AP Euro Exam Review

Phases of the Thirty Years War

Bohemian, Danish, Swedish, Franco-Swedish

Who supported English state-building

Both the poor people and the upperclass because both groups had to pay taxes (unlike France)

Who gained the crown in the Spanish War of Successions

Bourbons

Rationalism

A belief or theory that opinions and actions should be based on reason and knowledge rather than on religious belief or emotional response; advocated by Rene Descartes

Revisionist Socialism

A form of socialism that has revised its critique of capitalism and seeks to reconcile greater social justice with surviving capitalist forms.

Tennis Court Oath

A pledge made by the members of France's National Assembly in 1789, in which they vowed to continue meeting until they had drawn up a new constitution; made up of Third Estate members

Conservatism

A political or theological orientation advocating the preservation of the best in society and opposing radical changes.

June Days

A revolt during the month of June as a result of the abolishment of national workshops. This event ended the liberal capitalist and the radical socialists tension ending in victory for liberalism and Capitalism; led to having a new constitution demanding a strong executive, which led to the rise of Louis Napoleon.

What does Peter the Great do to make Russia more Western

He sent Russians to the West to study, brought foreigners into Russia, forced men to shave (against Old Believer rules, symbol of modernization), adopted Western court rituals and founded an Academy of Sciences; he went to the West himself undercover and learned about Western ways from the bottom up (shipbuilding, metallurgy, dentistry). When he returned, he set up many factories w/serf labor.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

#1 mistake for Revolutionaries. In 1790, they passed this law that forced clergy to become state employees and take oaths of loyalty to state. 50% clergy obeyed, other 50% didn't, and the pope condemned the action, so many religious people were alienated.

French Wars of Religion

(1562-1598) Huguenots vs. Catholics results in Henry of Navarre (Huguenot) taking the throne as Henry IV, caused by calvinism and catholicism. aggressive in trying to win converts to their religion, went over eachothers authority. Known as the HApsburg-Valois Wars. The war started with the ruler Charles V trying to change the religion, but he was too busy fighting his opponents.

Voltaire

(1694-1778) French philosophe. He believed that freedom of speech was the best weapon against bad government. He also spoke out against the corruption of the French government, and the intolerance of the Catholic Church.

Edward Gibbon

(1737 - 1794) Author of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, published in 1776, one of the first modern histories that attempted to explain the past as a guide to the future.

Crimean War

(1853-1856) Russian war against Ottomans for control of the Black Sea; intervention by Britain and France cause Russia to lose; Russians realize need to industiralize.

Russo-Japanese War

(1904-1905) War between Russia and Japan over imperial possessions. Japan emerges victorious.

October Manifesto

(1905), issued by Nich. II, attempted to quiet strikes, local revolts, promised freedom of speech and assembly, called the Duma into session

Scientific Revolution impact in East

- In the East, peasants were reduced to serfdom, and in the West, many were forced to go into the cities in search of a job (leading to chaos @ cities) and village unity decreased b/c of increased population and national intervention for law enforcement (intendants).

Causes of the Scientific Revolution

- some scientists were beginning to question the old authorities. - some ancient scientists that challenged established theories influenced other scientists to question them as well - Another influence was the interest in what is now regarded as magic, but was then seen as serious science. These branches of science included alchemy and astrology, and were linked by the belief that the world could be understood through several secret truths (like Neoplatonism). These sciences contributed to the outpouring of new ideas, the questioning of the old theories, and the use of math. - New instruments and devices (printing press, telescope, vacuum pump, thermometer, barometer and microscope), often made for other purposes, were used in science and made possible many of the new discoveries. The interest in technology was actually stimulated by the competition between the different nations b/c applied technology was used in warfare.

What were the phases of Louis XIV's rule

1. Cardinal Mazarin rules b/c Louis XIV was too young. Mazarin put down the Fronde (rebellion by nobles, not by peasants) but only after Louis XIV fled Paris and his entire family was killed (oops!) which, naturally, left a lasting impression on Louis XIV (could have been a reason why Louis XIV did not want his palace @ Paris). This phase ended when Mazarin died in 1661. 2. Louis takes over, builds Versailles, and vows not to let anyone rule over him. He built up the standing army, continued centralization of power through the bureaucracy, helped the economy grow and said I am the state, which pretty much sums it up. 3. Constant wars, France vs. the rest of Europe.

What allowed England to industrialize

1. England was close to the sea, which allowed trade w/foreign nations and colonies. Also, England had two great resources essential to industry, iron and coal, as well as a lot of good, productive farmlands. 2. the English began with a store of capital from the colonies, which led to the creation of a banking and investing system - the Bank of England - in 1694. 3. the English had markets in their colonies, the other European powers (free trade agreement w/ France in 1786) and the Spanish colonies b/c of the Treaty of Utrecht. 4. slavery, cheap labor (peasants) due to the Enclosure Acts, which drove the peasants out of the communal farmlands and made them look for work. 5. since the gentry were in control of the government (since they had Parliament) they could pass laws favorable to the merchants. 6. Navy

Augustus the Strong

A Polish King that becomes best friends with Peter the Great; They decide to declare war on Sweden to get their ports since they thought it would be easy because there was a 12 year old on the throne

Types of Women's Movements

1. Led by middle class women, most women's movements were centered in charitable work and education. Cautious in outlook, they spoke out against the social injustices that caused millions of women to be subjected to terrible poverty. 2. By the 1880s, the first type of movement had led to a more politically radical one that was less geared towards protecting women and was more concerned with equality. 3. Another movement, led by the women's trade unions, was mainly concerned about the problems of pay and working conditions in the factories.

Difficulties Europeans faced while trying to change the structure of their economy

1. Small Market Size (European markets cut off from one another) 2. Skewed Distribution of Wealth (merchants catered to aristocracies instead of producing lots of cheap things for the public messing with supply and deman) 3. Property Rights/Privileges (these traditional institutions worked against innovation and sucked up capital that would otherwise be available to both would-be consumers (peasants) and the entrepreneurs (merchants).) 4. Guild/Government Regulations (established traditional procedure that didn't allow for innovation; Government restrictions on economic activity and licensing of monopolies only made it more difficult for merchants.) 5. Cultural Attitudes (as many Europeans, especially the nobles, still regarded $ as dirty and simply wanted to have their titles, going into business was discouraged.)

How did Louis XVI attempt to unify the country while still maintaining control

1. Trying to create religious uniformity (i.e. trying to make France Catholic); revoked the entire Edict of Nantes to "clean out" the country from the Huguenots; tried to get a papal bull to condemn the Jansenists, a Catholic faction, but Louis XIV died before he could put the policy into effect; in attempting to unify the country through religion, Louis XIV simply alienated his people. 2. Employing intendants and royal officials to subdue peasants and collect taxes. Although this helped the economy and the treasury, it was terrible for the peasants, who had to pay exorbitant taxes to support the wars, and, since nobles couldn't be taxed, the peasants were forced to bear all the burden of taxation. 3. Keeping the parlements and nobles (with Versailles) under control. Additionally, he ruthlessly suppressed all the peasant rebellions that occurred.

Peace of Augsburg

1555 agreement declaring that the religion of each German state would be decided by its ruler

Brunswick Manifesto

1792, during the radical stage. Austria and Prussia made this saying that they would destroy Paris if any harm came to the French king(Louis XVI); caused Parisian militants to storm the royal palace at the Tulieries. They drove the king from the throne, the LA declared him suspended, and then half the LA escaped as well. Now, without the king, the LA was also illegitimate.

The Danish War

1864 Prussian & Austria vs Denmark. Denmark loses. Prussia gets schleswig. Austria gets Halstein

Boxer Rebellion

1899 rebellion in Beijing, China started by a secret society of Chinese who opposed the "foreign devils". The rebellion was ended by British troops.

Bloody Sunday

1905; peaceful march by russians turned deadly when Czar's guards fire on crowd, killing hundreds

The Bloody Week

25,000 people were killed in street fighting. Finally, the insurrection was put down and the French Third Republic was born (1871 - 1940). Although the people who wanted the republic were a minority, since the others are so divided, they won!

Thirty Years War (1618-1648)

A series of European wars that were partially a Catholic-Protestant religious conflict. It was primarily a battle between France and their rivals the Hapsburg's, rulers of the Holy Roman Empire.

Napoleonic Wars

A series of wars fought between France (led by Napoleon Bonaparte) and alliances involving England and Prussia and Russia and Austria at different times (1799-1812).

Panic of 1873 (1873-1879)

A severe international economic depression triggered by overproduction of railroads, mines, factories and farm products. *Historical Significance:* Led to the *Railroad Strike of 1877*.

Romantic art

A style of art which focused on nature and feelings, and rejected the orderly world

Ems Telegram

A telegram which the French gave to the Germans in anger over the Succession of the Throne in Spain, but the Germans altered it to look like the French were rude and evil. The French declared war.

The Great Fear

A wave of senseless panic that spread through the French countryside after the storming of the Bastille in 1789; caused by starvation and rumors (that nobles were going to destroy the harvest)

What happened after Fedor died

After Fedor died, there was the question of succession - was it to be Ivan (dumb, older son) or Peter (brilliant, younger son)? So, Sophie (Peter's brilliant half-sister) organized the Streltsy and removes Peter and his mother sending them to Preobrazhusky where Peter learns Western ways.

What did the Duke of Orleans do after Louis XIV died

After Louis' death in 1715 the duke of Orléans served as reagent (until 1723). The duke was committed to giving power back to the aristocracy, so he restored the parlements to power (he gave them the power to veto royal laws, a power they would never relinquish) and replaced royal bureaucrats w/nobles.

What did the Bourbons do after gaining the Spanish crown

After the war of Spanish Succession, however, the Bourbons gained control of the crown, and they ended the traditional independence of Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia and created a united Spain. The Bourbons also established the office of the intendant in Spain, which helped curb the nobles.

Protoindustrialization

Also called the "putting-out system," in which entrepreneurs delivered raw materials to families in the countryside, who would then spin and weave the materials into garments. The entrepreneurs would then pick up the garments, pay the families, and sell them on the market.

