailles, where he dominated the nobles, rendering them powerless (after dealing with the fronde in his youth left him scarred). He also argued that he was king by divine right and famously stated "L'etat c'est moi". He fought many wars, including the War of Spanish Succession, most of which expanded his territory. He is also known for revoking the Edict of Nantes and persecuting Jansenists

Council of Trent

(1545-1563) a council of three sessions, spread out over eighteen years, with long interruptions due to war, plague and imperial and papal politics. First called by Pope Paul III to reassert church doctrine due to insists by Emperor Charles V and the growing success of the Protestant Reformation. Steps were taken to curtail the selling of church offices and other religious goods. Many bishops who resided in Rome were forced to move to their diocese. Strengthened the authority of local bishops. New rules made that required bishops to preach regularly, be neatly dressed, better educated and active among their parishioiners. However, this council reaffirmed the traditional Scholastic education of the clergy (transubstantiation, good works, etc.)

Italia Irredenta

"Unredeemed Italy". Territories of South Tyrol, Trieste and some of the Dalmatian Islands where Italian speakers inhabited that were left out of the Italian unification. These territories were promised to Italy by the Allies in order for Italy to join their side of the War.

Nicolaus Copernicus

(1473-1543) Polish priest and astronomer with a high reputation but unoriginal and orthodox ideas. Publishes "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres" on the date of his death. Defied church teachings of the location of the Earth to help the papacy reform the calender and correctly calculate the date for Easter. Adopted many elements of the Ptolemic model, but transferred them to a heliocentric model. His version of the universe retained epicycles and was no more accurate than Ptolemy's, but the epicycles in his model were smaller. The retrograde motion of the planets were explained as an optical illusion, as seen from Earth, which was moving itself. Believed the farther the planets were from the Sun, the longer it took to revolve around it.

Sir Thomas More

(1478-1535) Englishman, lawyer, politician, and Chancellor for Henry VIII. Wrote Utopia which presented a revolutionary view of society, in which the problems of society were caused by greed. Executed by Henry VIII for refusing to recognize the Act of Succession, in which all of Anne Boleyn's children were made the legitimate heirs to the English throne, and the Act of Supremacy, in which it declared Henry VIII the supreme head of the English church.

Ulrich Zwingli

(1484-1531) Swiss humanist, priest and disciple of Erasmus. After the Battle of Marignano in Italy in 1515, he became a critic of Swiss mercenary sevice, believing it threatened political sovereignity. By 1518, he became known for opposition against the sale of indulgences. He won people's priest post in Church of Zurich. He believed anything that was not written in Scripture was not to be believed.

Ignatius of Loyola

(1491-1556) Spanish churchman and founder of the Jesuits (1534); this order of Roman Catholic priests proved an effective force for reviving Catholicism during the Catholic Reformation.

Battle of Pavia

(1525) in this battle, the capture of the French King, Francis I, by the forces of Charles V provided a motive for the first wave of Protestant persecutions in France

Marburg Colloquy

(1529) Landgrave Philip of Hesse hoped to unite Swiss and German Protestants in a mutual defense pact by inviting both Zwingly and Luther to his castle in October. His efforts were spoiled by Zwingli and Luther's disagreement on Christ's presence within the Eucharist. Zwingly believed it to be purely a symbolic act--commemorating the last supper and Christ's sacrifice for mankind. Luther, on the other hand, believed there was a spiritual presence in the bread and wine at the time of communion. Both Protestant leaders left the meeting feeling distrust for the other, which splinters and divides the Protestant group into several divisions.

Act of Succession

(1534) document passed by the Reformation Parliament in the same year as the Act of Supremacy that made Anne Boleyn's children legitimate heirs to the English throne

Act of Supremacy

(1534) proclaimed King Henry VIII the supreme leader of the Church of England, which meant that the pope was no longer recognized as having any authority within the country, and all matters of faith, ecclesiastical appointment, and maintenance of ecclesiastical properties were in the hands of the king.

"Institutes of the Christian Religion"

(1536) book written by John Calvin as an introductory textbook on the Protestant faith for those with some learning already and covered a broad range of theological topics from the doctrines of church and sacraments to justification by faith alone and Christian liberty; vigorously attacked the teachings of those Calvin considered unorthodox, particularly Roman Catholicism. Calvin introduces his theory on predestination.

Tycho Brahe

(1546-1601) Danish astronomer; did not follow Copernicus's model. Suggested that Mercury and Venus revolved around the Sun, but that the moon, Sun, and other planets revolved around the earth. Made much more extensive naked-eye observations of the planets than anyone else had ever done.

Henry III

(1551-1589, r. 1574-1589) House of Valois, his reign was suffused with blood, at first because of the continuous Wars of Religion that pitted Catholics against Huguenots, but later because of the struggles that arose when it became clear that he was going to be the last of the Valois line. He sought to steer a middle course and gained support from both neutral Catholics and Protestants. He had the duke and cardinal of Guise assassinated out of desperation, which only angered the Catholic League. He then was forced to ally with the then-Protestant Henry of Navarre. He was assassinated by a crazed friar in 1589 and Henry of Navarre succeeded him as Henry IV.

Peace of Augsburg

(1555) An agreement between Charles V and the princes of Germany. Ended all German religious warfare in 1555. It declared that Lutheranism was a legal, permanent religion along with Catholicism. It also stated that German princes could determine the religion over his subjects. However, Calvinism and Anabaptism was not recognized under this agreement.

"Index of Forbidden Books"

(1559) Written by Pope Paul IV as part of the Counter-Reformation. It forbade Catholics from reading books considered "harmful" to faith and morals. This indicates the significance of the printing press in disseminating Reformation ideas.

Francis Bacon

(1561-1626) English statesman and writer, who believed that by better understanding the world, scientists would generate practical knowledge that would improve people's lives. Father of empiricism and of experimentation in science. Attacked the Scholastic belief the truth had already been discovered, as well as the need for authority in intellectual life. Was on the first major European writers to champion innovation and change.

Massacre at Vassy in Champagne, France

(1562) the duke of Guise massacred a Protestant Congregation which ended the January edict and marked the beginning of the French wars of religion.

Galileo Galilei

(1564-1642) the first to use a telescope to observe the "heavens". Saw things in the heavens none have ever seen before. Later, left his post in the University of Padua for Florence to become the philosopher and mathematician to the Grand Duke of Tuscany, a Medici, and a high profile figure akin to Copernicus. Argued that nature displayed mathematical regularity. His telescopes proved the sun is the center of the solar system and that the planets/moon move. He was persecuted for supporting Copernicus's ideas.

Johannes Kepler

(1571-1630) German astronomer and assistant to Tycho Brahe. Took possession of Brahe's works. Believed Copernicus and his thoughts on the heliocentric model. Influenced by Renaissance Neoplatonism, which held the sun in its honor. Discovered that in order to keep the Sun in its center, epicycles of Copernicus's model had to be abandoned. Created the first astronomical model that portrayed motion with orbits that were elliptical and not circular. Published his findings in "The New Astronomy" in 1609. Used Copernicus's sun-centered model and Brahe's empirical data to solve the problem of planetary movement. Defined a new problem: why none of the available theories could explain why planetary orbits were elliptical or why planetary motion was orbital at all

Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre

(1572) killings on the occasion of Protestant Henry of Navarre's marriage to the king's sister Margeret of Valois, in which many Huguenot leaders attended; Coligny and 3,000 other Huguenots were assassinated. The order was mainly meant to eliminate Coligny, as directed by Catherine de Medicis. Catherine feared Coligny's growing influence over the King, Charles IX, who had agreed to support France's invasion into Netherlands in support of the Dutch Protestants. This would put France directly in line with Spain, who was the more powerful body. In order to keep France away from a losing battle, Catherine sought to assassinate the man in charge of this plan.

William Harvey

(1578-1657) Discovered the circulation of blood and the role of the heart in propelling it. Harvey developed an accurate theory of how the heart and ciculatory system operated. He speculated that humans and animals reproduced through the joining of an egg.

Cardinal Richelieu

(1585-1642) French minister and chief minister of King Louis XIII and later Louis XIV; laid the foundation for Louis XIV's absolutism. Attempted to impose direct royal administration on France. Also circumscribed many of the political privilages Henry IV of France had extended to Huguenots in the Edict of Nantes. Provoked widespread rebellion among French nobels.

Thomas Hobbes

(1588-1679) supported the new scientific movement. Influenced by the English Civil War. Publish "Leviathan", aiming to provide rigorous philosophical justification for a strong political authority. Human beings considered materialistic and mechanical, their motivations egotistical and intended to increase pleasure and reduce pain. Humans exist only to meet the needs of common life, not for high spiritual ends or a larger moral purpose. Only a contract between ruler and the ruled could enable human beings to meet those needs by limiting the free exercise of self-interest. Human beings want power in their natural state, and aren't naturally sociable. Because words are insufficient to guarantee this agreement, force must be used. Rulers should be absolute and unlimited in their power. However, monarchs disagreed about his willingness to assign sovereign authority; republicans would not accept monarchy; and christian writers criticized his refusal to acknowledge god and church as the ultimate power

Rene Descartes

(1596-1650) French philosopher and mathematician. Invented analytical geometry; developed a scientific method that relied more on deduction than experimentation. Published "Discourse on Method" in 1637, in which he stated that all assumptions had to be proven on the basis of known facts, saying that he would doubt everything except those propositions about which he could have clear and distinct ideas; he also rejected scholastic philosophy and advocated thought founded on a mathematical model. Famous for his quote, "I think; therefore, I am." His method of questioning was built upon a strict, orderly logical reasoning.

Blaise Pascal

(1623-1662) A French mathematician who: 1. Allied himself with Jansenists 2. Believe that a loving God exists 3. Saw human beings as corrupt 4. Believed that reason could not resolve all religious issues Surrendered his wealth to pursue a modest, self-disciplined life, and made one of the most influential efforts to reconcile faith and the new science. Aspired to write a work that would refute dogmatism and skepticism. Considered Jesuits' arguments designed to minimize sinful acts a distortion of Christian teaching.

John Locke

(1632-1704) Wrote Two Treatises on Government as justification of Glorious Revolution and end of absolutism in England. Differed with Hobbes in that he regarded humans beings as creatures of reason and basic goodwill in their natural state rather than full of uncontrolled passion and selfishness. Believed that every man has rights to life, liberty, and property. To protect these rights, people enter social contract to create government with limited powers. If a government did not protect these rights or exceeded its authority, Locke believed the people have the right to revolt. His "Essay Concerning Human Understanding" stated that a person's mind at birth is like a blank tablet whose content would be determined by sense experience. Rejected original sin.

Isaac Newton

(1642-1727) Was influenced by Galileo's mathematical bias and also his own view that inertia applied to bodies at rest and in motion. Reasoned that planets and all other physical objects in the universe moved through mutual attraction or gravity. Explained why the planets moved in an orderly, rather than chaotic manner. Demonstrated his findings mathematically, but did not attempt to explain the nature of gravity itself. Believed in empiricism.

Isaac Newton

(1642-1727) discovers the laws of gravitation, and publishes them in his "Principia Mathematica". His theories were influenced both by Galileo's mathematical bias and also his own view that inertia applied to bodies at rest and in motion. Reasoned that the planets and all other physical objects in the universe moved through mutual attraction, better known as gravity. Explained why the planets moved in an orderly, rather than chaotic, manner. Demonstrated his findings mathematically and did not try to explain the nature of gravity itself. A strong believer in empiricism.

Peter the Great

(1672-1725) Czar of Russia. He was responsible for the westernization of Russia in the 18th century. He came to the throne at the age of 10, and co-ruled with his sickly half brother, Ivan V. After the overthrowing of their sister, Sophia, he then ruled personally henceforth, his half-brother dying in 1696. Was inspired by Western European models, a result of his apparently incognito visit into Western Europe. Determined to copy all he had seen on his travels. Built naval war ships alike those he had inspected in the ports of England and the Netherlands.Defeated the Swedes in the Great Northern War, successfully expanding Russian territory. Later moves his capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg.

"Ethics (Demonstrated in the Geometrical Manner)"

(1677) The most famous of Baruch Spinoza's works. His contemporaries condemned him for so closely identifying God and nature, or the spiritual and material worlds, in this text. They thought that he drew God and nature too intimately into a single divine substance, leaving little room for the possibility of a distinctly divine revelation to humankind in scripture. His pantheistic (God is not a distinct personality but that everything in the universe is) position meant human beings might not be personally responsible for their own actions and that there could be no immortality of the human soul after death.

Vienna

(1683) invaded by the Turkish. King John III Sobieski of Poland leads Polish army to rescue this city from seige.

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes

(1685) revoked by Louis XIV. Resulted in the following: 1. Protestant churches were closed 2. Protestant ministers were exiled 3. Protestant children were rebaptized as Catholics 4. Protestants who refused to convert were forced in servitude. Financial incentives were used to persuade the French people to convert to Catholicism.

Francois Quesnay

(1694-1774) French economist. He was the undisputed leader of the Physiocrats, the first systematic school of economic thought. Among its tenets were the economic and moral righteousness of laissez-faire policies and the notion that land was the ultimate source of all wealth. Believed the primary goal of government was to protect private property rights.

Treaty of Carlowitz

(1699) Required the Ottoman Empire to surrender most of Hungary to the Habsburgs, Poland, and Venice; was significant territory lying not at the edges of the empire, but at the heart.

Great Northern War

(1700-1721) Broke out as Peter attacked Sweden (with assistance from Poland and Denmark) in his quest to establish a Russian trading port on the Baltic during the reign of Charles XII on the Swedish throne. After being defeated at the Battle of Narva in 1700, Peter re-organized his army on the western model and eventually gained Estonia, Livonia, and Karella on the Baltic. Charles XII troops are defeated in the Battle of Poltava, and the war ends with the Peace of Nystad in 1721. Sweden becomes a second-rate power after the war.

Table of Ranks

(1722) an official hierarchy established by Peter the Great in imperial Russia that equated a person's social position and privileges with his rank in the state bureaucracy or army, rather than on his lineage among the traditional nobility; was created with the intention of drawing the nobility into state service.