The Great War for Empire

Also known as the French and Indian War, this was a showdown between England and France for control of North America. With help from the American colonists, the British won this war fought between 1756 and 1763.

Who was Boccaccio?

An Italian poet that told stories about the plague.

Abstract Impressionism

An art movement that artists applied paint freely to their huge canvases in an effort to show feelings and emotions rather than realistic subject matter. It was the first important school of American painting to develop independently of European styles

Post Impressionism

An artistic movement that expressed world that could not normally be seen, like dreams and fantasy.

What were the classes of society

Aristocracy, Peasants, Workers, Artisans/Skilled Workers, Middle Class

What was the area in which the humanists really excelled

Art

Neoclassicism

Art that favored line over color, and was all about drama, tension, emotion, content, and an imitation ancient style. The philosophs loved the NC, for they favored themes that the philosophs liked. Famous painter was Jacques Louis David.

Militaristic nationalism

Associated with ideas of social Darwinism and Realpolitik, the claim of militaristic nationalism is that one nation is better, not just different

Revolution in Italy

At first, the revolutions were successful, and all the states got constitutions (Napes, Tuscany, Piedmont, even Papal States). Lombardy and Venetia had been part of the Hapsburg Empire, but after the revolution in Vienna, a revolt broke out in Milan against the Austrian forces there. In the Five Glorious Days of Milan the Austrians were forced to retreat. The Venetian republic was reestablished, and Piedmont joined the war against Austria as well. In fact, when it then turned out that the pope was not an Italian nationalist and he escaped, Rome was even left to be run by a representative assembly. Still, military force was the decisive factor, and Austria came back and beat Piedmont and its allies, leaving Austria back in firm control. Louis Napoleon then restored the pope, Sicily fell to the kingdom of Naples in May 1849, and, finally, Venetia was defeated in August 1849 by Austria.

Swedish Phase (Thirty Years War)

Began with arrival in Germany of the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus. Adolphus won a brilliant victory at Breitenfeld. The Swedish victories ended the Habsburg ambition to unite the German states under imperial authoritiy. Prompted French to enter the war on the Protestant side.

What was the main source of information before the Scientific Revolution

Bible

Danish Phase (Thirty Years War)

Catholic army swept through Silesia, north to Baltic, and east into Pomerania, scoring "smashing victories". Wallenstein, an opportunist, seemed interested more in carving out his own empire. Soon , catholic forced were divided.

What are the two branches of the Church

Catholicism and Protestantism

Plombieres Agreement

Cavour of Sardinia created a diplomatic alliance with Napoleon III against Austria for help in driving Austria out of Lombardy and Venetia and uniting Northern Italy.

Nicolaus Copernicus

Challenged Ptolemy's geocentric model and created the heliocentric model; started to develop concept of gravity (large masses have their own attractive forces); kept the crystalline spheres and did not account for the stars

Who got the throne after Philip IV

Charles II

Charles XII's rule

Charles XII (little genius kid) who fought Poland and invaded Russia where he got his little butt kicked. Then, his neighbors began taking over his lands, and the nobles took advantage of his absence to reassert their power.

What happens during The Great Northern War

Charles crushes Denmark, then scares Polish away from Riga (they were besieging it) and totally beat Russians, who were besieging Narva. So, by 1700, Charles has really won, but he still wants revenge, and chooses (big mistake) to go after Augustus first (b/c Augustus didn't declare war). For 7 yrs Charles chases after Augustus and finally puts him in jail. Now Charles attacks Peter, but now Peter is ready. Charles takes 35,000 men and invades Russia, and Russians use Scorched Earth Policy so in INCREDIBLY harsh Russian winter the Swedes freeze. So, in 1709 at Poltava the Russians win a crushing victory and gain Baltic provinces as Window ->West.

Maria Theresa

Charles' daughter, who was heir to the throne in 1740. MT was in a difficult position, for not only had Charles had left her w/an empty treasury, a poorly trained army and an ineffective bureaucracy, but she also faced a rebellion by the Czech nobles in Bohemia, and the Hungarian nobles were ready to follow suit. So, MT went around to the nobles and appealed to them as a damsel in distress. Though she was also forced to promise the Hungarians autonomy (w/in empire), the plan still worked wonders. But MT also faced other nations, who didn't respect the PS

Louis XIV's Foreign Policies

Colbert, Louvois, Grand Alliance, The War of the Spanish Succession

Count Eduard von Taffe

Count Eduard von Taffe held office. Although Czechs and Poles supported Taffe, he was forced to stick to inaction for fear of alienating his other supporters. In response to worker's agitation, Taffe proposed welfare measures but repressed the socialists (making the left and the right mad). After his fall, the gov't relied more on support from the top, since universal male suffrage (introduced in 1907) put the Christian Socialist and Social Democrats in the lead.

Darwin's impact on people's thinking

Darwin's discoveries, which made people appear to be more like animals and showed that humans were irrational creatures controlled by nature, also undermined faith in liberalism, a philosophy that was based on a belief in human rationality.

Ninety-Five Theses

Document written by Martin Luther and posted on a church door in Germany that listed 95 things that Luther saw wrong with the church

What happened to international relationships during the 17th century

During the 17th century international relations became more impersonal and based on rational thought and less based on relationships between kings. Gradually dynastic influences gave way to the concept of the state. Leaders tried to shape their policies on reasons of state - i.e. security.

Economic growth during the 18th century

During the 18th century, overall wealth increased, although the growth was not consistent. Still, the overall trend was a positive one. In the first decades of the century, prices remained stable, due to the economic consequences of the War of the Spanish Succession. This period was characterized by gradual price inflation (which reflected growing demands for goods from a growing population). This gradual price inflation stimulated the economy, and, although there were some problems, the economy generally grew. Though the gradual increase in prices was good for landlords, employers, merchants, and landed peasants, it was very bad for the poor, landless peasants, who could barely afford to live.

Rembrandt

Dutch painter who pretty much just painted pictures of himself (pretty conceited, but really was just fascinated by human character and lighting).

Which 2 theories of knowledge was the scientific method a combination of

Empiricism and Rationalism

James II's rule

Enforced Treaty of Dover (converted country back to Catholicism); tried to convert Oxford, Cambridge, and army to Catholicism; Reinstated Declaration of Indulgence and forced every bishop to read it in church

Thomas Hobbes

English materialist and political philosopher who advocated absolute sovereignty as the only kind of government that could resolve problems caused by the selfishness of human beings (1588-1679); atheist;

John Locke

English philosopher who advocated the idea of a "social contract" in which government powers are derived from the consent of the governed and in which the government serves the people; also said people have natural rights to life, liberty and property.

Directory

Established after the Reign of Terror / National Convention; a five man group as the executive branch of the country; incompetent and corrupt, only lasted for 4 years; had to overthrow itself after the first general election because a royalist majority won, and things only got worse. By 1799 any semblance of legitimacy was gone, making way for Napoleon...

Committee of Public Safety

Established and led by Robespierre, fixed bread prices and nationalized some businesses. Basically secret police and also controlled the war effort. Instigated the Reign of Terror; A twelve-man committee

Where did the Renaissance begin

Florence, Italy

What led to the Crimean War

France (supporting the Catholics) pressured the Ottoman sultan into giving the Catholics special privileges, which caused the Russians (supporting the Greek Orthodox) to demand a protectorate over Orthodox churches w/in the Ottoman Empire. Then the Russians occupied Wallachia and Moldavia, Danubian lands that were under the Ottomans. Concerned by the Russian expansion, the English urged the sultan to resist the Russian demands.

Revolution in Prussia

Frederick William IV of Prussia, upon hearing about the uprising in Vienna, granted some concessions, relaxed censorship and called the Landtag (parliament). Fighting broke out anyway. But when FW agreed to remove his troops from Berlin and elected a constitutional assembly through indirect male suffrage (Berlin), it stopped and it seemed that the revolution had won out.

Baron de Montesquieu

French aristocrat who wanted to limit royal absolutism; Wrote The Spirit of Laws, urging that power be separated between executive, legislative, and judicial branches, each balancing out the others, thus preventing despotism and preserving freedom. This greatly influenced writers of the US Constitution. He greatly admired British form of government.

Immanuel Kant

Greatest German philosopher of Enlightenment-separated science and morality into separate branches of knowledge-science could describe nature, it could not provide a guide for morality. Wrote Critique of Pure Reason

How does Peter gain control of the crown

In 1689, Peter goes back to Moscow and overthrows the government of Ivan (in name, but really it is Sophie) and becomes a co-ruler w/Ivan

Charles XI's rule over Sweden

In Sweden, the nobles emerged from a long struggle vs. the monarchy as the dominant force. During the reign of Charles XI this was not a problem as Charles stayed out of Europe's wars and was able to conserve his resources and not rely on the nobility.

Frankfurt Convention

In may, 830 delegates met at frankfurt to discuss German issues, most wanted a monarchial German state with a semi democratic constitution

German Unification

In the 19th-century, various independent German-speaking states, led by the chancellor of Prussia Otto von Bismarck, unified to create a Germanic state. The state expanded with von Bismarck's military exploits against Austria, France and Denmark. Unification was complete by 1871 with the Prussian king, Wilhelm, named the first leader of Germany.

Revolution in Austria

In the Austrian Empire, the Hungarians had by mid-March established a free press and a national guard and had abolished feudal obligations and special privileges. Vienna then reluctantly allowed Hungary to levy its own taxes and direct its own army. This Hungarian example caused students in Vienna to demand representative government for Austria as well - crowds rose up, Metternich resigned, censorship was abolished, a constitution was promised, and universal male suffrage was given. Hungarian autonomy caused similar demands from the Czechs in Bohemia, the Croatians in Croatia, and the Romanians in Transylvania. The original revolutionaries, however, had no tolerance for other smaller revolutions against the Germans, and it supported the repressors of those small revolutions. As the smaller revolutions gained power, so did the Hapsburgs (who asked for the support of the smaller revolutions against the first revolutions). The Hapsburgs then used their powerful armies to force all the revolutionaries into submission.

Dutch society in the United Provinces

In the United Provinces, social distinctions were less prominent and social mobility was easier. Also, instead of ancient families of nobility, the UP's were filled with merchants and mayors - they were the most bourgeoisie state.

Limits on the scale of war

In the armies and navies, the size, organization and skill grew. So, there was less brutality. The idea of an unconditional surrender was unheard of, and most battles took place for a specific purpose. Another limit of the scale of war was the constantly shifting alliances and distrust, and the weak communications between allies and between a king and his troops

Scientific Revolution impact in villages

In the village, ancient traditions held fast, for example, the belief in magic and the yearly festivals such as Charivari. Like Calvinism, villagers felt they couldn't control their own destiny (unlike SciRev, the beliefs of which had not spread to the village yet), which led to witch hunts that eventually subsided when the SciRev and Counter Reformation (because of better educated priests) spread to the village

Dreyfus Affair

Incident in France where a Jewish captain was tried for treason because they military was anti-Semitic, and it divided France

What does the increases in performance depend on

Increases in performance (which is measured by the output per individual) in industry always depend on the structure (characteristics that support industry - economy, politics, etc.) of the society.

Impressionism

Instead of attempting to capture reality, impressionists showed "what the eye first sees" by using color, light, and flattening the canvas.

Jethro Tull

Invented the seed drill

Fundamental Laws

Issued by the Russian Government in 1906. The tsar retained great power. The Duma was elected by universal male suffrage. The Upper House could pass laws but the Tsar had veto power.

Italy's Domestic Policies

Italy's liberal monarchy wanted to modernize while balancing the budget. But, since the gov't was totally corrupt and had very limited suffrage, it couldn't win much popular support; Francesco Crispi tried to win popular supported by policies like anticlericalism, a trade war w/France and imperialism - but, instead, he angered people and had to resort to martial law to end a protest movement among Sicilian peasants; Unrest increased until riots reached revolutionary scale in Milan in 1898. The gov't restored order, but it took bloodshed and repression; Although there were still conflicts, Italy was industrializing at a rapid rate, the war against Turkey in 1912 helped gain public support (new reforms were implemented), and Italy was pretty much set on a liberal track.

Victor Emmanuel II

King of Piedmont, Savoy, and Sardinia. Eventually became first king of a united Italy. Led the north in Italian unification and united with Garibaldi's south in 1861. Drove the pope into the Vatican city, and eventually made Rome the capital of Italy.

Charles VI

Leopold's successor, whose major problem was that he had no male heir; drafted the Pragmatic Sanction and forced all the major powers to sign it

Types of Nationalism

Liberal and Militaristic

Alfonso XII

Little change occurred during his reign, and a parliamentary system based on limited suffrage did little to reform the country.

What did Cardinal Fleury do after the duke of Orleans

Louis XV gave almost unlimited authority to him after his death; During Fleury's time, France began to recover: harvests were abundant, population grew, and commerce boomed; The problems that had plagued the reign of Louis XIV, however, were not solved, and when Fleury died in 1743 the pressures exploded. France was plunged into stupid wars that ruined the economy

Turgot

Louis XVI's finance minister that tried to make reforms to fix the situation (like removing government restrictions on commerce, cutting down court expenses, and replacing the obligation of peasants to work on royal roads with a small tax on all landholders) but this made him unpopular with the nobles.

Peace of Hubertusburg

Made after Seven Years War; Prussia gets Silesia and Austria gets Saxony back.

Anarchism

Many groups including the socialists and Marxists of the 19th century often opposed the idea of a state. They believed society would function better without a government and that governments do nothing but promote exploitation.

Types of Radicalism

Marxism, Revisionist Socialism, Trade Unions, Anarchism

June Days represented the split between which 2 revolutionary groups

Middle class (wanted moderate goals, like equality of taxation, careers open to talent, representative government, freedom of speech, press, etc) and Working class (wanted radical goals, socialism, total equality - new type of revolution no longer based on Enlightenment but based on socialism and working class)

Peasants class

Most Europeans; felt the effects of change as agriculture became more commercial (profits increased) and technology changed; the emancipation of the peasants from feudal obligations encouraged peasants to enter the commercial market; decline of local industries (putting-out system) made the peasants even more dependent on small plots of land; peasants stuck by tradition, although they could also become major political forces in some cases.

Radical Phase of French Revolution

Paris Commune wasn't enough to contain hysteria and maintain control; September Massacres; Battle of Valmy; Louis XVI guillotined; Constitution of 1793; Jacobins swept aside the new constitution, declaring the government "revolutionary until the peace" and instituting the Reign of Terror; Committee for Public Safety (members executed themselves and Robespierre was overthrown)

What happened when James II had a baby boy

Parliament, knowing it had to act right away, asked William of Orange (married to Mary, daughter of James) to invade and take over, which he did. The king fled w/out a fight as his top general, John Churchill, deserted him the night before the battle and joined the other side.

patriots

People against tradition (they didn't needed to be lower class, necessarily)

July Monarchy

Period in France (1830-1848) where the bourgeoisie class was dominant and King Louis-Philippe was at the head of a constitutional monarchy. The monarchy eventually became too rigid and unwilling to change and was overthrown.

What happened after Tsar Alexis died

Peter (the Great Westernizer) was born in 1672, and, when he was three, his father Tsar Alexis (Romanov) died and his half-brother from an earlier marriage (from Miloslavsky family à old believers in the Russian Orthodox Church) took over, called Fedor.

Russian society under Peter the Great

Peter made a very clear dividing line between peasants (had to pay poll tax, military conscription, forced public work) and nobility (status in which was now based on level in bureaucracy and not family). Result was more controlled social order + more uniformity.

How was Poland compared to the French society

Poland was the strongest contrast to the French society, for it was so chaotic and not unified that it ceased to exist as a state in the late 18th century. This chaos was a result of the complete dominance of the nobility, which didn't allow a centralized government to form. Though there were some brilliant kings who still fought in wars (when all nobles saw a threat they would unite and form an army under king), they could exercise power once wars were over (since kings were elected).. The crown, then, had no bureaucracy or funding, so Poland still resembled a feudal kingdom.

Scientific Revolution Population pattern

Population decreased after the 16th century. In the 17th century, population began to rise again, leading to overcrowding in the cities, bigger armies, increased crime, more taxation (but food prices didn't rise = bad for peasants), and beggars (not enough food for peasants).

Industrial Revolution impact on demographic

Prior to the eighteenth century, the levels of populations seemed to flow in cyclical, or wave-like patterns, depending on natural phenomena such as crop failures, plagues, etc.; Europe's population skyrocketed, jumping from 120 to 190 million. After this time, the cyclic behavior of the populations stopped, and Europe's population simply continued to increase; lower mortality rates because of stable and better food

Zollverein

Prussian led economic union

How did the public think of James II

Public opinion of James was still high, though James' brutal handling of the rebels after they were caught somewhat angered and worried the public.

Diderot

Published work of many philosphes in his Encyclopedia. He hoped it would help people think more rationally and critically.

Austro-Prussian (Seven Weeks) War

Purposely stirred up border conflicts in hopes of Austria declaring war on Prussia; Established Prussia as a strong German state

Frederick William

Realizing that other states were swarming over his possessions at will, he built a good army, which he used to impose order and to gain territory (w/out actually using the army, just through intimidation). In domestic policy, FW got rid of the Diet of Brandenburg (it actually got rid of itself as it gave FW the power to raise taxes w/out its consent in 1653), established the War Chest, which financed the army and collect government revenue, and placed the implementation of policies in the hands of war commissars. FW quickly intimidated his only sources of resistance, the cities, w/the army, and established his control.

What were the ideas of the Englightenment

Reason, Skepticism, Toleration, Freedom, Equality, Education, Optimism, and Enlightened Despotism

Archbishop Brienne

Replaced Calonne; one of the notables; submitted Calonne's ideas to the Parlements, but they rejected them. Then they demanded that Louis convene the Estates General. Louis responded by attempting to send the Parlement into exile, but was forced to back down. So, Louis recalled the Parlements and Necker and agreed to convene the EG in 1789...

Necker

Replaced Turgot; avoided new taxes, which made him popular, but took out huge loans instead, which was bad for the economy. After a while things were so screwed up that the new finance guy, Calonne, rightly stated that the monarchy was on the verge of bankruptcy.

Congress of Paris

Russia was forced to cede some territory, surrender its claims in Turkey and accept a ban on warships in the Black Sea. The big issue at the conference had to do w/national claims, an issue which was postponed b/c the Austrians didn't want the obvious solution to be put into effect as they felt threatened by nationalist interests.

Russian "scorched-earth" policy

Russian strategic defense against Napoleon's invading army; rather than engaging in battle, as Napoleon had hoped, the Russians retreated for hundreds of miles and torched their own villages and countryside to prevent Napoleon's army from finding food or supplies; Napoleon was forced to retreat from Moscow in terrible winter conditions, a military disaster that ultimately led to his defeat in 1814.

Balkan Wars

Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria took Macedonia from the Ottomans in 1912. Serbia then fought Bulgaria in the second Balkan War in 1913 Austria intervened to stop the war. These wars were mostly territorial and were a precursor to World War I.

Sir Robert Walpole

Since the 1st two Hanover kings (George I and George II) couldn't speak English well, Sir Robert Walpole pretty much ran things. His major accomplishment was his good handling of the South Sea Bubble Crash in 1720, a financial crash similar to the failure of John Law's scheme in France. Walpole kept England at peace and is often seen as the 1st prime minister. Walpole's peaceful policies pleased large landlords but angered merchants (feared growth of French commerce) who found leadership in William Pitt, who wanted to get rid of France sea influence (England's destiny).

Why did Sophie send Peter and his mother away

So despite Ivan being "ruler," she could be the one who was ACTUALLY ruler (Ivan is dumb)

What did Queen Ulrika have to do to fix Charles XII's mistake

So, Queen Ulrika was forced to accept a constitution that gave the Riksdag (like Parliament) control over the country and Stockholm became an elegant capital w/out many big political aspirations.