Edward Gibbon

(1737 - 1794) Author of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, published in 1776, one of the first modern histories that attempted to explain the past as a guide to the future. He blamed Christianity for contributing to the Roman Empire's fall. Also wrote with respect of Muhammed's leaderships and Islam's success in conquering such vast territories with its first century of becoming a nation.

"Spirit of the Laws"

(1748), written by Montesquieu. He knew that no set of laws could be applied to all set of circumstances, but believed in a monarchial government limited by various intermediary institutions, as well as divisions of power being ideal in government. He wrote on Islamic society in its lack of people subject to political despotism. Also saw British constitution as the wisest model for regulating the power of government. Stated that the best form of government for a nation varied depending on the nation's size, population, social and religious customs. Also advocates the separation of governmental powers, complete with checks and balances.

"A Vindication of the Rights of Woman"

(1792), Mary Wollstonecraft brought Rousseau before the judgement of the rational Enlightenment ideal of progressive knowledge; the incentive for her essay was opposition to certain policies of the French Revolution that were unfavorable to women, inspired somewhat greatly by Rousseau. Argues that the superiority of men was as arbitrary as the divine right of kings, and that women have the same rights to be reasonable creatures as men, especially in the terms of equal education. Men and women are considered equal, on the grounds that they share the same capacity of human reason.

Encyclopedia

(1751-1772) the assembly of the piece was oversaw by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert. The first volume appeared in 1751. The end project, completed in 1772, had 17 volumes of text and 11 plates (illustrations). It illustrated a determination to improve life on Earth rather than in the religious realm. It was a collective plea for the freedom of expression. It included the most advanced ideas of the time on religion, government, and philosophy. To avoid being censored, these ideas were hidden in obscure articles or under irony. It ignored divine law and concentrated rather on humanity, rationalism, and reason. The future of humanity lay not in pleasing God but in harnessing the power and resources of the earth and living in peace with fellow humans. Succeeded in spreading Enlightenment ideas fully over the continent, and into German and Russian circles.

Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Perigord

(1754-1838) Bonaparte's foreign minister who objected to the excecution of the Bourbon duke of Enghien in 1804, in which he declared the act "worse than a crime--a blunder" because it provoked foreign opposition

Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Perigord

(1754-1838) Bonaparte's foreign minister who objected to the excecution of the Bourbon duke of Enghien in 1804. Represented for France at the Conference of Vienna. Suggested that if France allies with Britain and Austria against Tsar Alexander I, who wanted Poland, perhaps the Tsar would be more rational. Leads to France becoming a permanent ally, and a fifth great power.

Candide

(1759) novel written by Voltaire in response to the questioning of other writers against the pessimism present in his poem regarding the deadly earthquake of Lisbon in 1755. It was a satire attacking war, religious persecution, and what he considered unwarranted optimism.

"History of the Russian Empire Under Peter the Great"

(1759), written by Voltaire, a strong monarchist, who said in this: "Peter was born, and Russia was formed." Voltaire states that he does not wish to limit the power of the monarch, but instead, to use that power to rationalize economic and political structures, and liberate intellectual life.

Emile

(1762) Rosseau sets forth a view that men and women should occupy separate spheres. Declared that women should be educated on inferior roles to men, such as childbearing/rearing. Little else for women to do but make themselves pleasing to men. Portrayed women as weaker and inferior to men except for their capacity for feeling and giving love. Excluded them from political life. Women relegated to the domestic sphere. Despite all this, he portrayed the domestic life and role of a wife/mother as a noble and fulfilling vocation, giving women a sense of purpose.

"Social Contract"

(1762) Rosseau's most extensive discussion of politics. Based on the general will. General will represents common interests of all people, is sacred and is absolute. It may not necessarily represent the majority, but it is what is best for the people.

Emile/On Education

(1762) Rousseau stresses the difference between children and adults. Urged that children be raised with individual freedom, to learn by trial and error. Adults should allow the sentiments of a child, and their reason, to flourish. This form of education would lead to a natural society. Lead Romantics to value the uniqueness of each individual and explore childhood.

"On Crimes and Punishments"

(1764) written by Marquis Cesare Beccaria, it explored the problem of making punishments both effective and just—laws and punishments would not violate the natural rights of individuals. The laws of monarchs and legislatures should conform with the rational laws of nature. Beccaria attacks torture and capital punishment. Also thought the criminal justice system should ensure a speedy trial, and that the intent of the punishment given should be to prevent further crime. The purpose of laws is not to impose the will of God, but to secure happiness for the greatest number of humans.

Napoleon Bonaparte

(1769-1821) French general who became emperor of the French. Overthrew French Directory in the coup d'etat of 1799. Issued the Constitution of the Year VIII, which, even with its democratic cover, system of checks and balances, and three established consuls in which executive authority was to be divided, granted Napoleon dominant power as the First Consul. Established a concordat with the church as well as the Napoleonic Code. Became emperor of the French in 1804. Lead a series of military victories against the various coalitions. Failed to defeat Great Britain and was abdicated in 1814. Returned to power briefly in 1815 but was defeated and died in exile.

Pugachev's Rebellion

(1773-1775) The principal revolt in a series of popular rebellions that took place in Russia after Catherine II seized power in 1762. It began as an organized insurrection of Yaik Cossacks headed by Yemelyan Pugachev, a disaffected ex-lieutenant of the Russian Imperial army, against a background of profound peasant unrest and war with the Ottoman Empire. After the initial success, Pugachev assumed leadership of an alternative government in the name of the assassinated Tsar Peter III and proclaimed an end to serfdom. This organized leadership presented a challenge to the imperial administration of Catherine II. He led a huge serf uprising-demanding an end to serfdom, taxes and army service; landlords and officials were murdered all over southwestern Russia. Eventually, he and others were captured and executed. It was the largest peasant revolt in Russian history. Catherine, never fully recovering from the upheavals the revolt caused, censored books based on Enlightenment thought and sent offensive authors into Siberian exile to ensure others revolts would cease to happen. As punishment, she gives the landlords more control over their serfs.

"Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations"

(1776), the most important economic work of the Enlightenment by Adam Smith; challenged assumption that earth's resources are limited so one nation can acquire wealth only at the expense of others; saw natural resources as boundless, saying nations need not be poor. Embraced the laissez-faire, favoring a limited role for the government in economic affairs. Embraces the four-stage theory, in which societies are classified into four different stages based on level of development.

Chapelier Law

(1791) Law enacted by the Assembly that forbade workers' association. Left peasants and workers to the freedom of the marketplace. The Assembly considered workers' organizations similar to guilds, a feature of the Old Regime, and thus in opposition with the new revolution.

September Massacres

(1792) Paris Commune killed about 1200 people from the city jails because they were assumed to be counterrevolutionaries. Some were aristocrats/clergy, but most were common criminals.

Napoleon III

(President of 2nd Republic, Emperor of Second Empire, Ousted in Franco-Prussian War) As president of the Second Republic, he used liberal and nationalistic forces to bolster his power. He became popular by supporting universal male suffrage, and was voted emperor of France in 1852. He took great interest in public opinion. He improved the economy and reconstructed Paris. The Franco-Prussian war resulted in Napoleon's capture and the collapse of the Second French Empire.

The Sejm

(aka, the diet) the central legislative body of Poland, made up of nobles; excluded representatives from corporate bodies, such as towns. Practiced liberum veto.

Benjamin Disraeli

(conservative Prime Minister) Conservative leader in Parliament who unwittingly carried through with the liberal plan for more reform by passing the Reform act of 1867, giving the vote to some of the lower class (he knew the liberals wouldn't dare oppose it). He believed that the uneducated classes would look up to their social superiors when they voted. His plan backfired (in the short run) as the lower classes supported the liberals. Kagan (correctly) notes that in the looong run he was correct about the working class.- Disraeli's Conservatives embraced economic reform based on a paternalistic desire to protect the weak and reduce the dangers of a socialist revolution.- Reforms centered on sanitation, health ,physical wellbeing (even if it tramples private property), Housing, and recognizing the rights of workers' unions.

King Henry VIII

(r. 1509-1547) King of England, unhappily married to Catherine of Aragon. He yearned for a son to inherit the throne, that of which his wife could not provide. Broke off with the Roman Church in order to annul his marriage to his wife and later married Anne Boleyn. Created the Anglican Church, the Church of England.

Charles Louis de Secondat (Baron de Montesquieu)

A French noble of the robe, lawyer, and philosophe; a member of parlement and the Bordeaux Academy of Science. Saw the need for reform. In his satires, such as in "The Persian Letters", he criticized European life. Just as with Voltaire, he visited England and was impressed with its society and freedom. His most influential work was "Spirit of Laws". He favored a monarchical government for France that was limited by lesser institutions, such as the aristocracy, etc. Was a political conservative who believed that the oppressive absolutism of France accounted for the degradation of French life. In this, he favored a revival of the aristocracy. Was the first to suggest a division of powers being beneficial to the efficiency of government, in which he somewhat wrongly used Britain as an example. Believed that women were not naturally inferior to men and should have a wider role in society. He showed he was aware of the repression women faced in society. Regardless, he still retained the traditional view of male dominance in the home. Supported women's right of divorce, but favored chastity.

Baruch Spinoza

A Jewish writer who entered the debate over religion and the place of Jews in European life. He looked to the power of human reason to reconceptualize traditional thought, and to secularize the Jewish religion. He described the origins of religion in thoroughly naturalistic terms. His rational and historical criticism of biblical texts caused others to believe he wanted to lead people away from religion. He also attacks religious institutions. His controversial "Ethics (Demonstrated in the Geometrical Manner)" formulated that *God had no existence apart from the world, that everything was itself an aspect of God.* As a result, many thought he was an atheist; he was later excommunicated by his own synagogue.

"The Book of Common Prayer"

A book of prayers for the Anglican Church written by Thomas Cranmer. Imposed upon the churches by the Act of Uniformity

"Leviathan"

A book written by Thomas Hobbes, here he argued for strong central political authority in order to present a power hungry human with a master that would control him/her

General Will

A concept by Jean-Jacques Rosseau. In his mind, it was the will of the majority of a population, versus individual will

Edmund Burke

A conservative leader who was deeply troubled by the aroused spirit of reform. In 1790, he published "Reforms on the Revolution in France", one of the greatest intellectual defenses of European conservatism. He defended inherited privileges in general, specifically those of the English monarchy and aristocracy. Condemned the revolution. Glorified unrepresentative Parliament and predicted the French Revolution would lead to much chaos/tyranny.

Young Plan

A continuation of the Dawes plan, it lowered German reparations to 26 billion and limited how long they had to be paid (58.5 years). After the crash of the Vienna bank, Germany can't even pay reparations that are made under this plan.

Jean Jacques Rosseau

A cynical French philosophe who thought the process of civilization and Enlightenment corrupted human nature. Blamed the evil in the world on the uneven distribution of property. Questioned a society where commerce was the most important activity. Wrote "The Social Contract". Suggested that society is more important than its individual members. Envisioned a society in which each could maintain personal freedom while still behaving as a loyal member of a larger community. Defined freedom as obedience to the law. Believed that general will is always right and to be obey it is to be free. In this, he favored democracy. Attacked the 18th century cult of individualism and the fruits of selfishness. Preferred deism as a national religion. Despite his orthodox views on the role of women in society, he achieved vast followers among women, and even persuaded 18th century noblewomen to breastfeed their own children. Portrayed the domestic life of a wife/mother as a fullfilling/noble vocation that gave women a sense of purpose in their daily occupations.

Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen

A decree granting basic rights to French citizens that was written in August 1789 before the French Revolution (1789-1799) as a preamble to France's constitution. This French document established the popular sovereignty, meaning that the king derived his authority from the people of the nation rather than from divine right or tradition. It proclaimed that "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights" and granted: - freedom of religion - freedom of press -equality in taxation -equality of all citizens before the law. All citizens would hold office by either virtue or talent. The innocent would remain as so until proven otherwise.

John Locke

A major intellectual forerunner of the Enlightenment; formulated the concept of the tabula rasa in his "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" (1690). His concept implied that the human condition could be changed and improved. Also rejected Christian doctrine that said sin permanently flawed human beings. Implied that human beings need not wait for the grace of God to improve their lives. Also believed that while states should tolerate different religious communities, each should retain the right of excommunication over its members, differing with Moses Mendelsohn.

Marburg Colloquy

A meeting between Zwingli and Luther, ended in a permanent division between their churches, starting with a conflict over the analysis of the Eucharist

Great Fear

A movement that swept the French countryside while the urban disturbances of the revolution occurred. It saw the burning of legal documents and the refusal to pay federal dues. The peasants took control of the food supplies and land that they considered rightfully theirs. Thus, all people in France slowly became equal in the eyes of the law

"Common Sense"

A pamphlet written by Thomas Paine, this helped garner public support for American separation from Great Britain

Long Parliament

A parliament session that lasted twenty years, made a great series of changes and laws as well as raising an army to fight against Charles I

Declaration of Pillnitz

Afraid that other countries would follow France's lead and begin revolutions, Emperor Leopold II of Austria and King Frederick William II of Prussia issued this declaration in August 27, 1791, inviting other European monarchs to intervene on behalf of Louis XVI if his monarchy was threatened. This declaration was meaningless, for Britain would not consent, but it created a large impact in France.

Alexis de Tocqueville

After reading Gobineau's book, wrote him a letter in which he criticized racial determination of human actions. Also points out that the idea would be dangerous if it influenced the political life of nations with mass electorates.

Paris Commune (1871)

After the Franco-Prussian war, Parisians elected this new municipal government that would administer Paris separate from the rest of France. Was dominated by "petty bourgeois members" that did not want a worker's state, but a nation of relatively independent, radically democratic enclaves. Had its roots in anarchism. Its later suppression by the National Assembly represented not only the protection of property, but also the triumph of a centralized nation-state.