Glorious Revolution

So, in 1688, William and Mary take over as comonarchs. William of Orange, the leader of the Dutch who is fighting the French, was so thankful to be able to take over England because of its military strength that he did not mind being a limited, not an absolute, monarch. - Then, Parliament passes the Bill of Rights a statement that, once and for all, establishes Parliament's supremacy. Also, to please William, Parliament finally passes the Act of Toleration.

Charles XII

Swedish king MILITARY GENIUS! Obsessed w/war, very brilliant, great physical courage, very willful, upright moral man, Lutheran, determined to fight to death if attacked, but will not attack if not provoked.

What did beliefs prior to the Scientific Revolution come from

The Bible, Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Galen

What led to the French Revolution?

The Enlightenment provided the ideology for the Revolution. For decades the philosophs questioned accepted political and religious beliefs and advocated for freedom, liberty and reason. Although they neither predicted nor pushed for a revolution, the philosophs wished to make people aware that the traditional ways were not always best;The French government was undoubtedly corrupt and ineffective; the most French people were unhappy and oppressed, and did not get enough to eat.;Long-term economic difficulties made it necessary for the king to try to tax the nobility, an act that pretty much set in motion the entire deal.

Flight to Varennes

The National Assembly becomes the Legislative Assembly (different members though); As it goes into effect, the king tries to escape but is captured. LA decide to go on as if nothing happened

Revolution of 1830 France

The Revolutions of 1830 started with France; First, Charles X didn't like the elections, so he passed the July Ordinances which resulted in the people taking to the streets in revolution, Charles running away, and Lafayette bringing Louis Philippe from Orleans as the new king. The new reign, known as the July Monarchy, emphasized moderation

What happened while William III was stadholder

The United Provinces were moving towards absolutism when William III had the office of Stadholder (during the wars against Louis XIV), but the Estates General soon reasserted themselves and ended the wars. Then, William sought the English crown, but only w/the approval of the Estates and he had to leave the representative assemblies for the two countries separate.

The War of Austrian Succession

The War of Austrian Succession (1740 - 1748) à The French (to help Bavaria claim the Hapsburg throne), Spain (hoped to win back control of Austria's Italian possessions), and Prussia (took Silesia) gang up on Austria. Only England supports Austria (BOP), but b/c of MT's brilliant tactics, Austria was able to fight to a stalemate and only gave up Silesia.

the Bank of England

The bank took responsibility of England's public dept, sold shares to the public, and met the interest payments for shareholders. This helped stabilize the markets.

utopian socialists

The early socialists - Saint-Simon, Fourier, and Owen attempted to find ideal communities in which everyone cooperated for the public benefit.

What was the issue with the method of voting

The first and second estate outweighted the third state (which was 95% of the population)

Bohemian Phase

The first phase of the Thirty Years' War which culminated in the Catholic victory at the Battle of White Mountain.

White Terror

The hunting down and assassinating of former republicans of France by emigre's after the final defeat of Napoleon

What led to the Great War for Empire

The intense competition between the French and English soon led to fights throughout their empires. Fighting broke out in Canada/North America, the Ohio Valley (since the French began establishing strongholds in the wilderness, the British feared that westward expansion would be cut off). The French gained the allegiance of the American Indians (as they were not settlers, the Indians felt that their presence would be better for them than the English).

Swedish-French Phase

The last phase of Thirty Years' War, when France, under Richelieu, becomes involved. The French defeat the Spanish, shift of power. War ends offically with the Peace of Westphalia

Spainish Revolution after Queen Isabella II

The revolution was led by political moderates who agreed on a constitution monarchy w/universal male suffrage, trial by jury and freedom of religion and the press. But, they couldn't find a king, and finally had to settle for an Italian prince who gave up after three years. The republic only lasted two more years until Isabella's son was reinstalled as Alfonso XII

Peace of Westphalia (1648)

The treaty ending the Thirty Years' War in Germany; it allowed each prince-whether Lutheran, Catholic, or Calvinist-to choose the established creed of his territory.

Laissez-faire economics

Theory that opposes governmental interference in economic affairs beyond what is necessary to protect life and property.

Why did Parliament wait to revolt

They didn't want to repeat their last mistake, and they thought that since James II was old and had Protestant daughters, the country could convert back after he died.

Franco-Prussian War

This was a major war between the French and the Germans in 1871 that brought about the unification of Germany. It was caused by Otto Von Bismarck altering a telegram from the Prussian King to provoke the French into attacking Prussia, thus hoping to get the independent German states to unify with Prussia (which they did, thus creating Germany).

Napoleonic Code

This was the civil code put out by Napoleon that granted equality of all male citizens before the law and granted absolute security of wealth and private property. Napoleon also secured this by creating the Bank of France which loyally served the interests of both the state and the financial oligarchy

Constitution of 1793

Very radical; Most democratic constitution in history; Called for universal manhood suffrage (all men can vote); Right to referendum (right to raise issues to the government); Made education and welfare the job of the government; It was never put into effect

What happened when William III died

When William died w/out hier, Antonius Heinsius continued his policies, but the government was really controlled by the Estates General. But the UP's soon began to decline, for their trading power and naval supremacy was surpassed by England.

What were the two sides of England's multi-party system

Whigs and Tories

Germany's Domestic Policies

William II forced Bismarck's resignation; Bismarck's policies had allowed the court, army, bureaucracy and the big businesses to accumulate tremendous amounts of power. His successors tried to mimic his foreign policy successes and copied him in building up the army; each time the army got bigger, the government relied more on nationalism, and society got more divided; Prussian Junkers and industrialists ran these campaigns that supported high tariffs, imperialism and the military and attacked socialists, Jews and foreigners; The government also extended many social welfare programs: social security, labor arbitration, regulation of working hours, safety standards, etc. and built railroads and stuff. Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg, took office. He tried to placate both the conservative court and the more radical parliament. His programs for reform failed.

Charles de la Cruz

a Robespierre wannabe who is also known as the Incorruptible and also wants the Republic of Virtue

Adam Smith

a Scottish philosopher who epitomized the concerns and desires of the age, and wrote An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776); believed that $ was not actually wealth, but only showed it, and that real wealth consisted of the added value of manufactured items produced by invested capital; started laissez-faire economics

Johann Kepler

a brilliant mathematician who developed the first theories of motion; discovered that planets move in an elipses and that they did not move at a steady rate. Instead, as they came closer to the sun, they accelerated, and they slowed down as they moved away.

Liberal nationalism

a form of nineteenth-century nationalism that focused on political ideologies and called for wider participation and the rule of law in both domestic and international politics

Ptolemy

a great astronomer from ancient times, he stated that the earth was the center of the universe and that the sun and all the planets moved around in crystalline spheres. Since this alone was not able to mathematically explain retrograde motion Ptolemy added in epicycles (circles within circles), which, through some very complicated calculations, could approximate planetary motion.

Streltsy

a group of conservative soldiers w/nothing to do that remove Peter and his mother

philosophes

a group of intellectuals who supported the ideals of the Enlightenment, stood for a series of beliefs regardless of the cost

Privy Council

a group of leading nobles that devise policy and run Leopold I's government.

Popish Plot

a hoax that stated that there was going to be an assassination of Charles II to bring James II, a Catholic, to the throne, and that James was going to convert the country back

Spain under Queen Isabella II

a liberal coalition held power in Spain, and Spain experienced economic growth and the beginning of industrialization. But this growth soon brought new demands, and in 1868, the unpopular Queen Isabella II fled and revolution ensued

Romanticism

a major movement in the early nineteenth century; was almost a counterpoint to the ideals of the Enlightenment; emphasized emotion, the heart, and poetry (often illogical and emotional); stressed intuition, and the concept of genius; viewed nature as untamable, irrational, and out of control. They felt that nature controlled humans, not visa versa.

Workers class

a new class; dependent on their employers and often made barely enough to keep alive; often lived in dirty slums, with special restrictions on their rights, etc.; were clearly an emerging political force in society, one the upper classes (rightly) feared; vast majority of the working class remained defenseless without the skills to organize well.

What was the Scientific Revolution?

a period of time in which many breakthrough discoveries were made in science and philosophy, as well as an era in which the Europeans' perception of the universe and their role in it was changed forever.

Enlightenment

a period of time in which many intellectuals, who were called philosophs, began to question the traditions of society and to look at the universe in a scientific, critical light;all the trademark aspects of European society were exposed to criticism and analysis through reason

Socialism

a political and economic theory of social organization that advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole.

Baroque

a reaction to Mannerism, the Baroque style occurred during the Counter Reformation, and it reflected the desire for grandeur and the wish to inspire and awe people with God's greatness. A famous baroque painter was Caravaggio (1571 - 1610) whose paintings were famous for their depictions of highly emotional moments.

Mannerism

a reaction to the glorification of humans seen in the Renaissance, Mannerism featured distorted human figures, strange perspectives and unnatural colors and lighting. Mannerism reached its peak during the instability of the Reformation, and it reflected the concerns of a troubled time. The major Mannerist painter was El Greco; artisitic movement

Charles II

a sickly man incapable of having children. Spain had a relatively weak monarchy, for the nobles controlled the regime, and Spain's dominions had been reduced by the war of Spanish succession (Netherlands + Italy à Austria).

Siege of Paris

a siege of Paris by the Prussian force in order to force a French surrender; Paris never did, but Versailles did

Duma

advisory council

Enlightenment idea: education

again, based on Locke. They believed that education could eventually lead to a perfect society, a paradise of reason and toleration.

Balance of Power (BOP)

all powers agreed that it was best not to be dominated by one state. The goal was to keep balance, and diplomats were not always honest and were often deceitful in attaining their goals.

Enclosure Movement

all towns shared communal lands, which were divided into small plots. This made it very difficult to change agricultural techniques, since the village as a whole had to agree to a certain technique. But, in England, Parliament was able to (in response to the petitioning of large landowners) enclose all the land in a village, even against the will of the village itself. Though enclosure was difficult and expensive, it was worth it, for it ended up generating high profits. In the end, the communal field system was practically eradicated in England, leading to the domination of rural society by great landlords and their tenant farmers. Enclosure also forced many peasants to leave for the cities, where they could then find work.