Era of Reform

All of the following were achieved during the Prussian _____________ (1806 - 1821): 1. improvements in the Prussian military 2. Abolition of serfdom 3. End of the Junker monopoly on landholding 4. Reform of the state bureaucracy

Joseph Stalin

All of the following were factors in the success of __________'s industrialization drive: 1. sharp decrease in domestic consumption 2. extensive labor discipline (meaning no labor unions) 3. use of foreign exports

Europe

All of the following were major developments in _________ between 1860 and 1914: 1. socialism became a major political force 2. increasing numbers of white-collar workers appeared 3. the labor force became organized into unions 4. urban life came to dominate society

Putting-out system

All of the following were shortcoming's of the _________: 1. bottlenecks in the production process 2. quality control 3. labor relations

D-day (June 6, 1944)

Allied forces of America, Britain and Canada launch an amphibious (from sea to land) assault on the Normandy coast of France. France is then liberated from German control after this.

Enabling Act (1933)

Allowed Hitler to rule by decree, making him the sole ruler of Germany. Thereafter, Hitler's power had no legal limits. This along with the February decree after the Reichstag fire made the Weimar constitution no longer valid.

Giuseppe Garibaldi (Italy)

Along with Mazzini, led insurrections in Italy throughout the 1830s and 1840s. In 1849, they proclaimed the short lived Roman Republic that soon fell to French forced within six months. Was a revolutionary whose chief goal was to unite Italy. After the Austro-Prussian War, led campaign along with 1000 men where he was able to capture Palermo and Naples. Was planning on transforming Italy into a republic, but Cavour stops him before this can happen.

Civil Code of 1804

Also known as the Napoleonic Code. Napoleon's bargain with the middle class that reasserted equality of all male citizens before the law and absolute security of wealth and private property. Forbid privileges based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, and specified that government jobs were only to go to people that were qualified and trained. Conservative attitude toward women remain. Workers' organizations stay banned. Fathers are the dominant figure in a household. Property to be distributed among all children.

Anti-Semitism-Hatred of Jews

Although Anti-Semitism is most associated with the far-right, it could be found all over the left/right spectrum.- Germany: it as aided by the combination of nationalism and racism, many thought that inferior races, especially the Jews, were parasites on the pure Aryan race (German, "creators of Western culture").- France: The Dreyfus Affair was an example of Anti-semitism and the breakdown of the 3rd Republic.- Vienna: German nationalism blamed Jews for the corruption of German culture. was said by Hitler to be where he "found his worldview", one of violent German nationalism and rabid anti-Semitism. - Eastern Europe: Worst examples of Anti-Semitism, where 72% of the world Jewish population lived.

Adolph Hitler

Became chancellor of Germany under legal means. Was supported strongly by farmers, war veterans, and the young. Once in power, moved to consolidate his control by capturing full legal authority, crushing alternative political groups, and purging any rivals within the Nazi Party. After Hindenburg died, was able to combine the offices of chancellor and president, making himself the sole ruler of Germany.

Wladyslaw Gomulka

Became prime minister of Poland after the peaceful 1956 revolt in Poland against Soviet control over who would be the next prime minister of Poland. Was significant because the Polish people chose him; however, he was also acceptable to the Soviets because he promised continued economic and military cooperation, and because he continued Polish membership in the Warsaw pact. Due to this, he was able to halt collectivization of Polish agriculture and improve relations with the Polish Roman Catholic Church.

Boris Yeltsin

Became the dominant political figure in Russia after the 1991 Coup against Gorbachev. Wanted much more extensive and rapid change than what Gorbachev was trying to make happen. Became president after Gorbachev resigned. Faced resistance from Russian parliament, who wanted to dispose of him, but was backed up by the military, who was able to crush the opposition. Also faced economic troubles, due to the exchange of state-run industry to private business that gave way to extreme corruption.

Social Democrats

Becomes a major socialist groups in many countries during this period. - Germany: industrialization led to a greater expansion for them. By 1912, it became the largest single party in the Reichstag. At the same time it became less revolutionary and more revisionist in its outlook. - Russia: repression of socialism forced it to go underground and become revolutionary; the Marxist

Green Party (Germany)

Began as a movement of radical student groups in Western Germany. Developed into a political party concerned with the environment. Anticapitalist, blamed business and pollution. Avoided violence and mass demonstrations.

Eastern Front

Began with Russia invading Austrian lands and inflicting heavy casualties on the Austro-Hungarian army, but the Central Powers begin to move in against Russia and Russian Poland, killing two million in one year. Turkey and Bulgaria join Central Powers. Japanese enters the war and overrun German Colonies in the Pacific and in China. Italy joins the allies.

Great War

Began with the assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalist. Germany supports Austrian war on Serbia. France and Britain enter war against Germany. Russia enters war against Germany to protect its fellow Slav country, Serbia. Was a war with numerous casualties, yet with little land gained.

Count Claude Henri de Saint-Simon

Believed that modern society would require rational management, basically wanted a board of directors for the economy. Private wealth, property and enterprise would be subject to an administration other than that of its owners. Ideal government consists of a board of directors to manage the activity of individuals to ensure social harmony. Father of technocracy. Management of wealth by experts would help to subside poverty. His societies became known for advocating sexuality outside of marriage.

Physiocrats

Believed the existing legislation was preventing the operation of the natural social laws. Believed mercantilism and the regulation of labor by governments hampered the expansion of trade, manufacture and agriculture. Were very prominent in France. Believed the primary role of the government was to protect property and to permit its owners to use it freely. Argued that agriculture was the basis of what all economic production depended, and therefore, small peasant landholdings should be developed into larger farms. The leading spokespeople of this group were Francois Quesnay and Pierre Dupont de Nemours.

Revisionism

Bernstein's doctrines that counteracted Orthodox Marxist expectations. Believed social success could be achieved gradually through political institutions, such as Parliament, instead of through revolution with the new extension of franchise to workers. Critics criticized this method, claiming that in liberal Britain, something like this would work, but not in Germany.

Mary Wollstonecraft

Best known for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men, but appear to be only because they lack education. She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a social order founded on reason.

50, 3

Between 1846 - 1932, more than ____ million Europeans left their homelands. In approximately the same time period, __ million Asians (Chinese, Japanese, Indians and Filipinos) moved abroad.

500,000

Between 1945 and 1960, approximately ___________ Europeans left Europe annually.

b

Bishop Bossuet was an ardent supporter of a. constitutional monarchy b. the divine right of kings c. the idea of the social contrast d. radical democracy e. republicanism

"Blood & Iron"

Bismarck's method for unifying Germany. His method of hardball politics and war was successful and was very different from the failed liberal attempts back in 1848. Germany would be created from above by an authoritarian regime, not a bunch of egg-head intellectuals taking to the streets. "Germany does not look to Prussia's liberalism but to her power... Not by speeches and majorities will the great questions of the day be decided - that was the mistake of 1848-49 - but by iron and blood.".

Austro-Prussian War

Bismark gains Italian and Russian support, as well as the promise of French neutrality before this war. Had begun over tensions over the administration of the provinces of Schlewsig and Holstein. Bismark makes administration of Holstein extremely difficult for the Austrians, so much so that they appeal to the German Confederation. Leads to war between Austria and Prussia. Austria is defeated, and by the Treaty of Prague, is now excluded from all German affairs.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

Brilliant Minister of Louis XIV's, his economic policies left France with the money to raise and maintain a powerful army

William Wilberforce

British statesman and reformer; leader of abolitionist movement of the Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade in English parliament that led to end of English slave trade in 1807. In 1823, began to call for the emancipation of slaves.

conservative

By 1875, many of the liberal issues and proposals that led to the revolutions of 1848 had been adopted by ____________ leaders in control of European governments.

importing

By 1900, Europeans were ______________ all of the following: 1. wool from Australia 2. beef from Argentina 3. nitrates from Chile 4. sugar from the West Indies

Nazi Party (National Socialist German Workers' Party)

By July 14, 1933, the _______________ was the only legal party in Germany.

Czechoslovakia

By March 1939, ______________ is occupied by Germany.

Great Depression

Causes of the ________________: 1. financial panic in the US 2. absence of world financial leadership 3. reduction of national spending 4. decline in world agricultural prices

Crimean War, Austria, transformismo

Cavour used the __________ to gain favor with Napoleon III. Later, France would help push _________ out of Italy. After Cavour died, Italy gradually sank into corruption under a system called "________________".

Gaspard de Coligny

Charles IX's most trusted advisor, he was made the admiral of the Montmorency-Chatillons and became a political leader of the French Protestants. Took command once Conde was dead. He was later killed in the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre.

De-Christianization

Convention creates a new calendar starting from the year 1 and consisted of a holiday every 10 days. Churches were closed and clergy members were persecuted, and sometimes forced to marry, or were killed. The Cathedral of Notre Dame becomes the Temple of Reason.

Netherlands

Country that was originally under Spanish rule, revolted against the country before dividing into two sections, Southern Belgium and Northern Netherlands

Irish Free State

Created after the treaty that ended the War between the British army and the Irish nationalists. Provided dominion status. The six countries were known as Ulster, aka Northern Ireland, and were allowed to remain a part of the UK.

Common Market (European Economic Community) (EEC) (1957-1993)

Created from the six members of the Coal and Steel Community who signed the Treaty of Rome. Sought to achieve the eventual elimination of tariffs, a free flow of capital and labor, and similar wage and social benefits in all their countries. Was very successful (tariffs abolished; trade and labor migration grew), to point where other countries sought to join or copy its policies. Was a reaction against the influence of the US and USSR.

The German Empire (1871-1918)

Created in 1871 by the maneuvering of Bismarck. Although it possessed the appearance of liberal institutions (parliament, Constitution, etc) it possessed none of the substance of liberalism. It was a government dominated by the conservative Military, Junkers, and Monarchy.

Commonwealth of Independent States (1991)

Created in December 1991 from the break up of the Soviet Union into its 15 constituent republics. 11 of these joined this.

Restoration

Disturbances and revolutions between 1830 in Belgium, France, Germany, and Italy indicated by liberal and nationalist dissatisfaction with the _____________ political order.

perpetual edict

Don John of the Spanish forces had to sign this when the Union of Brussels defeated his forces. It provided for the full removal of Spanish troops from Dutch soil.

gender

During the 19th century, the domestic division of labor into specific __________ patterns was common to all classes: working class, middle class, and upper class.

Maria Theresa (of Austria)

During the War of the Austrian Succession, she guaranteed the aristocracy greater independence to gain their loyalty. After the battle, she tried to strengthen the power of the crown outside of Hungary, building more of a bureaucracy. Imposed an efficient system of tax collection, and extracted funds from even nobles and clergy. Established central councils to deal with governmental problems. Sought to bring all educational institutions into the service of the crown, and expanded the primary education of the locals. Expanded the authority of the royal bureaucracy of the local nobility, and limited the robot, or amount of labor the landlords could demand from their serfs. Did this to ensure a good pool of people to select into the military. Was a Catholic who opposed religious toleration.

Romanov Dynasty

Dynasty that arose in 1613 at end of the Time of Troubles; ruled Russia until 1917. Began with the reign of Michael Romanov, who was elected by an assembly of nobles. Brought stability and modest bureaucratic centralization to Russia.

Berlin Wall (1961-89)

Eastern Communist Germany constructed this to prevent its inhabitants from crossing into non-communist West Berlin, which was successful. The outflow of people has embarrassed East Germany, hurt its economy, and demonstrated the Soviets' inability to control Eastern Europe.

Ems Dispatch

Famous telegram that Bismarck used to goad the French into declaring war on Prussia. Thus France was technically the aggressor. Bismarck edited this telegram to make it appear that the Prussian king had insulted the French minister and then he released it to the French press. Nationalism in France went into hyper-mode.

Benito Mussolini

Fascist dictator of Italy. Tried to strengthen economy by undertaking public works, introducing tariffs, subsidizing the shipping industry, and expanding wheat farming in Italy, but could not keep Depression away.

National Government (Great Britain)

Formed by Ramsay MacDonald. Consisted of Labour, Conservative, and Liberal ministers. In order to attack the depression, raised taxes, cut insurance benefits of the unemployed and elderly, and lowered government salaries. Also took Britain off the gold standard, and had Parliament pass the Import Duties Bill. All of these policies allowed Britain to avoid the banking crisis that hit other countries, and Britain became the first nation to restore the level of production of 1929.

Convention

Formed by the Legislative Assembly under the persuasion from the Paris Commune for the purpose of writing a democratic constitution. Its first act was to declare France a republic. After Louis XVI's death, it declares war on the Britain, Holland, and Spain. Finally approved of a democratic constitution, but it never was acted out. Advocated de-Christianization during the Reign of Terror.

Dual Monarchy (Austria-Hungary)

Formed under the Ausgleich or Compromise of 1867. Happened after the Austro-Prussian war, when Austria was defeated and excluded from German affairs. Joins Hungary in a monarchy. Except for a common monarchy, army, and foreign relations, essentially were two separates states with different ministers and parliaments.

Jesuits

Founded by Ignatius de Loyola (1534), they were a religious order that spread Catholicism during the Counter-Reformation. Taught that good Catholics should deny themselves without question to higher church authority and spiritual direction. Perfect discipline and self-control were essential condition of such obedience, they believed.

b

Francis Bacon believed that: a. the study of nature began with the articulation of general principles. b. knowledge of nature should be used to improve the human condition. c. knowledge of nature was primarily useful for what it told us about the divine. d. the best era of human history lay in antiquity e. humans could learn very little from sense information

Voltaire (Francois-Marie Arouet)

French Philosophe (1694-1778) who more than others epitomized the enlightenment. His prolific writings championed individual freedom and attacked any institution sponsoring intolerant or oppressive policies. He viciously attacked the French monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church. His battle cry against the Church, which he held responsible for fanaticism, intolerance and incalculable human suffering, was "Ecrasez l'infame", "Crush the infamous thing!" After being exiled from France, he escaped to England. There, he became impressed by the English will of freedom, as well as its prosperity in the areas of science and economics. His notable texts include "Candide" and "Letters on the English". His "Elements of the Philosophy Newton" further popularized the Newtonian thought.

Emigres

French nobles who fled from France during the peasant uprisings to nearby countries. They were very conservative and hoped to restore the king to power.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

French philosophe who emphasized the ideals of general will, equality, popular sovereignty and civic virtue. Impacted the ideas of the Jacobins.

Jean Paul Sartre

French philosopher and existentialist that continued to believe in the Soviet Union during and after WWII.

Parlements

French regional courts dominated by hereditary nobility. Louis XIV had curtailed their power. Louis XV's reign saw the reinstitution of the Parlement of Paris's right to allow or disallow taxes. Were a judicial body.

Georges Danton

French revolutionary leader who had served briefly on the Committee of Public safety before Robespierre joined. Stormed the Paris Bastille and supported the execution of Louis XVI, but was guillotined by Robespierre for his opposition to the Reign of Terror (1759-1794)

Madame de Stael

French romantic writer, also daughter of Jacques Necker, Louis XVI's finance minister. Helped bring the Romantic Movement to France.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

From the territory that Russia had given Germany with the _____________, the new nations of Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania were created. Poland is recreated with some land Germany had acquired from this treaty as well.

German Social Democratic Party

German party that worked to pass laws for improving conditons of the working class. Participated in the Reichstag. Bismark attempted to suppress this group. The repression backfired, seeming to bring more votes to this party. Were hostile in some sense to nonsocialist organizations, but regardless, functioned within German Empire's institutions by refusing to enter cabinet and not voting in favor of military budget. Worked for electoral gains, expansion of its membership, and short-term political and social reform.

Alexander I (Russia)

Gained his throne through a coup d'etat with his father. At first, had embraced the ideals of the Enlightenment; later, realizing its dangers, worked to suppress liberalism and nationalism in Russia. Had suggested that the members of the Quadruple Alliance uphold the borders and the existing governments of all the European countries, to which P.M. Castlereagh of Britain refuses. Had no heir when he died, but had worked to make his younger brother Nicholas the tsar after his death through a series of secret instructions.

Nazi Party (National Socialist German Workers' Party)

Gained power due to the circumstances of the financial crisis, economic stress, and social anxiety of the German depression. Was soon the only legal party when Hitler rose to power. Their population policy was one of selective breeding; wanted pure, healthy Germans. Vowed to protect working women, but wanted them to work in more feminine professions, such as teaching or nursing. Wanted women to be the protectors of German culture and to pass it on to the young.Their economic policies supported private property and private capitalism. By suppressing freedom in economics, they were able to deal with unemployment and the Great Depression successfully.

e

Galileo believed that all aspects of nature could be described in terms of: a. virtues and vices. b. divine harmonies. c. celestial ratios. d. logical hierarchies. e. mathematical relationships.

Sicily and southern Italy

Garibaldi led the campaign for control of:

Red Shirts

Garibaldi's nationalist volunteers

Oliver Cromwell

General of the Roundhead forces during the English Civil War, he later became the head of the Puritan Military Dictatorship. He brutally conquered Scotland and Ireland and ruled as Lord Protector without Parliament

Napoleon Bonaparte

General, First Consul, and First Emperor of France, he overthrew the Directory after returning from a conquest in Egypt. After conquering most of Europe, he invaded Russia, lost much of his army, and then lost the critical Battle of Nations, after which he was forced to abdicate his throne and was exiled to Elba. Then he returned during the hundred days before being defeated once more at the Battle of Waterloo, after which he was once more exiled.

Weimar Republic (1919-1933)

German republic founded after the WWI and the downfall of the German Empire's monarchy. Was created from the defeat of the imperial army, the revolution against the Hohenzollerns, and the hopes of German Liberals and Social Democrats. Had accepted the provisions of the Versailles treaty; as a result, came to be associated with national disgrace. Its constitution did not receive loyalty from Germans, and permitted a temporary presidential dictatorship in an emergency, as well as allowed small extremist groups to get more power than they would have otherwise. Lacked support and coup attempts occur. Violence marked the first five years of this republic. Also suffered from inflation after the invasion of the Ruhr by the French.

Karl Marx

German socialist of the mid-19th century who saw history as defined by class struggle between groups out of power and those controlling the means of production. He preached necessity of social revolution to create a proletarian dictatorship. Equated the fate of the proletariat to that of humanity. Liberation from capitalism would mean the liberation of humanity.

Battle of the Masurian Lakes (1914)

German victory that forced Russians to retreat from German territory

Rome-Berlin Axis Pact (1936)

Germany and Italy form this pact after the Spanish Civil War.

Western Front

Germany vs. France and Britain. France offensive fails because they miscalculated Germany's military strength. British and French manage to stop German advancement at the Battle of the Marne. Thereafter, war on this side became one of position instead of movement. Included usage of trenches, machine gun nests, and poison gas. Costed thousands of lives with advances of only hundreds of yards. After three years, moved only a few miles in either direction.

Schlieffen Plan

Germany's military plan at the outbreak of World War I, according to which Germany troops would rapidly defeat France and then attack Russia in the east. Made the left wing weak and right wing stronger to have the French attack the wrong place. Purpose was to avoid a two-front war against Germany. Germany violated Belgium's declaration of neutrality and the Belgians resisted as the German army crossed Belgium to invade France from the north. In response to Germany's violation of Belgium's neutrality, Great Britain declared war on Germany. Plan failed narrowly.

Munich Agreement (Conference) (September 29, 1938)

Germany, Italy, France, and Britain meet here. The nations appease Germany and Hitler gets almost everything he asked for, including Sudetenland. Russia was left out of this and was resentful about it.

a

Gladstone's ministry of 1868 to 1874 witnessed the: a. culmination of classical British liberalism b. introduction of socialism into British national policy c. complete collapse of liberalism d. high point of British conservatism e. high point of British-Irish relations

liberals

Goals of 19th-century ________ include: 1. removal of international tariffs and internal barriers to trade 2. opposition to legislation that established wages and labor practices by government regulation or guild privileges 3. an economic structure where people could use their talents and property to enrich themselves 4. reform of agricultural policies and techniques

Social Democrats

Governed alongside center parties as a coalition government after the depression destroyed the parliamentary government in Germany. Had refused to reduce social and unemployment insurance during the depression. The coalition later dissolved. Were one of the targets of harassment of the SA.

Third Republic 1870

Government for France imposed by Bismarck after the disastrous defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. -after the monarchist ruled government crushed the Commune, they couldn't decide who to make monarch, thus splitting the monarchist majority and allowing the republican minority to take control once again. The Third Republic was characterized by massive social division between the left and right. It makes modern America seem positively civil.

Louis XIV of France

He ruled through absolutism and believed in the divine right of kings. Nicknamed the "Sun King"; he reigned from 1643-1715, the longest in European history. His goal was to make the monarchy the most important political institution in France while assuring nobles and other landholders of their social standing and influence on the local level. Ruled through councils. His absolutism functioned primarily in the classic areas of European state action--the making of war and peace, the regulation of religion, and the oversight of economic activity. Believed in the image of a monarch, and worked to achieve superiority over other nobles. Revoked the Edict of Nantes in October of 1685.

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor and Charles I of Spain, he had inherited Spain, the Netherlands, Southern Italy, Austria, and much of the Holy Roman Empire from his grandparents. Wanting to keep Europe religiously united, he sought to stop Protestantism and increase the power of Catholicism. He allied with the pope to stamp out heresy and maintain religous unity in Europe. However, he was preocuppied with struggles with Turkey and France and could not stay solely focus on the rise of Protestantism in Germany.

Unconditional surrender

Idea that enemy nations (Germany and Japan) would have to accept whatever peace terms the Allies dictated.

Poland's partition

In a conflict between Russia and Austria, both of whom want the Danubian territories, Russia agrees to relinquish its conquered lands along the Danube River with this agreement. Frederick II of Prussia makes a proposal to Russia and Austria that resulted in this: 1. Russia agrees to abandon the Danubian lands. As compensation, a receives large portion of Polish territory with approximately 2 million people. 2. Austria takes Galica with its salt mines, and other territory; approx 2.5 million inhabitants. 3. As a reward for remaining neutral, Prussia receives the land east of Prussia and Prussia proper, enabling Frederick to combine his two separate territories. All of this diminished about a third of Poland's territory, and prevented it from being a great power.

Domestic service

In reference to textile production, agents of urban textile merchants took wool or other unfinished fibers to peasants, who spun it into thread. The agent then took thread to other peasants, who spun it into the finished product. AKA, the putting-out system

Submarine Warfare

In response to British blockade at sea which was meant to starve out Germany, Germany begins to sink neutral non-war ships along the British Isles using this tactic, declaring this area a "war zone". After the sinking of the British liner, Lusitania, President Wilson of the US warns Germany to stop sinking neutral ships, which it does, but only temporarily. Eventually provokes the US to declare war on Germany.

d

In response to Italy's invasion of Ethiopia, the League of Nations: a. imposed crippling sanctions b. sent troops into the region c. did nothing d. imposed weak sanctions that exempted oil from the embargo e. forced Italy to pay reparations to Ethiopian refugees.

did very little

In response to Japan's invasion of Manchuria, the League of Nations _____________.

Irish Problem

In the 19th century, it was a desire by the Irish to be free of British control.

Italy

In the 19th century, two out of three migrants to Argentina and Brazil came from ________.

German, Austria, political

In the _______ states and ______, in comparison to France and England, monarchs and aristocrats offered stiffer resistance to liberal ideas, leaving liberals with less access to direct ______ influence.

National Assembly of 1871 (France)

In the elections of February 1871, monarchists dominated this group. Executive power was given to Adolphe Thiers who had also negotiated the Treaty of Frankfurt with Prussia. During the Prussian siege of Paris, many Parisians felt betrayed by this group, so they set up their separate Paris Commune. This group later surrounds Paris with an army and attacks, killing about 20,000, destroying the particularistic political tendencies of Paris along with it. Because the monarchists of this group had quarreled over with House of France would reign, as well as the national flag, France went into a republic.

b

In the fifteenth century, the standard explanation of the arrangement of the heavens combined the work of Ptolemy and: a. Plato b. Aristotle c. Gregory the Great d. Roger Bacon e. Plutarch

Big Three

Included the leaders from the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and United States during World War II. *Soviet Union* - Stalin, *UK* - Churchill, *US* - Roosevelt *Soviet Union* - Stalin, *UK* - Attlee, *US* - Truman

Thomas Newcomen

Invented the first steam engine in 1705. Burned coal to produce steam, which was then used to operate a pump that displaced water from coal mines. By early 1770s, many of the engines were operating successfully, though inefficiently, in English and Scottish mines.

Stavisky Affair

Involved a small-time gangster who committed suicide before the police could get to him. Was suspected of being a political cover-up. The right-wing groups thought it symbolized all the seaminess immorality, and corruption of republican politics.

Benito Mussolini

Italian leader of the Fasci di Combattimento or "Bands of Combat" where fascism originated. Initially supported socialism, but moved on to support nationalism when Italy entered the war. He and his fascists began to form local squads of terrorists who threatened and abused Socialists in Italy. He and his fascists controlled the local government in northern Italy in 1922. Eventually became prime minister of Italy after the Black Shirt March. Was granted dictatorial authority of one year to bring order to the government. By changing the election law, was able to transform Italy into a single-party dictatorial state.

Sardinia-Piedmont

Italian province that joined Britain and France against Russia in the Crimean War to bring Italy into European politics. Was the most independent state on the peninsula. Restored after the Congress of Vienna as a buffer between French and Austrian ambitions. Represented by Cavour. Fought for independence from Austria. When Italy is united, this province becomes the center of administration. After Victor Emmanuel II is proclaimed as king, there is resistance against this province's administration. The economies and societies of north and south Italy were incompatible. Also, the political environment was corrupted: ministers were responsible to the king and not Parliament, and political seats could be bought.

Garibaldi

Italian unification! Italian nationalist. His Red Shirts, using guerrilla warfare, helped southern Italy gain independence. Began a victorious /popular march up the Italian peninsula. (At the same time that Cavour was liberating northern Italy). Garibaldi didn't push to gain control of all of Italy, fearing the split it would cause, so he instead gave his southern portion to Cavour. Thus Italy was created in 1861

League of Nations

Japan and Germany withdraw from this during World War II. Soviet Union is the only nation to get expelled from this because it attacks Finland.

Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941)

Japan surprise-bombs this chief American naval base in the Pacific, prompting the US to enter WWII. Destroyed many American fleets and airplanes. Four days later, Germany and Italy declare war on the US.

Enlightenment, property

Jean Jacques Rosseau contended that the process of civilization and the _______ had corrupted human nature. He also blamed much of the evil in the world on the uneven distribution of ________ (or wealth).

Tabula Rasa

John Locke's concept of the mind as a blank sheet ultimately bombarded by sense impressions that, aided by human reasoning, formulate ideas, first presented in his "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" (1690). Personality is the production of sensations that impinge on an individual from the external world throughout one's life. Experience shapes character.

Edward VI

King of England at the mere age of 10 after Henry VIII died. He reigned under the succesive regencies of Edward Seymour and the ear of Warwick. His advisors enacted the English reformation by corresponding with Calvin. Under Seymour's reign, Henry's Six Articles and laws against Protestant heresy were repealed, and clerical marriage with communtion with cup became approved. Later, he died in his teens and was succeeded by Mary I.

c

Louis XIV considered the revocation of the Edict of Nantes: a. unimportant b. militarily significant c. his most pious act d. good for business e. a necessary evil

e

Louis XIV's absolutism functioned in all of the following areas EXCEPT: a. making war and peace b. regulation of religion c. management of the economy d. direction of court life e. definition of Catholic dogma

c

Louis XIV's success in expanding royal authority was dependent on his ability to gain the support of the: a. clerical establishment b. merchant classes c. nobility d. wealthy peasants e. vast majority of the French population

b

Louis XIV's view of the monarchy was influenced by his experience of the revolt known as the: a. Parlament b. Fronde c. Intendant d. Talle e. Jaquerie

Bishop Jacques-Benigne Bossuet

Louis XiV's tutor and political theorist. Defended the "divine right of kings" and cited examples of the Old Testament rulers divinely appointed by and answerable only to God.