Monmouth Rebellion

an attempt to overthrow James II, who had become King of England, King of Scots and King of Ireland at the death of his elder brother Charles II; was easily put down

What did the competition between Liberals and Conservatives cause

an increase in social tension: there were more strikes and violence, and there was a possibility of the dreaded general strike. And, when in 1914 the Commons gave the Irish home rule, the Protestants of N. Ireland threatened civil war. But, the outbreak of WWI generated a wave of national unity, though the peace and prosperity of the Edwardian era (1901 - 1910) was sacrificed in exchange.

What was the Lollards

an underground movement

England's economy around time of Glorious Revolution

at the same time, England was winning big time power in the navy and in the colonies, and it surpassed France. A notable achievement was the making of the Bank of England in 1694. The bank could raise $ for government and keep it for people at favorable interest - first government bonds. London is now the financial capital of the world. But, most Englishmen were untouched by the boom, and the peasants still lived @ crappy conditions in village or city.

Louis XIV's internal policies

attempted to strengthen the economy by making reforms (which he later ignored b/c he needed instant $ for wars) by stimulating manufacturing, agriculture, and trade. He also tried to reduce the effect of France's internal toll, and tried to boost overseas trade; wanted to unify the country and keep his control over it; Versailles

Dutch art during Scientific Revolution

because of Protestantism and republicanism, Dutch art was less religious (if religious only personal faith, not that of Church obviously) and more precise because big buyers were bourgeoisie (merchants not dumb nobles)

The Seven Years War

began w/a realignment of diplomatic alliances (France vs England and Prussia vs Austria led to alliance of Austria with France/Russia and England with Prussia). England joined Prussia, but still, Prussia was almost demolished. Luckily for them, at the last minute the ruler of Russia goes and dies! Jjust as Russian troops are about to get rid of Prussia, the new ruler turns them back. Then, France and England work out their difficulties.

Cesare Beccaria

believed that punishment should fit the crime, in speedy and public trials, and that capital punishment should be done away with completely

bad books

books that were banned; Enlightment caused smuggling of these types of books

Enlightenment idea: toleration

both religious and intellectual. They felt that all ideas were equally valid, and that people should have the freedom to express themselves and their ideas.

Calonne

came up w/new taxes and proposed to convene provincial assemblies. To support his plan, he called an Assembly of Notables but they didn't end up supporting him! Instead they denounced the court spending and wanted to audit the accounts.

Aristocracy class

continued to control most of the wealth of the country and still dominated the administration and the military. The aristocrats held on to more power in the south and east, though, for, there, they in effect had control over the peasant masses.

What began indistrialization in England

cotton manufacturing

Synod

council appointed by Peter the Great to run the church (Peter can control the Synod) instead of replacing the Pope

Isaac Newton

created the three laws of motion; a law about universal gravitation; and further developed scientific method

What did the revolution in France lead to

election of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte who later changed the government to an empire w/himself as emperor just like his uncle, the original Napoleon

July Ordinances

election of liberals in 1830 caused Charles X to issue the July Ordinances that imposed rigid censorship of the press, reduce the electorate in preparation for new elections and dissolve the legislative assembly; cancelled elections, upped censorship, and called for new elections)

The Treaty of Paris

ended the war and was favorable for England, though, in exchange for peace, the English gave back some of the French islands they had taken. But the English got Canada; ended French and Indian War

Constitution of 1791

established a limited monarchy w/a clear separation of powers. There was a unicameral legislature elected by indirect voting. Every adult male w/minimal taxpaying requirements could vote, w/a higher qualification needed to serve public office.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

established natural rights like freedom of expression, religion, etc. It all comes from Locke and from Rousseau (a little); created by National Assembly

What did the Conservatives do after their return

expanded the authority of the state and added social welfare bills

Levellers

faction that wanted all people to vote.

Jean d'Alembert

famous French mathematician

Tories

favored the crown and wished for a traditional and ceremonial Anglicanism

First International

first convened in 1864, it was also known as the International Working Men's Association. It was an eclectic gathering eventually headed by Karl Marx, who used the First International to spread his ideas about socialism and the need for revolution in the capitalist society. Members of the First International hoped that the Paris Commune would be the spark for revolution across Europe, although it obviously failed.

Galileo Galilei

first scientist to use the telescope; With the telescope, he saw Jupiter's moons (the existence of which proved that not everything orbited the earth, as was previously thought) and the craters on the moon (which proved that heaven was not perfect); supported Copernicus's theory; spent last years of his life under house arrest; developed scientific method

Enlightenment idea: enlightened despotism

for many kings, enlightened despotism ("I am ruling b/c I can be a servant of the state and bring the enlightenment to my people") replaced divine right monarchy and other justifications for ruling.

Positive effects of the Scientific Revolution

gain of knowledge, greater toleration (both religious and scientific), less superstition and more scientific answers, and freedom to deviate from established theories, which opened the door for new, further developments.

Paris Commune

government had to be established, as the constitutional monarchy, w/out a monarch, had lost its legitimacy. Temporarily, a Paris Commune or city government was created

Revolution in France

government refused to widen suffrage causing parliamentary opposition launched a protest movement that staged large banquets across the country; the government banned the Paris banquet but deputies still wanted to go leading to revolts; Louis Phillipe tried to get the National Guard but had no support so he left; France became republic; workers were still unhappy and rebelled (were crushed in June Days)

What did Louis XV do after Cardinal Fleury's death

having nobody to replace Fleury, placed his confidence in several advisers, most of which were incompetent. Louis XV was uninterested in government, and he neglected his work. So, the problems went w/out solving, and only got worse.

September Massacres

hysteria spread by the radical journalists resulted in the September Massacres, in which popular tribunals summarily executed thousands of prisoners, who were feared to be counter-revolutionaries.

Utilitarianism

idea that the goal of society should be to bring about the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people

The Revolutions of 1830 Spain

in Spain, the monarchy supported the liberals. In 1833, however, the monarchy was threatened by a conservative uprising (the Carlists). So, to win support more support from the liberals, the monarchy granted a constitution in 1834.

What did William Gladstone support

increased suffrage and reform, and even sympathized with radicals

Charles Townshend

innovator who proved the value of planting turnips instead of resting land.

Convertible Husbandry

instead of letting land lie unused every second or third year (to prevent it from become infertile) agricultural innovators planted fields w/turnips (which could also provide feed for livestock, which could make fertilizer) to help it regain fertility. If they encountered other problems, they would experiment w/other crops that would hopefully fix the problems.

What did Monteverdi do

invented concept of opera and orchestra, after many new instruments were invented. His masterpiece was Orfeo (1607

Michel de Montaigne

invented the essay; influenced by skepticism ("What do I know?") which eventually led to search for self-knowledge ("Know thyself") and his belief that acting righteously is more important than following doctrine (sometimes).

Edmund Cartwright

inventor of a power-driven loom. Though the opposition of handloom weavers and technical flaws made the loom not really become available until the 19th century, once it became available, both spinning and weaving could go incredibly fast.

James Watt

inventor of the steam engine. Arkwright asked Watt to use steam engines to drive his spinning machines, and the first factories were created

Richard Arkwright

inventor of the water frame, which was able to twist fibers into thread using waterpower. Before him, though weavers could make cloth quickly from yarn, production was slowed down b/c the yard couldn't be made quickly enough.Arkwright also made the very first factories.

Versailles

isolated location of Louis XIV's palace. Versailles was the great trap dedicated to the taming of the aristocracy. Effectively, it drew the nobles away from their affairs and kept them close to Louis XIV. Versailles was a constant party, so nobody wanted to leave. Louis XIV, however, knew how to balance work w/party so he was a good ruler, unlike his successors and the foreign rulers who tried to emulate him. Versailles was also the center of French culture.

Pope Pius IX

issued a declaration that described the evils of modern society (it denounced total faith in reason, state control, and stated that the pope would not reconcile himself with liberalism) and in 1869 the Vatican Council declared that the pope was infallible when speaking ex cathedra.

Republic of letters

journals and newspapers circulated among the elite; Though the republic was limited to the educated, all classes and backgrounds could join in.

Giuseppe Mazzini

known as "the spirit" of Italian Unificatio; one of the first Italian nationalists. His form of nationalism was very romantic and emphasized Italy's uniqueness and special role in Europe; saw the expression of natural communities, the basis for popular democracy and international brotherhood. Although Mazzini made many attempts to unify Italy through movements like Young Italy and conspiracies and propaganda (etc.), he never succeeded. His big chance came in 1848, but, when Austria regained control, Mazzini left.

Grand Alliance

league formed against Louis headed by Leopold I (HRE) and William III (Netherlands/England). The league went to war against Louis @ 1688. - When Louis began to lose his territories he chose to seek peace and get rid of Louvois. But the peace didn't last long, for, in 1690, the War of the Spanish Succession began.

Population increases impact in 19th century

led to terrible conditions in the cities, and efforts to improve them through charities and government laws concerning public welfare; Although the charities helped a few, they were not sufficient, and government intervention was required to fix the situation. By mid-century, housing and sanitary codes regulated most cities; governments also began to regulate child labor and stop vagrancy. Education became a matter of national policy as well, and most countries established compulsory public schooling

Count Pedro de Campomanes

liberal reformer in Spain during the Bourbon rule that, among other things, expelled the Jesuits b/c he felt they were too powerful and opposed to reform

Revolutions of 1830

liberal revolutions broke out throughout Europe. Although, at first, they appeared to be spectacularly successful, in the end, all the revolutions failed; occurred where governments were distrusted and where the fear and resentment fed by rising food prices and unemployment found focus in political demands; In the end, the revolutions failed b/c the revolutionaries found themselves divided

Classicism

like Baroque, Classicism attempted to awe the viewer. However, like the Renaissance, it attempted to awe the viewer with form and discipline - also they wished to return to ancient values. Big guy was Poussin whose paintings were more subdued than the baroque guys (he liked togas).

Cahiers

list of grievances drawn up by delegates going to the meeting of the estates general

Negative effects of the Scientific Revolution

loss of innocence, loss of traditional faith, loss of faith in heaven, earth is no longer regarded as the center (God's pet project), skepticism, loss of personal/caring God.

Impact of widespread revolutions

measured the failures of restoration, once again demonstrated the power of political ideas, and uncovered the effects of a generation of social change; Several gains, in fact, did endure: peasants in Prussia and Austria were emancipated, Piedmont and Prussia kept their new constitutions, and monarchs learned they needed to watch public opinion; Liberals learned that they couldn't depend on the masses to follow them w/out making demands, they reevaluated their own goals; Everyone realized that revolutions needed power and armies to back them up but that, nevertheless, nationalism was a powerful new force in politics.

Middle Class

most confident and assertive class; ranged from the great bankers to the petit bourgeoisie (clerks, shopkeepers, etc.) and was held together by shared ideals and common interests; all were opposed to special privileges and saw themselves as the beneficiaries of careers open to talent; liked to see themselves as self-made; were associated with the liberal ideology of the time, and pushed for moderation

Junkers

nobles that owned very efficient, profitable estates

Enlightenment idea: equality

on Locke's Tabula Raza - all people are equal

Colbert

one of Louis' advisers who regarded the Netherlands as France's biggest enemy b/c of their mercantilist policies. Therefore, he felt that all the taxes should go to building up a navy to fight the Netherlands, who tended to dominate the overseas trade routes.

Whigs

opposed royal power and Catholicism

How did the French Revolution start

ordinary citizens were getting mad over food shortages. When they heard rumors of the royal troops, they feared an aristocratic plot to overthrow the NA. And, when the king got rid of Necker it was the last straw; Parisian crowds attacked the Bastille, the 20,000 troops joined (on Rev side), and the Revolutionaries won. At the same time, royal officials in Paris were ousted and were replaced w/a Revolutionary municipality, and a citizens' militia was formed.

Louvois

other adviser, who emphasized the army b/c he felt that France was threatened by land. - First, Louis listened to Colbert, and fought the Dutch. When this war (1672 - 1678) failed, Louis turned to Louvois and began land wars. The result was that France was able to annex a lot of territory, until the other countries ganged up on him b/c of the balance of power.

dispensations def

payments that released a petitioner from the requirements of the canon law.

Octoberists

people that supported the October Manifesto

salons

philosophical party houses of the elite, very snobby and stylish

Preobrazhusky

place filled with foreigners

Liberalism

political liberalism, which originated with Locke and Enlightenment, was associated with ideas of social progress, economic development and the middle class. Liberals hoped to achieve a free society governed by a constitution that valued individual rights

Austria-Hungary's Domestic Policies

politics had reached a stalemate, as the creation of the autonomous regime in Hungary had touched off conflicts w/the rest of the empire. Only the conservative instincts of the court, aristocracy, and the bureaucracy stopped reform, and stopped the country from disintegrating through the ABC Paradox (nationalist rebellions). In Hungary, the Magyars kept control through oppression and corruption of the bureaucracy. They weakened the empire w/their independent policies. But, for mutual survival, the leaders of both Austria and Hungary stayed away from change and relied on imperial foreign policy to distract.

Charterists

radicals in England; wanted universal male suffrage, annual elections, secret ballots, and salaries for parliament members. But this movement, unlike the one against the Corn Laws, ended up in failure.

What did Peter Stolypin do

reformed education and administration and created full private ownership of land and social insurance.

What did the Liberals do after the larger electorate let them domiante

reformed education, the army, disestablished the Anglican Church of Ireland and restricted the abuses of absentee landlords

factor substitution

replacement of workers with new tools and machines to increase labor productivity

How did the king react to the National Assembly

responded by promising equality in taxation, civil liberties, and regular meetings of the EG but voting would be by order. Then, he ordered the estates to go to their individual meeting halls, but the TE didn't go. Finally, he recognized the NA and (trying to act like it was all his idea) told all the estates to join it. But, he secretly was ordering 20,000 royal troops to the Paris region.

What did Cavignac do after the workers' rebellion

restricted the press, suppressed the radicals, and instituted severe discipline on the workers

What did the Scientific Method do

revolutionized science, and made measurement of data, and mathematics, essential parts of science. From the SR onwards, science was based on pure fact - the acquisition of data and the testing of theories

Italy Unification

ruled by austrians, mid 19th century, Count Camillo di Cavour wants to get the austrians out of Italy, does favors for alot of countries and gets more allies; picks a fight with Austria and northern Italy frees itself from Austria in 1860 and joins Southern Italy

Leopold I

ruler of the HRE (but really Austria) who established a court similar to Louis XIV's Versailles at Schonbrunn. Although Leopold only had control over Bohemia, Austria, and a small part of Hungary, he still had considerable authority; relied on the Privy Council; Since Leopold gave the nobles influence in the government w/out first establishing control over their lands, the nobles were far more autonomous, so, though Leopold had less power, he had more support.

Where did the elite meet during the Enlightenment

salons and academies both of which helped spread ideas and unite people. There, people could dispute their ideas and come up w/new ones

Scientific Revolution impact on social status

social status became mobile because it became based on wealth and education as opposed to family heritage. The emphasis on education led to a higher literacy rate, which led to the start of newspapers and book sales. Woman also gained opportunities (in business).

How did popular culture literature differ from elite culture

some popular literature meant to be read aloud in the community. This consisted of religious material, almanacs, and literature for fun (stories). Mainly, popular writing actually fostered submissiveness, not rebellion, for it had a fatalistic acceptance of the status quo.

Pope Leo XIII

spoke out against social injustice and pushed for change.

Tycho Brahe

stargazer who meticulously recorded star data for years

Pragmatic Sanction

stated that all Hapsburg lands would pass intact to the heir regardless of who it was

Economic Liberalism

supported Laissez-faire economics

What did Benjamin Disraeli support

supported a simper suffrage reform bill, which was passed in 1867.

Corn Laws

tariff on agricultural goods, which the landowners liked (can raise prices, more $) but middle class and working class despised (food prices up). So middle and working classes joined against gentry. In 1846 the laws were repealed (a final proof of the switch in power to the middle class

Enlightenment idea: freedom

that is, intellectual freedom, an idea closely linked to toleration. They felt that people should have free speech, press, and freedom of religion. They felt that each person should have the opportunity to reason things out for themselves.

What did Martin Luther realize

that justification in the eyes of God was based on faith alone and not on good works and sacraments

The Revolutions of 1830 Belgium

the Belgians (Catholics) followed the French revolted against the Dutch Protestants. They established a liberal constitutional monarchy and became a prosperous small country.

What happened when Britian gained control over India

the British entered India and gained control gradually, first through the British East India Company and later on directly through the English government itself (after Sepoy mutiny). The British made a class loyal to them by turning the landlords into a class of nobility and giving them control over their lands. The British also educated an Indian bureaucracy trained in their ways. Many people were drawn to India, mainly to make $, but some to "help civilize" the country

What signaled the end of the Middle Ages

the Renaissance

Why was the National Assembly formed

the Third Estate had enough and proclaimed itself the National Assembly. A few days later, most of the clergy joined. The king decided to support the nobles and locked the Third Estate out of its meeting hall.

Art of the Enlightenment

the art of the Enlightenment consisted of two competing styles, Rococo and Neoclassicism

Rococo

the art of the nobility, meaningless, w/out content, but very pretty, using bright, swirling colors, like Rubenism. Famous Rococo painters were Francois Boucher and Fragonard.

Empiricism

the belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation; advocated by Francis Bacon

Marxism

the economic and political theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels that hold that human actions and institutions are economically determined and that class struggle is needed to create historical change and that capitalism will untimately be superseded

Racine

the model classical dramatist who still generated very emotional stuff

Artisans/Skilled Workers class

the most independent workers, the artisans continued to live by a hierarchy of masters and apprentices. They did benefit from industrialization, and, unlike the factory workers, did have the organization and education to organize effectively to improve conditions.

What was a positive change from Louis XIV's death

the peasants were never again to be oppressed as they were under Louis XIV (not by much though) b/c government realized that in order to be successful, need mass support.

Enlightenment idea: skepticism

the philosophs believed that everything should be open to questioning and criticism, even religion. They disliked dogma, superstition, and blind faith.

Declaration of Pillnitz

the promise by Austria and Prussia to protect the French monarchy; causes France to go to war with Austria and Prussia; The Girondins feel this will somehow unite the nation, the Royalists hope that they lose (king goes back), and Jacobins want to lose then win.

festivals and taverns

the salons for normal people where common people could enjoy themselves and relax

Enlightenment idea: Reason

the universe can be explained through reason, as can all human institutions. The philosophs thought that reason could be applied to everything, and that it could be used to correct the problems in society.

Music of the Enlightenment

the work of Beethoven, Mozart and Hayden. After them, music also became much more passionate and was full of expression and emotion.

epistemologies

theories of knowledge

Naturalists

this school believed that the artist had to show life exactly as it was w/careful detail and research.

Giordano Bruno

though Bruno did not actually develop any additionally theories, he made the mistake of openly supporting Copernicus and ridiculing the old philosophy. The church arrested him, and after his refusal to recant, burned him at the stake, making him a lesson for others

Galen

though his influence was far lesser than that of Aristotle and Ptolemy, Galen's medical and anatomical theories dominated the scientific world for years even though they were proved wrong by dissections.

How were domestic issues resolved in England

through a two-party system. William Gladstone transformed the Whigs into the Liberal Party, and Benjamin Disraeli turned the Tories into the Conservative Party.