Reichstag

Lower house of German parliament that became weakened in power due to Article 48 of the Weimar constitution that allowed the chancellor to rule by decree in an emergency. Were too divided into separate parties to override these decrees. The Weimar Republic becomes an authoritarian govt. due to this.

Katherine Von Bora

Luther's wife, raised to be a nun but ran away to Luthur's teachings. Had 6 children, supported Luthur, but argued about women's equality in mariage.

Spanish Civil War (1936-9)

Made the line dividing Fascists side and Western Democratic side in Europe more clear. After the Falangists, Spanish fascists, lose the election, they lead an army against the republic. Germany and Italy support them, which brought Germany and Italy closer together. Fascists win the war due to appeasement from France and Britain.

Magyar Revolt

Magyars wanted to create a separate Hungarian state within the Habsburg domains. Hungarians tried to to annex Transylvania, Croatia, and other territories of the Habsburg Empire. These separate groups resisted, believing the Habsburgs gave them a better chance of preserving their ethnic values and identity. Habsburg government then sends Count Joseph Jellachich to aid these nationalistic groups in resisting the Hungarians.

Battle of Britain (July-October 1940)

Major air battle between Germany and Britain. Germany bombs fighter planes and airfields using the Luftwaffe, or German air force. In revenge for British bombing raids on German cities, the Luftwaffe starts to bomb London consistently. Did not destroy British morale. Additionally, the British Royal Air Force (RAF) is able to defend the British Isles and destroyed more than twice as many enemy planes as they had lost. Hitler lost the battle and had to abandon plans for invasion.

e

Many of Peter the Great's most important policies aimed at: a. reintroducing traditional Russian culture b. making peace with all of Russia's neighbors c. reducing the role of the military in Russian life d. increasing the power of the Russian Orthodox Church e. limiting the power of the traditional Russian nobility

Labour Party

New socialist party in England created by a coalition of worker groups (trade unions) and Fabian socialists in the late 1800s. The (far-left) Labour Party will capitalize on the (center-left) Liberal split over Home Rule. Its creation/popularity forces David Lloyd George's Liberal Party to eject laissez-faire. The Labour party advocated socialist policies such as public ownership of key industries, government intervention in the economy, redistribution of wealth, increased rights for workers, the welfare state, publicly-funded healthcare and education. (Preview: The first Labour Government/Prime Minister will not occur until 1924)

Reformation Parliament

Nickname for the Parliament that was called for a 7 year session that began in 1529. During this period, it passed legislation that harassed and placed royal reins on the clergy. This meant that whenever fundamental changes are made in religion, the monarch must consult with and work through Parliament. Henry VIII came to this and asked to be head of church in order to separate legally from his wife.

Vietnamization (1969-73)

Nixon's plan for the gradual withdrawal of American troops from Vietnam while the South Vietnamese army took over the full military effort.

Irish Easter Monday Uprising (Rebellion) (1916)

Occurred in Dublin, was a nationalist uprising to the protest the postponing of the implementation of the Irish Home Rule Bill. Was the only rebellion of a national group to occur against any government engaged in war. When the leaders of this rebellion were executed, led to the Irish Party becoming the Sinn Fein.

Women's March on Versailles

October 5th; Parisian women marched on Versailles to protest lack of food and to bring the royal family back to Paris, where they would be closer to the heart of the problem. Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, and their son were brought to Paris, in which they became prisoners in their own capital city.

Predestination

Often associated with Calvinism in the Protestant Reformation, it is the doctrine that God has already chosen who will be saved and become Christian and that people have no actual choice in the matter.

Cunning Folk

People who practiced magic to help people cope with natural disasters and disabilities. They were feared and respected, and later became victims of witch hunts

Bastille

On July 13, 1789, in response to the arming of soldiers in local towns, peasants began to seize arms for the defense of the city as the king's armies moved toward Paris, and on July 14 several hundred people marched to this fortress in search of weapons and gunpowder. A medieval fortress with walls ten feet thick and eight great towers each one hundred feet high, it had long been used to hold prisoners of war. It was guarded by eighty retired soldiers and thirty Swiss mercenaries. The governor of the fortress-prison refused to hand over the powder, panicked, and ordered his men to fire, killing ninety-eight people attempting to enter. It marked the first of the many crucial events in which the populace of Paris redirected the course of the revolution. After the downfall of this fortress, Louis XIV personally visits Paris to admit he lacks the ability to turn back the revolution.

Royal Society of London

One of the most famous "Institutions of Sharing". It was a scientific society in London which countered those elsewhere in Europe

Voltaire

One of the most famous and foremost of the philosophes, he never sat well with governments, and was ostracized from France initially for his ideas. He published works such as the "Letters on the English" which praised the English governmental method against the French and "Candide", which was a satire attacking war, religious persecution, and unwarranted optimism. He also famously declared "Crush the infamous thing" in regards to Roman Catholic Church

Maria Winkelmann

One of the most famous of female astronomers in Germany, she married Gottfried Kirch, who was the official astronomer at the Berlin Academy of Sciences, and became his assistant. She discovered a comet in 1702, but it was not until 1930 that the discovery was ascribed to her, rather than her husband. When her husband died, she applied for permission to continue her work in 1710, but was denied by the academy, even though they knew of her accomplishments. Returned to the academy as an assistant to her son, who was now appointed astronomer. Once again, she was asked to leave. Later died in 1720.

Kingdom of Westphalia

Part of Confederation of Rhine, composed of Prussia and Hanover and other bits. Napoleons's younger brother is put on the throne of this kingdom.

National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazis)

Party in Munich, Germany that Hitler became associated with. Was a small nationalistic, anti-Semitic political party. Issued the Twenty-Five points. Originally had called for the nationalization (transfer to state ownership) of industry to compete with Marxist political parties for the vote of workers, but when this failed, manipulated the meaning of "socialist" and made it sound nationalistic. Their form of socialism was not orthodox and was actually the submission of all economic enterprise for the welfare of the entire nation. Found support among war veterans.

d

Pascal believed that a. there was a danger in following traditional religious ways. b. misery loves company. c. God's mercy was for everyone. d. it is better to believe in God than not to believe. e. all men and women were destined for salvation

Galileo Galilei

Published his own views about how scripture should be interpreted to accommodate the new science, in his "Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina" (1675); to certain Catholic authorities, his actions resembled that of a Protestant who looked to himself rather than to the church to understand the Bible. Laymen were not to tell the Church how to interpret the Bible. The Inquisition had censured Copernican view in early 1616, and "On the Revelations of the Heavenly Spheres" was put on the "Index". He then reached an agreement with the Church to write about Copernicanism as if it were merely a suggestion. In 1623, an acquaintance of his was elected as Pope Urban VIII, and he was then allowed to write as he please, which he did in "Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems" (1632), a book clearly defending the truthfulness of the Copernican system. It seemed to ridicule the pope, who demanded an investigation of the book.This led to his condemnation and house arrest for the last 9 years of his life, in his home near Florence.

Elizabeth I

Queen of England, ruled from 1558-1603; followed a policy that was a middle course between Catholic and Protestant extremes. She sets up a national Church, is declared head of the Anglican Church (Church of England), establishes a state Church that moderates Catholics and Protestants, allowed priests to marry, allowed sermons to be delivered in English, and made the Book of Common Prayer more acceptable to Catholics. Daughter of Anne Boleyn.

Marie Anoinette

Queen of Louis XVI and Austrian princess, she was attacked by the revolutionaries and accused of adultery. When France fought the war against Austria, she sent important information to the Austrian leadership, and was eventually executed after being forced to watch Louis XVI be executed

Edouard Daladier

Radical French minister.

Bolsheviks

Radical Marxist political party founded by Vladimir Lenin in 1903. Made up the "majority" of the Russian Social Democratic Party. Wanted the Russian SDP to consist of elite professional revolutionaries who would provide centralized leadership for the working class. Under Lenin's leadership, they seized power in November 1917 during the Russian Revolution.

"Socialism in One Country"

Rapid industrialization was a big part of this. Stalin wanted to have the Soviet Union overtake the productive capacity of its enemies, the capitalist nations.

Italian City-States

Rather than being a unified nation, Italy was built up of the __________. These states had cultural advantage over the rest of Europe due to their geographical location. Most of these cities served as bankers for the rest of Europe. Through a series of wars and other conflicts, Despotism grew in many of these states

rational management

Saint-Simon believed that, above all else, modern society needed _______________.

Gallican Church/Liberties

The Catholic Church in France from the time of the Declaration of the Clergy of France (1682) to that of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790) during the French Revolution. The Roman Catholic Church becomes headed by a monarch, not the pope. Originated with the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges in 1438 and was solidified with the Concordat of Bologna in 1516.

Counter-Reformation

The Catholic response to the Protestant revolution, it included the creation of several catholic groups, most famous of them being the Jesuits. The reformation met its apex at the Council of Trent, at which several reforms were made in regards to internal church discipline, including ending the selling of church offices and other religious goods. Not a single doctrinal concession was made to the protestants

Anglican Church

The Church of England, a church that emphasized Protestant doctrine combined with traditional Catholic Ritual. Took the middle path between Catholic and Protestant extremes under Elizabeth I.

Napoleonic Code

The Civic Code of 1804, it destroyed the idea of primogeniture and any other rights by heritage, as well as banning workers organizations

Congress of Vienna

The Congress that took place after Napoleon was first exiled, they established the Quadruple Alliance between England, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, and worked to prevent France from ever again rising up and destroying the balance of power. This led to the first time in European history in which there was no move towards war by any nation

Concert of Europe

The Crimean War shatters the provisions of this, ending this as a means to discuss international relations.

Austria

The French War against _________ in 1792 was: 1. favored by Louis XVI, who believed it would restore the ancient regime 2. responsible for a second revolution that would overthrow the monarchy and establish a republic 3. a factor in radicalizing the revolution 4. supported by the Girondists, who believed it would preserve the revolution from domestic enemies

appeasement

The French adopted a policy of __________ because they felt impotent without British support.

Louis XVI

The French king from 1774 to 1792 who was dethroned during the French Revolution and executed in 1793. He inherited the debt problem left by his grandfather, Louis XV, and added to the crisis himself through heavy spending during France's involvement in the American Revolution from 1775 to 1783. Because this massive debt overwhelmed all of his financial consultants, he was forced to give in to the demands of the Parlement of Paris and convene the Estates-General—an action that led directly to the outbreak of the Revolution. Well-meaning, but weak and indecisive, he was deposed of in 1792 and executed a year later.

Cardinal Richelieu

The French minister whose foreign policy was to protect French interests by keeping the Habsburgs pinned down in Germany. He pushed for the Swedish invasion during the Thirty Year's War, and supported the eventual entering of the war by the French

Battle of the Marne (1914)

The German army made a strong advance toward Paris in September of 1914. A coalition of French and British soldiers met the German army at the Marne River in mid-September and fought a battle for position. The British and French were able to push the German army back and prevented Paris from falling to Germany.

Eastern

The Germans were more successful on the ________ front.

Emigres

The Girondists pass a measure requiring this group to return to France or suffer the loss of property.

e

The Huguenots were: a. a majority of the population b. mainly from the lower classes c. Dutch Jansenists d. English Catholics e. French Calvinists

National Constituent Assembly

The National Assembly renamed itself this, which was composed of a majority of members drawn from all three orders, who shared liberal goals for the administrative, constitutional, and economic reform of the country. They favored a constitutional monarchy for government, rationalism in administration, unregulated freedom, and anticlericalism in religion. Also sought to limit the impact of those with little property. Abolishes ancient French provinces, to be replaced with departments.

petty bourgeoisie

The Paris Commune was dominated by:

Roundheads

The Parliamentary troops during the English Civil War, known as such because of their hairstyle

a

The Quadruple Alliance included all of the following EXCEPT: a. Spain b. Britain c. Prussia d. Russia e. Austria

c

The Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre was an attack on: a. Parisian elites b. German peasants c. French Huguenots d. Dutch merchants e. Italian laborers

Britain, Russia, Austria, Ottoman Empire

The Second Coalition consisted of:

1930, 1936

The Treaty of Versailles called for the Allied occupation of the Rhineland until 1935. The Allies ended up withdrawing in ____ and Germany reoccupies it in ____.

Truman Doctrine (1947)

The US Policy of coming to the aid of countries fighting against communist aggression. Was initially meant to prevent Greece and Turkey from falling to the Communists, and it was successful.

Tehran

The US and Britain agreed to open a second front in France in 1944 at the _______ Conference.

Great Reforms, serfdom, Zemstvos, legal

The _________ were initiated by Alexander II in Russia. The first and most important was the abolition of ________. The institution established for the local government was the ________. Another of the reforms was the reform of the _______ system. Upon emancipation, serfs were allowed the personal right to marry, the right to buy and sell property, and the right to sue in court.

Cuban missile crisis

The ___________ brought the Cold War to the Americas, and the superpowers to the brink of direct military confrontation. Soviet military spending also increased after this conflict.