The Thermidorian Reaction

to the return of conservatism after the ultra-radical phase in the FR and is now applied to any such pattern in other revolutions; anti-Jacobin sentiment grew so strong, in fact, that a White Terror erupted against anyone connected with the Jacobins. The social austerity of the old calendar was back, the fancy titles, and all that stuff made their return; the sans-culottes launched a poorly organized revolt (calling for "bread and the constitution of 1793") and, after two days of street fighting, were overwhelmed by the government; new constitution and formed Directory

Trade Unions

trade unions, sometimes known as Syndicalist Movements, also gained an avid following. Skilled artisans often led these movements, but the greatest threat was posed by the concept of the General Strike by the factory workers. The concept of the general strike was proposed by Georges Sorel

What did John Law do after Louis XIV died

tried to solve the $ crisis w/ government banks, but the scheme failed

Frederick III

unlike his father, he enjoyed court society and made Berlin into a cultural center with a lively court and an Academy of Sciences. He also effectively gained Prussian independence by asking Leopold to make him a king in exchange for his army (for war of Spanish succession). After gaining independence, Frederick changed his name to Frederick I

Enlightenment idea: optimism

very optimistic, believed in science bringing progress.

Prince Eugene

volunteered to serve the Austrians in the war w/the Turks. Since he was very talented, he became field marshal and had a decisive influence on Hapsburg affairs b/c he transformed their military policies from defensive to aggressive. Eugene led the Austrians as they laid the foundations for a new empire of Austria-Hungary

Cavour

was Prime Minister, a liberal who believed in progress, tolerance, limited suffrage, and who saw nationalism as an avenue to modernization. Although Piedmont's internal strength was his first concern, he also wished to make Piedmont the center of Italy's resurgence, the Risorgimento

Frederick William I

was a Spartan ruler who disdained court society and concentrated on the army; built up the army by instituting a form of conscription; took great care of the army and drilled it incessantly and ended up with a fantastic army that he could use to intimidate other powers (he actually never fought wars w/it); created the General Directory of Finance, War and Domains, which took over all government functions except justice, education and religion; made education compulsory, but did not really enforce the rules.

The War of the Spanish Succession

was a war to gain the Spanish throne for Louis' family. The previous king had actually chosen Philip (Louis XIV's grandson), and his wishes might have been respected had Louis promised to open Spain to trade and not unify France and Spain under one ruler. Since he didn't agree to do so, the Grand Alliance declared war on him in 1701. Louis was defeated, but at the Peace of Utrecht in 1713 he still was able to secure the throne for his grandson though he couldn't unify the country and had to open Spain to trade. Mainly, the war was a waste of $ and an additional on France's already strained economy.

David Hume

was the dead end of end of empiricism. He stated that there can't be any absolute knowledge if everything is based on the senses. So, people can know things through common sense, but not through philosophy (which he says is a joke) and he hates dogma.

Corneille

was the dominant French playwright of the 1600s whose work reflects the rise of classicism. At first, he refused to follow the three new set rules for drama (unity of time, location and plot). His masterpiece was Le Cid (1636) which was condemned by Richelieu b/c it did not follow the three rules. But, Le Cid was still very popular

Frederick II

was trained for kingship by his father and had a fierce sense of duty; realized only absolute rule could bring results, so he used his absolute power to reach objectives. Immediately, he was able to establish religious toleration and judicial reform, but his main goal, security, was more difficult to accomplish. To gain security, Frederick knew that he had to acquire new, stronger borders, and he began the process of gaining territory in 1740 when he attacked the Hapsburg's province of Silesia, which the Hapsburgs couldn't defend. In the War of Austrian Succession that followed, Frederick was able to keep Silesia.

Aristotle

was viewed as the absolute authority on physics, although many of his theories were clearly wrong; theorized that nothing can move without an outside force; explained motion by the fact that each of the four elements wished to return to its natural place

Treaty of Villafranca

where the Austrians agreed to an armistice. Austria handed Lombardy over to France, who later passed it to Sardinia (Piedmont) but retained Venetia. The rulers of the central Italian duchies were restored. Piedmont acquiesced and CAVOUR resigned; ends Austrian Sardinian War

Literature of the Enlightenment

where the modern novel was first developed, by Samuel Richardson and Henry Fielding, both in England. The novel emerged as a new form of writing; satire was perfected; poetry was born

Cervantes

wrote Don Quixote, which illustrated the wide gaps between rich and poor and the difference between reality and fantasy of his time by poking fun at society and politics (he thought that politics disregarded human values).

Shakespeare

wrote plays that made timeless statements about human behavior and covered a very wide range of topics and emotions. However, his plays also reflected his time as death, turmoil and change were always present. Also, the vigor in his plays showed the sense of achievement that also characterized the 1500s

Maria Theresa's State Building Policies

à MT was a moralistic and pious woman who was still a very brilliant ruler. She believed in the divine mission of the Hapsburgs, and was ready to defend her country. First, she reformed the church by forbidding the founding of new monasteries (they were wasteful) and abolishing the clergy's exemptions from taxes! Next, she established a new bureaucracy in Vienna by appointing new local officials and reorganizing the central ministries. The new bureaucracy helped her collect taxes. Lastly, she improved the military and its training.

What was Peter's administration like

à in ruling, Peter pretty much ignored Duma (advisory council) and concentrated on his bureaucracy. He organized his administration into several departments each of which either had a specialized function or took care of a region. He totally subdued the nobles, and used coercion to make them listen to him

Artists of the Early Renaissance

Giotto, Masaccio, Donatello, Brunelleschi

John Wycliffe

(c.1328-1384) Forerunner to the Reformation. Created English Lollardy. Attacked the corruption of the clergy, and questioned the power of the pope.

Abuses of the Church Power

* Simony. * Indulgences * Dispensations * Incelebacy * Pluralism * Nepotism

The Iberian Peninsula was divided into what three sections

1. Portugal à in midst of its overseas exploration. 2. Castile à the largest and richest area. It was still fighting the Muslims on its Southern frontier. This led to nobles gaining a lot of political power. 3. Aragon à small area same size as Portugal.

How was Charles V's rule

- After the uprising, he kept his administration entirely Spanish. While he was fighting outside wars, he relied entirely on a skilled administrator, Francisco de los Cobos, who enlarged the administration and the system of councils. He made two types of councils, one of each department of government and the other for each territory ruled. At the head was the Council of State. A federation emerged, like US. - Though corruption was widespread, centralization gave monarch lots of power. Spain's administration was the most detailed, though it was not always the most efficient. - Charles' major problem was $ because he wasted all of it on his stupid wars (like the one against the Ottomans, and all the ones against the Schmalkaldic League in HRE) in Europe. Since Aragon was more independent, the entire tax burden fell on Castile, but Castile did get a monopoly of trade with the New World, which gave them lots of silver. However, the monopoly eventually led to foreign domination since no one else could get the $. Consequently, Philip II had to declare Spain bankrupt several times because of the wars.

Changes made by Ferdinand and Isabella

- Although Ferdinand and Isabella made no attempt to form a monolithic state (all united) they did somewhat unify Spain into a federation where the nobles lost power. - Each province was treated differently, and changes were made as follows: 1. Aragon remained a federation of territories administered by viceroys who were appointed by the king but allowed local customs to remain intact. Each province was allowed to keeps its own representative assembly, called the Cortes. 2. Castile in Castile, they were determined to assert their superiority and restore order to the countryside (which was screwed up by civil wars). They did this by establishing the Cortes of Castile, an assembly dominated by urban representatives who shared the wish for order since peace helped trade. The Cortes also had tribunals to try criminals.

Characteristics of Renaissance Art

- Emulation of the Ancient Greeks and Romans. - Good use of depth in paintings. - Linear (further away = smaller) and atmospheric (further away = hazier) perspective. - Paintings began to have more detailed backgrounds. - Not necessarily religious, more focus on earthly themes and humans. - More realistic, geometrically precise and mathematically accurate. - Subjects showing signs of more emotion. - Contraposto posture, in which the subject is shifting his or her balance.

James I's rule

- In 1603, James took over and was greeted eagerly as he traveled from Scotland to London. However, both the religious controversy and the conflict between the king and Parliament were unresolved, and soon began to cause trouble for the new king. - James was a complete believer in divine right monarchy or the belief that that kings rule by divine right and should have absolute power. He believed Parliament was unnecessary; millenary petition; gunpowder plot

Short Term causes of Reformation

- John Wycliffe - Jan Hus - The Avignon Exile and Great Schism - The Printing Press

Characteristics of Medieval Art

- Paintings were lacking in depth and perspective. - Paintings usually lacked a background. - Always themed religiously and usually focusing on heaven or holy people. - The paintings were not realistic, and made no sense geometrically or mathematically. - The subjects did not show any emotions, except for calm or piety.

4 aspects of Humanism

1. Admiration and emulation of the Ancient Greeks and Romans. 2. Philosophy of enjoying this life, instead of just waiting for the next one. 3. The glorification of humans and the belief that individuals are can do anything. 4. The belief that humans deserved to be the center of attention.

What led to the Renaissance

1. Because of the Crusades, and the new trade routes, Europeans began to come in contact with other, more advanced civilizations, which influenced them greatly. 2. The Church, due to the scandals that occurred, lost much of its power, and people began to doubt its ultimate authority. 3. Due to trade, the middle class grew, and people began to accumulate vast sums of money. They then wanted to enjoy and show off their wealth, which led to a philosophy of enjoying this life instead of simply waiting for the next one. 4. Competition between wealthy people for status led to developments in education and art, since wealthy people, wanting to be respected, would compete to see who was the most educated or had sponsored the most artists.

What laws did Parliament make Charles pass in order for him to get money

1. Bill of Attainder against Strafford (king's chief advisor) that demanded Strafford's death. 2. Bill of Attainder against Archbishop Laud (who would die after 4 years imprisonment). 3. Law that gave up king's right to dissolve Parliament. 4. Triennial Act à required having Parliament meet every three years. 5. No taxation w/o Parliament's approval (taxes that had been passed that way declared illegal). 6. The abolishment of the Star Chamber. 7. Impeachment of Bishops in Anglican Church.