Phony War

The ____________ was the time between the fall of Poland and the invasion of Denmark and Norway by German troops (Oct. 1939 - Apr. 1940)

Bolsheviks

The ____________ were able to seize power in Russia as a result of: 1. the existing anarchy 2. their appeals to soldiers and urban workers 3. the leadership of Lenin and Leon Trotsky.

industrial economy

The _____________ of the 19th century was based upon all of the following: 1. the availability of raw materials 2. an adequate labor supply 3. the availability of capital 4. a distribution system to market finished products

Congress of Vienna

The _____________: 1. created protective borders to avoid a resurgence of French power 2. attempted to stifle nationalism 3. ignored the rights and wishes of local population and minor princes 4. punished states which had supported Napoleon

United States

The _______________ entered WWI due to: 1. the decision by Germany to resume unrestricted submarine warfare. 2. the Zimmerman telegram

Treaty of Versailles

The ________________ did all of the following: 1. punished Germany 2. gave German territory to the newly recreated nation of Poland 3. Dismantled the Austro-Hungarian Empire 4. Created the new nations of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia from the former Habsburg holdings

cahiers de doleances

The ________________ included grievances regarding: 1. government waste 2. indirect taxes 3. aristocratic hunting rights 4. corruption And called for: 1. economic reforms 2. constitutional monarchy 3. legal protection of individual liberties

Collectivization

The ________________ program carried out by Joseph Stalin in the Soviet Union: 1. led to widespread famine in 1932-3. 2. led to peasants moving from rural areas to cities 3. led to an increase in education in rural areas 4. led to a rise in rural literacy

Glorious revolution

The bloodless overturn of James II. He was replaced by William III and Mary II

Land and Freedom Society

The chief radical society of Populism in Russia. Included two groups: one advocating the education of peasants, which disbanded, and the other, known as the People's Will, which was dedicated to the overthrow of autocracy, meaning the assassination of the tsar.

Deism

The chief religion of the philosophes. The philisophes regarded God as a kind of divine watchmaker, who had created the universe, set it in motion, and then departed. This religion believed a life of religion and of reason could be combined

First Estate

The clergy in France

Quadruple Alliance

The coalition of Austria, Britain, Prussia, and Russia formed under the Treaty of Chaumont. They will defeat Napoleon's forces in October 1813. Six months later, Napoleon is sent into exile.

Nikita Khrushchev

The collective leadership of the Soviet Union ends when he becomes premier. Sought to reform the Soviet system but to maintain the dominance of the Communist Party. Conducts reforms by increasing consumer products, decentralizing economic planning, and trying to improve agricultural production (failed). Advocated a de-Stalinization policy. Removed Stalinist supporters from the presidium. Made a secret speech that was later released where he denounced Stalin and his crimes against socialist justice during the purges in the 1930s. Led way for open criticism of Soviet government.

Elizabeth I ("Supreme Governor")

The daughter of Anne Boleyn and Henry VIII, queen of England. She worked with Parliament to pass a second Act of Supremacy and Act of Uniformity, which declared her the "Supreme Governor" of over spiritual and temporal affairs and issued a second Book of Common Prayer. She was the Virgin Queen and a powerful politique

social welfare

The decision of the United States to fund and staff NATO would cause Western European governments to spend more on __________ in the second half of the 20th century.

suburbs

The development of __________ was a response to: 1. the reorganization of cities for business and government purposes 2. increasing congestion of urban areas 3. improved railway systems connecting city to suburbs 4. the clearing of slums

Nationalism

The doctrine of loving ones country and the creation of arts and other such works that supported the country

d

The dominant political power in the Muslim world in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was the: a. Mughals b. Abbasidians c. Umayyad Empire d. Ottoman Empire e. Golden Horde

b

The dynamic force behind the revolutions of 1848 was the: a. working poor b. political liberals c. socialists d. Marxists e. landless peasants

corporatism, corporations

The economic policies of Benito Mussolini's Italian fascist party were known as ___________, a planned economy that organized industries into syndicates representing both labor and management. After 1930, the syndicates were reorganized into entities called ____________. This effort did little to increase production, but did increase bureaucracy and corruption.

French Revolution

The effects of the __________________ include: 1. catholicism was seriously challenged 2. people of lower birth had influence 3. conscripted armies defeated professional armies and Europe suffered decades of war

prison, police

The establishment of new ________ systems and _______ forces in Europe in the mid-19th century was a result of: 1. industrialization 2. radicalism 3. earlier revolutions 4. urbanization

Reichstag

The fire of the _____________ building in 1933 by a mentally ill Dutch communist provided Hitler with an excuse to consolidate his power. The Nazis claimed that the fire represented a communist threat to the government and allowed Hitler to issue a decree suspending civil liberties and arresting all communists.

Paris

The first European city to have an organized police force was ________ in 1828.

Robert Walpole

The first Prime Minister of England in all but name, helped George I rule. Had good control over the House of Commons and government patronage.

textile, family

The first factories were ________ mills in Great Britain. Before the 1830's, the ________ typically worked as a unit in the factories, which was a continuation of the traditional domestic system of textile production.

Germany

The first major industrial nation to enjoy the welfare program was _________.

Galileo Galilei

The first man to turn a telescope on the heavens. He revealed a universe based off of mathematics, rather than medieval logic. His discoveries and advocacy for the Copernican model led to problems with the Roman Catholic Church

Maximilien Robespierre

The following are true of _______________: 1. opposed 1792 war with the First Coalition 2. was the dominant figure on the Committee of Public Safety 3. led the terror against republican political figures

Industrial Revolution

The following innovations are associated with what movement in 18th century Britain? 1. spinning jenny 2. water frame 3. steam engine 4. manufacture of high-quality iron

Agricultural Revolution

The following innovations are associated with what movement in 18th century England? 1. crop rotation 2. introduction of new crops 3. enclosures 4. new breeding technologies

Nationalism

The following is true of _________________: 1. It evolved from cultural unity 2. Its roots lay in the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars 3. Those that supported this tried to create a political identity based on culture

Third French Republic

The following is true of _________________: 1. established in the midst of the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian war. 2. its existence was threatened by the Paris Commune 3. established a constitution in 1875 which formal created a republic form of government 4. the Boulanger Crises, the Panama scandal and Dreyfus affair were threats to its existence.

Estates General

The following issues lay in the reconvening of the _________: 1. Organization: the number of representatives in each estate 2. Voting: would voting be by head or by estate?

lower middle class

The following were considered ________ class: 1. telephone operators 2. bookkeeper 3. bank teller 4. sales clerk

France

The foreign policy of __________ after the first world war was to keep Germany weak and build a defensive alliance with the eastern countries that would replace the Dual Entente (France + Russa).

Warsaw Pact

The formation of the ___________ in 1955 was an indication that the Soviets were concerned about the NATO alliance.

c

The foundation of Montesquieu's ideas for reform stem from: a. his study of sociology b. his effort to support aristocratic institutions c. the inefficient absolutism of monarchy in France d. his knowledge of the development of the English cabinet system e. a desire to see France become a republic

Adam Smith

The founder of the idea of the laissez-faire, he believed that the nations and peoples of Europe need not be poor, and that society had developed in four stages.

Congress of Vienna

The four great powers conduct this conference. Hoped to restore the balance of power in Europe by strengthening the states around France's borders. Established the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Prussia is given new territory along the Rhine River. Austria gains control over Italy to prevent French conquests there. Napoleon's German territory arrangements stay the same. Holy Roman Empire is not revived. Established the rule of monarchs. Aimed to establish a framework for stability, not the punishment of France.

Joseph Stalin

The goal of _______________ was to have the Soviet Union overtake the productive capacity of the capitalist nations. This would be accomplished through five-year plans that emphasized the development of heavy industry.

Bullion

The gold and silver wealth of a nation

Louis XV (of France)

The grandson of Louis XIV, while his regent was still ruling, the Scottish mathematician and gambler John Law encouraged speculation in the Mississippi Company, which led to the Mississippi Bubble, when led to disgrace upon the current administration. The parlements also gained power under his regent.

Muslims

The growing presence of _______ has produced ethnic and political tensions in some Western European countries.

Chernobyl (1986)

The nuclear power plant in the Soviet Union that suffered two large explosions which released massive amounts of radioactive materials. After this incident, government began to question whether the environment and people could be protected from nuclear catastrophes.

economic

The number one cause of urban migration was because of __________ reasons.

Primogeniture

The idea of the first son getting all or most of the inheritance

Separation of Powers

The idea put forth by Baron de Montesquieu, this idea involved separating the branches of government so that none of them became too powerful

Irish Home Rule

The idea that Ireland should have some measure of self-government. The Home Rule Bill was designed to give Ireland self-government but failed in both 1886 and 1893. Finally in 1914 Ireland broke from Britain, but Ulster remained connected. Irish Home Rule will split the Liberal party. The new (left-wing) Labour Party will benefit from the split.

Romantic Republicanism

The ineffective approach to unification of Italy. This approach by secret societies and liberals failed to unify Italy in 1830 and 1848.

World War I

The leading causes of ___________ include: 1. the weakness of the Ottoman Empire 2. Austrian and Serbian conflict in the Balkans (Bosnia-Herzegovina) 3. German ambitions for expansion 4. The assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand

a

The leading religious painter of the Catholic Reformation was: a. Peter Paul Rubens b. Louis LeNain c. Michelangelo d. Caravaggio e. Pieter Bruegel

Grand Empire

The legacy of Napoleon's _________________ included all of the following: 1. abolishing feudalism and manoralism 2. abolition of serfdom 3. careers open to talented individuals regardless of class 4. legal and administrative reform 5. resentment against foreign domination

Vernacular

The local language of a populus

Big Four

The major Allied leaders who made all of the important decisions at the Peace Conference at Versailles. Georges Clemenceau (France), Woodrow Wilson (U.S.), Vittorio Orlando (Italy), and David Lloyd George (Britain).

Fourteen Points

The major features of the ________ include: 1. freedom of the seas 2. a league of nations 3. open diplomacy 4. reduction of armaments 5. self-determination

liberals, middle

The major impetus for change came from the political _________, who were generally from the ________ class.

Tennis Court Oath

The oath taken by the National Assembly when they were locked out of their meeting place, they swore to continue meeting until they had written a new constitution for France

Ancient Regime

The old regime, this was a reference to the old style of economic, political and social society in Europe before the French Revolution

Nobles of the Sword

The old, hereditary nobles of France; positions gained militarily; must be weakened if Louis XIV is to exercise real authority. Are given social lives in Versailles so that they do not get in the way of government business.

Benelux Countries

These countries of *Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg* form the European Coal and Steel Community with *France, Germany and Italy*. This was the first effort toward economic cooperation.

Revolutionary/Napoleonic Wars (1792-1815)

The many wars of Napoleon during his power, including the campaigns in Italy, Egypt, the coup d'etat, the conflict in Austria, Rhineland, Russia, the Peninsular Campaign, and the sea battles against the British. These ended finally with the Battle of Waterloo in 1815

Salons

The meeting places of the philosophes, they were hosted by influential women and where places of lecture and conversation

landlords

The most active proponents of the innovations during the Agricultural Revolution were:

Dreyfus Affair (The OJ case for France)

The most divisive event in the 3rd Republic. Dreyfus was a Jewish captain in the French army. In 1895, a secret military court found him guilty of selling army secrets and condemned him to life in prison. During his trial, right-wing mobs yelled "Death to the Jews." Later it was discovered that Dreyfus was innocent, and he was pardoned in 1899. This series of events split France for several years and showed the animosity between Left and Right.

Jacobins

The most famous and best organized of the revolutionary political clubs, they were radicals who, allied with the San-cullotes, controlled France until the white terror, at which point many of them were executed

Karl Barth, neo-Orthodoxy

The most important Christian response to WWI appeared in the theology of _________. His theology came to be known as ___________.

Spanish Armada

The naval force of Spain, launched to attack England in 1586. Sir Francis Drake however attacked it in the docks, then it was defeated by a devastating combination of weather and swift English ships

Constitution of 1791

The new French constitution that in 1791 established a constitutional monarchy, or limited monarchy, with all executive power answerable to a legislative assembly. Under the new constitution, King Louis XVI could only temporarily veto legislation passed by the assembly. The constitution restricted voting in the assembly to the active citizens only.

June Days

The new National Assembly closes down workshops for the unemployed in Paris, causing the workers to erect barricades in the city. General Louis Cavaignac moves his troops in to destroy the barricades and stomp out any disturbances, killing 400 people. Troops hunt down another 3000. Marks the end of the drive for social revolution in France following the abdication of Louis Philippe. This event ended the liberal capitalist and the radical socialists tension ending in victory for liberalism and Capitalism. Also it led to having a new constitution demanding a strong executive, which led to the rise of Louis Napoleon.

National Assembly

The new legislative body created by the Third Estate, they worked to create a new constitution for France and began the political portion of the revolution in France

danish period

The new phase saw the German war expanded into an international conflict. Christian IV of Denmark came into the fighting, principally because of his fear of the rise of Hapsburg power in N Germany; he openly avowed religious motives but hoped also to enlarge his German possessions. England and the United Provinces gave a subsidy to aid the opponents of the Hapsburgs, and England sent a few thousand soldiers. Christian IV advanced into Germany. The emperor's cause was advanced by the work of Wallenstein, who gathered an effective army and defeated Mansfeld at Dessau (1626). A little later the Danish king was soundly defeated by Tilly at Lutter.

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte

The new president of France following the June days and the abdication of Louis Philippe. Was the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte. Had attempted a coup d'etat against the July Monarchy of Louis Philippe twice. Claimed that he rather than the newly-elected National Assembly of France represented the will of the nation and then seized power through a coup when the National Assembly refused to let him be re-elected. A plebiscite approved the constitution that solidified his power, and then another made him emperor Napoleon III.

unmarried, young

The new service work force of the late 19th century was made up largely of ___________ and __________ women.

monarchists

The newly-elected French National Assembly of 1871 was dominated by:

Second Estate

The nobility of France

Church of England

The state of church established by King Henry VIII after he broke away from the Catholic church when he was not allowed a divorce from his wife, Catherine of Aragon. Henry made few Protestant changes, keeping his church mainly Catholic. English clergy were forbidden to marry despite Henry's many amorous affairs. His Six Articles of 1539 were written to reaffirm transubstantiation, deny the Eucharistic cup to the laity, declare celibate vows inviolable, prove for private masses, and order the continuation of oral confession.

Chiaroscuro

The technique used by renaissance artists in which they used shadings to enhance the naturalness of the painting

Reign of Terror

The time period at which Robespierre dominated the Committee of Public Safety. During this time, the committee worked to create a civic republic of virtue based on Rousseeau's "Social Contract". It included the De-Christianization of France, a period of extensive Revolutionary Tribunals and the execution of Marie Antoinette, and the repression of women's rights. This was ended by the Thermedorian Reaction, when some revolutionaries turned against Robespierre.

home, family

The typical 19th century middle-class woman enjoyed a great deal of domestic luxury but her life was centered on _______ and ________.

Anschluss (March 1938)

The union of *Germany* and *Austria*; directly violated the *Treaty of Versailles*.

Liberal Party (Great Britain)

The war divides this party. Party becomes divided between supporters of David Lloyd George and Herbert Asquith. Because of their division, were not able to win many seats in Parliament. George is eventually replaced with a conservative as prime minister. Never again will a member of this party be prime minister. Helped Labour Party get into House of Commons.

Russia

The worst persecution of Jews in the late 18th and early 19th centuries took place in _______. Jews: 1. were treated as aliens 2. could not live in certain areas. 3. had to have internal passport to move around the country. 4. were subjected to pograms conducted by police and right-wing nationalists.

Philosophes

The writers and critics who flourished in the expanding print culture and took the lead in creating new attitudes for change, reform, and toleration. These included Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot, and many others

Crimean War

The years after the _______________ were characterized by instability in European affairs as the Great Powers became more adventurous in their foreign policy.

Suburbs

Their development resulted from high land and rent values, the middle class's desire for less urban congestion and the working class's desire for affordable housing. Housed families whose earners worked in the central city or in the factory located within city limits. Often consisted of apartment buildings and private houses built closely together with small gardens.

Utopian Socialists

Their ideas were visionary and frequently advocated the creation of ideal communities. Questioned the structures and values of the existing capitalistic framework. Featured radical ideas about sexuality and the family, including free love and open family relationships.

heliocentric model

Theory of the universe that states the sun is the center, and that the earth revolves around it; popularized by Copernicus

women

There were two major developments that impacted the lives of _________ during the Second Industrial Revolution: 1. a large expansion in the variety of jobs available to women. 2. the withdrawal of many married women from the workforce.

philosophes

These men looked to reform the political features of their countries. However, those in France were largely divided over how to solve their country's problems. Despite help from the salon hostesses, these men were not strong feminists. They did urge broader education for women, and criticized the education women did receive as overly religious and tended to reject the ascetic views of sexual relations. But generally, they displayed traditional views toward women and made no radical changes in their social condition. Most looked to the existing monarchies as their preferred type of government, and did not try to limit the monarchs' power. They did not oppose power if they could gain from it.

Friedrich List

This German journalist and thinker was an early proponent of economic nationalism. He encouraged the development of a German free trade organization which eliminated internal tariffs, known as the Zollverein.

William Tyndale

This Protestant man was a Humanist who helped translate the Bible so that all people could read it in their own religion. He translated the New Testament, but was executed before he could finish the Old Testament because he was not supported by the English government in his translating in the early 16th century. Regardless, his New Testament begins to circulate England in 1526.

Cardinal Granvelle

This cardinal tried to limit protestant gains during the rebellion in Netherland by making internal church reforms

Capuchins

This group emerged when a group of Franciscans decided to return to the simplicity and poverty of Saint Francis, the medieval founder of the Franciscan order. They preached the Gospel directly to the people and emerged as an effective force against Protestantism.

Spinning Jenny

This machine played an important role in the mechanization of textile production. It allowed for multiple spindles of thread to be spun, balancing the bottleneck in textile production; thread was now being supplied efficiently to satisfy the speed at which fabric could be weaved with a certain recently invented machinery.

Niccolo Machiavelli

This man was a large advocate for creating a unified and independent Italy by any means. Though he had Republican ideals, in 1513 he wrote "The Prince" as a novel arguing for unprincipled despotic rule to unify the country. He famously stated that it is better for a ruler to be feared than loved

Dawes Plan (1924)

This reorganized the transfer of reparations among the European nations after the Great War, and smoothed debt payments to the US. American capital flows to Europe, especially to Germany, providing brief prosperity in Europe after 1925. Money given was in the form of short-term loans.

Nuremberg Laws (1935)

Took away German citizenship from Jews.

Franco-Prussian War (1871)

War between Prussia and France that 1) ended the Second French Empire (in Section 4). 2) created the German Empire. (in Section 3). 3) gave Italy the opportunity to seize Rome! (in Section 2) Bismarck's manipulated France into this war with the Ems Dispatch. France was forced to give up the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. The bitterness over this defeat will have a big impact on France, and the euphoria of victory will have a big impact on Germany.

Russian Civil War

War in Russia between Red Russians, who supported the communist revolution of the new Bolshevik government, and the White Russians, who were loyal army officers fighting the revolution. The White Russians also received help from the Allies. But under Trotsky's leadership, the Red Army eventually wins.

Woodrow Wilson

Warned Germany to end targeting civilian ships, but when it didn't, declared war on Germany. Expressed that the reason for the U.S entry into the war was "to make the world safe for democracy". One of the Big Four.

Battle of the Bulge (December 1944-January 1945)

Was Germany's last major offensive on the Western Front. Germany launched a counterattack in Belgium and Luxembourg attempted to push forward into the allied line. After their defeat in this battle, Germany's resistance crumbled.

Leon Trotsky

Was Lenin's chief collaborator. After failure of the coup, was imprisoned. Later was released from prison and when Lenin returned from Finland in October 1917, both men planned a coup that he organized which concluded with an armed assault on the provisional government Was one of the leaders of the St. Petersburg/Petrograd Soviet. Was responsible for the creation of the Bolshevik armed forces, the Red Army. Was the Russian chief negotiator for the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

Sergei Kirov

Was Stalin's protégé and slight opponent, as well as the head of the Leningrad Party. His assassination in 1934 was used to start Great Purges on all political opponents of Stalin. Thousands were arrested and many expelled from the party and sent to labor camps. At the time, it was believed certain people who opposed the government murdered him, and Stalin accused them accordingly, but it is now believed Stalin did it because he feared loss of power.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

Was a German philosopher of history in the Romantic period. Believed that ideas develop in evolutionary fashion. Developed the ideals of the thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. Believed that all cultures were valuable and that all periods of history have been of almost equal value

Popular Front

Was a coalition of leftist groups in France, a brief socialist and communist cooperation made possible only because Stalin was wary of Hitler damaging the Soviet Union. Its purpose was to preserve the republic and press for social reform. Were given a majority in the Chamber of Deputies in the election of 1936.

Friedrich Engels

Was a colleague of Karl Marx. Wrote "The Condition of the Working Classes in England" (1844). According to him, the new poverty of the industrial workers was worse than the old poverty of cottage workers and agricultural laborers. Blamed the middle class and industrial capitalism for this situation. Also stated that the British middle classes were guilty of "mass murder" and "wholesale robbery".

Toussant L'Ouverture (Haiti)

Was a former slave who lead a slave rebellion in Haiti. Rebellion was against Haiti's colonial Assembly who had resisted French orders that decreed that free property-owners on Haiti should enjoy the same rights as white owners. He and his followers took up arms against the white plantation owners, with the French backing them up. Later, he achieved dominance in Hispanola, there he imposed a consitution on Haiti and made himself Governor-General for life while keeping his ties to the French. Later, Napoleon comes into reign, and distrusting him, sends troops to capture him and execute him.

Giacomo Matteotti

Was a leading noncommunist, socialist leader and member of Parliament that the fascists murdered. Had frequently criticized Mussolini and had exposed the criminality of the fascist movement. Deputies that were against the murder withdrew from parliament and were not given readmission. This gave Mussolini more freedom to do as he wished.

Christian Democratic Parties

Was a major feature in postwar policies after WWII. Largely Roman Catholic. Welcomed non-Catholics, and advocated democracy, economic and anticommunism.

Rapid Industrialization

Was a major part of Stalin's "Socialism in One Country". Was a big departure away from Lenin's NEP. To overtake the Soviet Union's enemies, this would require the rapid construction of heavy industries, such as iron, steel, etc. Created the first genuinely large factory labor force in the Soviet Union. However, the workers' living condition was horrible.

Dawes Plan

Was a new system of reparation payments for Germany. Idea came from American banker Charles Dawes. Lowered the annual payments and allowed them to vary according to the fortunes of the Germany economy. The United States loans Germany money which then can pay reparations to England and France, who can then pay back their loans from the U.S.

Great Patriotic War

Was a phrase used by the Soviet Union leaders to encourage resistance to German aggression. Also was the struggle against the Germans itself. The actual war killed 16 million Russians.

Five-year plans

Was the vehicle for Stalin's rapid industrialization. Oversaw by the Gosplan. Ended the NEP and created a socialist economy in which the government made all economic decisions, promoted the rapid development of heavy industries, and collectivized agriculture. The standard of living in the Soviet Union decreased because the government limited the production of consumer goods and people had shortages. The government had to use propaganda to sell the Russian people into cooperating and tried to appeal to the young by saying it would modernize the nation. However, the economy grew more rapidly than that of any other nation in the West during a similar period.

Nicholas II (of Russia)

Was tsar of Russia during WWI. Was weak, incompetent, and suspected of being under the domination of his German wife and his peasant faith healer Rasputin. Later took personal leadership of Russian forces on the eastern front and his absence from the capital allowed corrupt ministers to discredit him. As strikes and revolts increased, he abdicated and the government fell into the hands of the Duma, who formed a provisional government composed of Constitutional Democrats (Cadets).

" A Blank Check"

What the Germans gave Austria following the assassination of the Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand in response to how to act. Germany agrees to support Austrian attack on Serbia, and urges Austria to move swiftly while the other powers are still angry at Serbia. Also made the Austrians feel they would view a failure to act as evidence of Austria-Hungary's weakness and uselessness as an ally.

Low Countries

Where improvements in agricultural production begin; aka, the Netherlands

New South Wales

Where the British government sent the persons convicted of the most severe crimes

David Ricardo, Karl Marx

Whereas _______________ argued that labor was the source of all value, __________ argued that profits were really wages stolen from the workers.

France

Whereas the Labour Party in Britain guided their retreat from colonialism without conflict, ________, on the other hand, believed it needed to reassert itself as a great power, as seen in the conflicts of Algeria and Vietnam.

a

Which of the following does NOT characterize the nature of the Scientific Revolution? a. It occurred several places in Europe at the same time. b. It was not revolutionary in the normal sense of the word. c. It was a complex movement involving many persons. d. Its proponents were hostile to established Christianity. e. Its proponents believed that the study of nature would shed light on the nature of the divine.

a

Which of the following does NOT characterize the nature of the Scientific Revolution? a. It occurred several places in Europe at the same time. b. It was not revolutionary in the normal sense of the word. c. It was a complex movement involving many persons. d. Its proponents were hostile to established Christianity e. Its proponents believed that the study of nature would shed light on the nature of the divine.

e

Which of the following figures played a key role in the popularization of the Copernican system? a. Newton b. Bacon c. Locke d. Kepler e. Galileo

a

Which of the following is the most accurate statement about the Counter-Reformation? a. The Church emerged with an organizational structure emphasizing absolute obedience to the person at the top. b. Catholics were permitted by the Church to convert to Lutheranism under the Augsburg settlement c. The Roman Church adopted a Presbyterian organization structure Counter-Reformation d. There was little popular support for the Counter-Reformation e. It emphasized the use of force to suppress Protestantism

a

Which of the following would not be considered part of the Chartist reform program? a. women's rights b. annual election of the House of Commons c. universal manhood suffrage d. salaries for Members of Parliament e. a secret ballot

Phony War (Sitzkrieg)

While Hitler and Stalin are invading Poland and the Baltic states, it is relatively quiet on the western front. The French stay behind their Maginot line while the British rearm, and the British navy blockades Germany. This stillness ends in the spring of 1940 when Hitler invades Denmark and Norway, enabling him to get his air and naval bases closer to Britain.

textile

Widespread industrialization first occurred in the _________ industry.

Mary II (England)

Wife of William II (of Orange) ruled with her husband. During their reign over England, they expanded civil rights and moved to restrict monarchical power

Luddites

Workers in Britain (1810-1820) who responded to replacement of human labor by machines during the Industrial Revolution by attempting to destroy the machines; named after a mythical leader, Ned Ludd.

The Condition of the Working Class in England (1845)

Written by Friedrich Engels; it presented a devastating picture of the industrial life. Said that society's problems are caused by capitalism and competition.

80

___% of witch-hunt victims were women, most single and over forty.

Émile Zola

_____ is mainly known for publishing a newspaper article entitled J'Accuse (I accuse) in which he accused the French army of forging the evidence that convicted Dreyfus and deliberately suppressing evidence that would vindicate him.

70000, 100000

_____ to _____ people were sentenced to death for harmful magic and witchcraft.

Rome

_______ became the capital of the new Italian nation after French troops were withdrawn from the city during the Franco-Prussian War (1870).

Fascism

_______ was: 1. anti-democratic 2. anti-Marxist 3. anti-Semitic

Poland

________ disappears from the European map as a result of: 1. Austrian, Prussian, and Russian annexations (the adding of additional land) 2. Polish nobility reduced the monarchy to a powerless institution 3. France refused to intervene on behalf of the Poles 4. The nation was vulnerable due to a lack of natural borders

Liberals

_________ transformed the eighteenth-century concept of aristocratic liberty into a new concept of privilege based on wealth and property rather than birth.

Liberals

_________ were often academics, members of the learned professions, and people involved in the rapidly expanding commercial and manufacturing segments of the economy, but who were excluded from the existing political processes.

Poland

_________'s drive toward independence: 1956 - Gomulka is chosen as leader by the people, instead of those the Soviets wanted. 1989 - The Solidarity movement gains independence.

Hungary

_________'s drive toward independence: 1956 - Nagy, who tries liberalizing reforms, is executed and replaced. 1989 - Kadar, who executed Nagy, is removed from his position of president. Independence is gained.

Women

__________ contributed to the Enlightenment in the following ways: 1. holding salons 2. buying the works of philosophes 3. blocking works that attacked the philosophes 4. introducing the philosophes to people who could fund and protect them.

Christian churches

__________ in Europe have raised critical questions about the following contemporary issues: 1. colonialism 2. human rights 3. nuclear weapons 4. the environment

Germany

___________ began to overtake Britain as the industrial leader of Europe for all of the following reasons: 1. Industrialists were more entrepreneurial. 2. German banks were ready to take greater risks 3. Better scientific and technical schools 4. Formation of large cartels

Peasants

___________ benefited from the French Revolution because they were given land.

Communist

___________ countries between 1945 and 1940 fell into three categories: 1. Allied with Russia - Warsaw Pact 2. Allied with China - North Korea 3. Independent - Yugoslavia, North Vietnam, and to a lesser extent, Albania and Cuba.

Containment

___________ led the United States to form overseas alliances, to make formal and informal commitments to regimes across the world, and to dedicate resources to massive military spending.

Czechoslovakia

___________'s drive toward independence: 1968 - Dubcek attempts the reforming acts called the Prague Spring. The same year, under the Brezhnev Doctrine, the Soviets invade and halt the liberalization. 1989 - Velvet Revolution, under Havel. Soviets apologize for invasion of 1968.

League of Nations

a body founded in 1919, made of sovereign states that agreed to pursue common policies and to consult in the common interest, especially when war threatened. The council promised to settle differences among themselves by an international court. Was unlikely to be effective because it had no army. Any action also required the consent of its council.The council consisted of the United States, Britain, France, Italy, and Japan. Germany and the Soviet Union were excluded. All promised to "respect and preserve" the territorial integrity of its members.

Zimmerman Telegram

a coded message sent to Mexico from Germany, proposing a military alliance against the United States. Germany wants Mexico to join the War and attack the US in exchange for Germany helping Mexico regain lost territory. The obvious threats to the United States contained in the telegram inflamed American public opinion against Germany and helped convince Congress to declare war against Germany in 1917.

cahiers de doleances

a list of grievances presented to the king when the representatives of the Estates-General arrive at Versailles. It criticized government waste, indirect taxes, church taxes and corruption, and the hunting rights of the aristocracy. Included callings for frequent meetings of the Estates-General, more equitable taxes, more local control of administration, unified weights and measures to facilitate trade and commerce and a free press. Demanded an equality of rights among citizens.

Abbe Sieyes

a member of the Directory. Proposed a new constitution. Wanted an executive body independent of the whims of electoral politics, a government based on the principle of "confidence from below, power from above". He and Napoleon enact a coup d'etat after the Directory is disbanded to establish a Consulate, that of which Napoleon shortly takes advantage and declares himself First Consul, the most powerful man in France.

Cult of the Supreme Being

a religion based on deism devised by Maximilien Robespierre, who considered the worship of "Reason" to be too abstract. Intended to become the state religion after the French Revolution. Reflected Rousseau's vision of a civic religion that would induce morality among citizens.

Madame de Pompadour

a renown salon hostess who was also the mistress to Louis XV; played a key role in overcoming efforts to censor the "Encyclopedia". Also helped to delay to works by writers who were criticizing the philosophes. She, like others, promoted Montesquieu's "Spirit of the Laws" by distributing it among her friends.

Black Hand

a secret terrorist organization that encouraged ethnic Serbs in areas such as Bosnia to work for unification of Serbia. It organized the murder of Franz Ferdinand, part of the Pan-Slavism nationalist movement, with the intention of uniting all of the territories containing South Slav populations (Serbs, Croats, Macedonians, Slovenes, etc) annexed by Austria-Hungary.

Concert of Europe

a series of conferences among the great European powers in the 19th century, devised by Prince Klemens von Metternich to prevent the outbreak of revolutions. Prevented any nation from taking major actions without the consultation of others. The initial goal of this was to maintain the balance of power against new French aggression and against the military might of Russia. Overtime, evolved into the goal of simply maintaining peace in Europe.

King Ludwig II of Bavaria

constructed the castle of Neuschwanstein on a mountain in Southern Germany. Was one of the greatest architectual pieces of the Neo-Gothic revival

Marie Antoinette

daughter of the empress of Austria, married to Louis XVI at age 15; accused of lavish spending that added to the national debt. One of the first victims of the Reign of Terror. Was executed in 1793.

Charles I of England

employed Peter Paul Rubens to paint the ceiling of his Banqueting Hall. Because Rubens was associated with the Catholic Reformation, this move fed Puritan suspicions that he harbored Catholic sympathies. He was later led to his execution in 1649 through this hall, to his death on the scaffold erected outside.

peace of westphalia

ends all hostilities in hre; written in french; repealed ferdinand's edict of restitution that had made calvinism illegal; ruler of land determines religion of the land; calvinists full recognized; netherlands/sweden recognized as independent

Klemens Von Metternich (Austria)

epitomized 19th century conservatism; directed the Congress of Vienna. Felt that the recognition of the political rights and aspirations of the various national groups residing in the Habsburg domains would mean the probable dissolution of the Austrian empire. Used the incident involving the killing of the conservative dramatist by a Burschenschaft student to suppress institutions associated with liberalism.

Organic Articles of 1802

established supremacy of state over church without consulting the Pope

Great Reform Bill

expanded the size of the English electorate, but it was not a democratic measure. Increased the number of voters by more than 200,000, almost 50%, but it kept a property qualification for the franchise. Some of the working class lost rights to vote because certain old franchise rights were abolished. New urban boroughs created, along with rural districts. Reconciled previously unrepresented property owners and economic interests to the political institutions of the country. Laid the groundwork for further orderly reforms of the church, municipal government, and commercial policy. Permitted a wider variety of property to be represented in the House of Commons. With greater representation, the House of Commons became the most important legislative body.

Textiles

fabrics that are woven or knitted; material for clothing

Josephine de Beauharnais-Bonaparte

failed to produced Napoleon an heir, which resulted in a divorce

Extended family

families of three or four generations living under the same roof under the direction of a patriarch. Prominent in Eastern Europe. Required by the landlords of Eastern Europe, esp. Russia to ensure the lands remain cultivated.

twelve years' truce

gave northern provinces of netherland's independence from spain

Salon

gave philosophes access to useful social and political contacts, and a receptive environment in which to circulate their ideas. Brought philosophes increased social status and added luster and a sense of respectability to their ideas. The women who organized these were often well-connected to political figures who would help protect the philosophes, as well as secure royal pensions for them.

Isaac Newton

his laws of universal gravitation exemplified the newly perceived power of the human mind; presented in his "Principia Mathematica". Encouraged natural philosophers to approach the study of nature directly and to avoid metaphysics and supernaturalism. Insisted on the use of empiricism. Nature is rational. Believed God could interfere with the natural order.

Conservatism

included legitimate monarchies, landed aristocracies and established churches during the 19th century. These three cooperated to keep this ideal alive after the French Revolution and Napoleonic era. Those that supported this ideal spurned the idea of a written constitution, unless it was written by themselves.

North German Confederation

includes all of Germany north of the Main River, united after the Austro-Prussian war. Was under Prussian leadership. Each state has own local government, but military now under federal control. President is the king of Prussia; chancellor is Bismark. Has legislation that consists of two houses, the Bundesrat and Reichstag. Its constitution became the Constituion of the German Empire. Created Germany as a military monarchy.

Euro (1999-)

introduced to Europe by the Treaty of Maastricht

Whigs (Great Britain)

refers to those that support the power of Parliament. When the Tory Ministry under Wellington fell, this ministry arose under the leadership of Earl Grey. Had presented the House of Commons with a major reform bill that had two goals: 1. to replace "rotten boroughs" (boroughs with few voters) with representatives for the previously unrepresented manufacturing districts and cities. 2. increase number of voters by 50 percent through new franchises

Tories (Great Britain)

refers to those that support the power of the king or Prime Minister of Britain, Wellington. When the Roman Catholic Irish are given the right to vote in Parliamentary elections, they feel betrayed by the Anglican British government. Some supported parliamentary reform, believing that the House of Commons had to be corrupt in order to pass a law allowing Catholics franchise.

Counter-Reformation

reform movement in the Catholic Church, beginning in the 1530s, that fostered a more spiritual outlook and clarified church doctrines in response to the Protestant Reformation

Third Republic

republic that ruled France for 60 years; formed after crisis following the Franco-Prussian War; threatened by groups that wanted a monarchy or military rule

Fronde

series of violent uprisings during the minority of Louis XIV triggered by the centralizing policies of Richelieu and Mazarin from 1649-1652. Louis XIV was determined never to be in that position again.

Habsburg Dynasty

situated in Austria; wanted to gain control of Germany following the Thirty Years' War and bring it back to Catholicism. Was in alliance with Spain on this conquest, but as Spain's power and influence faltered, they were left on their own in achieving this. Retained a firm hold on the title of Holy Roman Empire after 1648. Began to solidify power within their hereditary possessions outside the Holy Roman Empire. The Treaty of Rastatt (1714) gave them former Spanish Netherlands and Lombary Northern Italy. Had difficulty unifying their territories due to the great diversity of each individual nation. Developed soveriegnity over Hungary with the rule of Emperor Leopald I. His conquests made up for the loss of holds on the Holy Roman Empire.

Bloody Sunday

the Russo-Japanese war caused growing discontent of Russians and led to upheaval. Middle class businessman wanted liberal institutions and a liberal political system. Nationalities were dissatisfied with their domination by a 45% Russian ethnic population. Peasants were still suffering from a lack of land, and laborers felt oppressed by their working and living conditions in Russia's large cities. When a war-related transportation breakdown led to food shortages in major Russian cities, a procession of workers went to the palace in St. Petersburg on Jan, 9 1905 to present a petition of grievances to the tsar. Troops idiotically opened fire on the peaceful demonstration, killing hundreds and launching a revolution (this was known as "Bloody Sunday"). This event caused workers to call for strikes and form unions; meanwhile zemstvos demanded a parliamentary government, ethnic groups revolted, and peasants burned the houses of landowners. Nicholas II responded by issuing the October Manifesto which granted civil liberties and agreed to create a Duma (legislative assembly) elected directly by a broad franchise. This didn't last long however and soon Russia was under tsarist rule again until World War I

Dreyfus Affair

the controversy in France in 1894 in which Captain Dreyfus, a Jewish officer, was wrongly convicted of treason. The ensuing conflict highlighted the growing rift between liberal republicans, who wanted Dreyfus pardoned, and conservative militarists and traditionalists, who did not want to reopen the case. The conflict also highlighted the growing trend of anti-Semitism. Created a division between conservatives and radicals, as well as republicans and socialists.

Reichstag

the lower house in the North German Confederation's legislature. Chosen by universal male suffrage. Had little real power, because its ministers were responsible to the monarch. Could not propose laws.

Chamber of Deputies (France)

the lower house of France's bicameral legislature, created under the Charter of Louis XVIII. During the rule of Charles X, became increasingly liberal as more liberals won more seats. Bargained with the king, who responded by appointing a less conservative ministry and easing dominance over the press and education, but which left this group unsatisfied still. After the election of 1830, the liberals gained many more seats in this group. Charles then dissolves this group by way of the Four Ordinances. When Charles goes into exile after the July Revolution, they name Louis Philippe the king, ending Bourbon rule in France.

Versailles

the most elaborated monument to political absolutism, and a great example of baroque art at its height. Interior of this palace was decorated vastly with dramatic paintings and morals presenting Louis XIV as the Sun King. The Hall of Mirrors reflected the power of the monarch. Fountains of the palace depicted mystical gods as if they had come to pay court or amuse the Sun King.

Eduard Bernstein Evolutionary Socialism

the most prominent Marxist-Revisionist and member of the German Social Democratic Party. He challenged Marxist orthodoxy with his book Evolutionary Socialism in which he argued that some of Marx's ideas were wrong (such as the capitalist system had not broken down, nor did its demise seem near. And property was becoming more, not less, diffused). He believed that evolution by democratic means (the vote), not revolution, would achieve the desired goal of socialism.

battle of lepanto

took place on 7 October 1571 when a fleet of the Holy League, a coalition of Catholic maritime states, decisively defeated the main fleet of the Ottoman Empire. The five-hour battle was fought at the northern edge of the Gulf of Patras, off western Greece, where the Ottoman forces sailing westwards from their naval station in Lepanto (Turkish: İnebahtı; Greek: Ναύπακτος, Naupaktos or Έπαχτος, Épahtos) met the Holy League forces, which had come from Messina.[8] The Victory of the Holy League prevented the Mediterranean Sea from becoming an uncontested highway for Muslim forces, protected Italy from a major Ottoman invasion, and prevented the Ottomans from advancing further into the southern flank of Europe. Lepanto was the last major naval battle fought almost entirely between oar-powered galleys, and has been assigned great symbolic importance since then.

Ottoman Empire

was the largest and most stable political entity to arise in or near Europe following the collapse of the Roman empire. Achieved this power between the eleventh and early sixteenth centuries as tribes migrated eastward from the steppes of Asia. Conquered Constantinople in 1453, putting an end to the Byzantine Empire. Was the dominant political power in the Muslim world after 1516, when it administered the holy cities of Mecca and Medina as well as Jerusalem, and arranged the safety of Muslim pilgrimages to Mecca. Population was diverse with significant numbers of Christians, and after the late fifteenth century, thousands of Jews from Spain. Extended far more religious toleration to their subjects than existed elsewhere in Europe.

Henry IV

was the leader of the Huguenots; came to the French throne after Henry III died. After coming to a realization that the Catholics made up the majority of France, he abandoned his Protestant faith and converted to Catholicism in order to keep his country unified and end the French wars of religion. Although later killed by a religious fanatic, he is remembered for his Edict of Nantes (1598)

Third Estate

were hated by the sans-culottes, who believed the early members of this group only wanted to share political power, social prestige and economic security with the aristocracy.

Kulaks

were the prosperous peasants in the Soviet Union that were considered the enemy. The government had claimed that they were responsible for hoarding and for what they regarded as speculation (loss of investments) in the grain trade. Soviet Union tries to eliminate this class. At this point, they're regarded as any peasants who resisted collectivization.

Untermenschen

what Hitler considered Slavs; subhuman creatures like beasts who need not be treated as people.