What events gradually shifted the public from Charles to parliament

1. Charles' treatment of his opponents for example, John Eliot's imprisonment in the tower of London until he apologized, which he never did. 2. Archbishop Laud appointed by the king, the archbishop was a zealous believer in the High Church who was strongly against Puritans (imposed Anglican Prayer Book). 3. Ship $ Case à to raise $, the king spread a tax that was formerly only applicable to coastal towns to all towns, which Parliament considered a violation of their rights. 4. The imposition of the Anglican Prayer Book which lead to a Scottish rebellion. - Since putting down the rebellion required $, Charles was forced to call Parliament.

Changes made by Francis I

1. Gaining power over the Church with the Concordat of Bologna (1516), which allowed him to make appointments, and, though it was not stated, it effectively allowed him to control the Church without breaking from it (see Henry VIII). 2. He began a major reorganization of the government. He legalized the sale of offices, formed and inner council and centralized all tax gathering and accounting responsibilities in 1523. 3. He passed the lit de justice, which states that if an assembly is delaying passing a monarch's law the monarch can then appear before the assembly and make it the law. 4. During his reign the Estates General stopped meeting and consequently lost influence. 5. After his reign, the monarchy was the strongest that it had ever been. Unfortunately, the advent of the Reformation screwed everything up again - Calvinism!

Changes made by Louis XI

1. He beat Duke Charles the Bold of Burgundy, who was Charles V great-grandfather (ick!) and he then reannexed Burgundy except for the Low Countries, which the duke's daughter kept. 2. Nicknamed "the spider" because, using his diplomatic tactics, he annexed so much crap.

Changes made by Henry VII

1. He carefully built up funds without overtaxing his subjects; he put collection and revenue in the hands of a small, efficient group of his officials. Avoided foreign entanglements. 2. He increased the power of the JPs and had the Star Chamber (a group of royal councilors) resume hearing appeals, which strengthened royal power and decreased noble power because nobles could no longer control the local courts.

Changes made by Louis XII

1. He increased the size and complexity of the administration. 2. Adopted the sale of offices (simony) that stimulated social mobility and corruption. 3. Due to the fact that the clergy and nobles were exempt from taxation, the crown was forced to rely on the lower classes, which couldn't provide enough money to upkeep the standing army and the country. So, under Louis XII, the country began taking loans from banks (Fugger).

Appeal of Protestantism to Peasants

1. Message of equality in religion, which they extended to life in general. 2. A simplified religion with fewer rituals, which made it easier to understand. 3. Luther rebelled, which inspired many of them to do the same.

Appeal of Protestantism to Nobles

1. No tithe to pay, so $ stays in the country. 2. Since they are against Charles for political reasons, they can justify it by becoming Protestant. 3. No more church owned land, so they can get more land. 4. No tithe for peasants, so they can tax them more.

Appeal of Protestantism to Middle Class

1. No tithe to pay, so more $ for them. 2. Now they can read the Bible and interpret it in their own way. 3. Concept of individualism - you are your own priest.

General changes made by Ferdinand and Isabella

1. They overhauled the entire administration by saying that "ability rather than social status should determine appointments." They kicked out the nobles as local administrators, and replaced them with people from a lesser class of nobility called the hidalgos (similar to gentry in England) who occupied positions called corregidors, which were local judicial officers. 2. They weakened the clergy and after they got rid of the Muslims in 1492, the Pope allowed them to make appointments. So, by Charles V's reign they had power over the church. 3. Also, in 1478, the Pope granted them the power to have an independent Inquisition to kick out all non-Christians, such as the Muslims and Jews. Without other religions, Spain was more united. Plus, the Inquisition, like the Italian wars, kept the nobles busy. 4. They instituted a sales tax so revenues increased. They were able to this because, like the French, the Spanish taxes could be raised without the Cortes consent. 5. They instituted Castilian law, which all came from the throne and was similar to Roman law. 6. After Isabella's death, Ferdinand concentrated on foreign affairs and reannexed several provinces from France and entered the war in Italy, which under Charles V (Hapsburg) they won against Henry II of France. They won because they had the best standing army.

What were the Neoplatonists

A group of humanists that believed in studying the grand ideas in the work of Plato and other philosophers as opposed to leading the "active life" the civic humanists lead.

What happened at the Diet of Worms

At Worms, Luther refused to retract his statements, asking to be proved wrong with the Bible. So, Charles ordered that Luther be arrested and his works burned, but Prince Frederick of Saxony came to Luther's aid and allowed Luther to hide in his castle. There, Luther established the Lutheran doctrines.

Lutheran Doctrine and Practice

Codified in the Augsburg Confession the Lutheran beliefs are as follows: 1. Justification by faith alone, or the belief that faith alone, without the sacraments or good works, leads to an individual's salvation. 2. The Bible as the only authority, not any subsequent works. 3. All people are equally capable of understanding God's word as expressed in the Bible and can gain salvation without the help of an intermediary. 4. No distinction between priests and laity. 5. Consubstantiation (the presence of the substance and Christ coexist in the wafer and wine and no miracle occurs) instead of transubstantiation. 6. A simplified ceremony with services not in Latin.

What does Cromwell do after winning the civil war

Cromwell executed the king in 1649, saying he was not to be trusted, and then purged Parliament of all dissenters (600 à 60 people, called Romp Parliament) which got him firmly in control. - Cromwell soon became a military dictator, and he divided England into 12 military districts that were ruled by martial law. However, he was unable to make any lasting changes.

What happened during Parliament vs Parliament's army

Cromwell splits from most of the Parliament since he is an Independent (believes in freedom of religions) and they are strictly Puritans. So, everyone joins against Cromwell, but he still wins.

How did Charles II react to the Test Act

He allowed the law to be passed, but his used his powers of dispensation to sneak some Catholics into public service anyhow.

Did Cromwell believe in religious toleration

He was far ahead of his time in his religious toleration (which was limited, since it didn't include Catholics and Anglicans, but was still remarkable for the time) but did not believe in democratic rule.

What caused the 10 year civil war in Spain

Isabella of Castile married Ferdinand of Sicily

Foreign Policy under James I

James wisely kept England out of the Thirty Years War (though this made some Englishmen unhappy since it was seen as a failure to support the Protestant cause) and he even tried to make peace with Spain by attempting to marry his son, Charles I, to a Spanish princess (which enraged the public). However, the Spanish turned Charles I down, which sparked a conflict. Instead, Charles was married to Henrietta Marie of France, another Catholic. But, just as the war against Spain began, James died and Charles took over.

How did Charles start a civil war

Just as the Parliament was getting ready to impeach the queen, Charles had enough and entered the chamber with a section of the army to arrest the leaders, but they had already left. This began a civil war. Charles' last chance for peace was to sign the 19 Propositions, which would state Parliament's superiority, but he refused to sign, so civil war began

What were the phases in the English Civil War

King vs. Parliament and Parliament vs. Parliament's Army

Artists of the High Renaissance

Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, and Titian

What happened after Luther wrote the 95 Theses

Luther's writings could no longer be ignored, and, in 1520, Pope Leo the Fifth excommunicated him, and Luther responded by calling the Pope an anti-Christ. So, Charles the Fifth ordered him to offer his defense against the decree at a Diet of the Empire at Worms.

Forms of Protestantism

Lutheranism, Calvinism, Zwingli, Radicals, Anglicanism

Did Cromwell agree with the Levellers or the Diggers

Neither

Why did Charles dissolve the parliament

Next, Parliament moved to impeach Buckingham, which the king objected to, so he dissolved Parliament. The duke was then assassinated, and the king called the Parliament back into session expecting more cooperation. Parliament, however, was angry because, under his wife's influence, Charles had begun to favor the High Church and not enforce the laws against popery. - So, in 1629, Parliament tried to enact laws against Catholics to reverse the drift towards the High Church. Charles was unable to stop them since he was in desperate need of $ to support the war against Spain, but he finally decided to dismiss Parliament, and sent word to the Speaker of the House of Commons, who was supposed to immediately give up his chair. Instead, the infuriated members of the House forced the speaker back into the chair and passed three quick anti-Catholic resolutions. - Charles was enraged and dissolved Parliament, swearing he would never call another one.

Calvinism

Protestant sect founded by John Calvin. Emphasized a strong moral code and believed in predestination.. Calvinists supported constitutional representative government and the separation of church and state.

Elizabeth I's rule

Queen Elizabeth was a skillful queen who was very able to sense the mood of her people, and very good at using propaganda to promote her image.She was a very successful queen, and the only issue she left unresolved was the question of succession. However, at the last minute, her Scottish cousin James I was chosen.

What happened during King vs Parliament

The king quickly raised an army of mercenaries, while Parliament allowed Cromwell to take over and form the New Model Army, which won.

Short Parliament (1640)

The Parliament that was called by Charles I to address the Scottish rebellion Disbanded by Charles I when it refused to grant him funds to suppress the Scottish rebellion

The Long Term Causes of the Reformation

The growth in the power of the secular king and the decrease in the power of the Pope. - The popular discontent with the seemingly empty rituals of the Church. - The movement towards more personal ways of communicating with God, called lay piety. - The fiscal crisis in the Church that led to corruption and abuses of power

Charles I's Rule

Though Charles was sure that the war would unite the country under his leadership, it actually provided Parliament with more opportunities to force him to make concessions, since he needed to tax to support the war and Parliament's approval was needed for new taxation. - Several Parliaments were called and dissolved in rapid succession for the king was unwilling to concede on the issue of Buckingham. Finally, in 1628, Parliament had enough of the king's behavior (he was illegally forcing loans from people in order to avoid relying on Parliament for $) and decided to draw up a petition stating their traditional rights.

Who was Baldassare Castiglione

Wrote a a book called "The Courtier" and described his idea of a Renaissance man as one who had developed his mind, body, and spirits to the best of his ability, and his purpose to serve his prince as most effectively as possible.

Who was Henry VII

a founder of the Tudor dynasty, Henry VII came to power shortly after the War of Roses, a civil war that weakened the nobles greatly. He was a conservative, and strengthened the crown by applying the traditional methods

Who was Marsilio Ficino

a member of a new, later group of humanists called the Neoplatonists; Ficino believed that Plato's ideas showed the dignity and immortality of the human soul.

Who was Giovanni Pico

another Neoplatonist who believed that he could reconcile all philosophies and show that a single truth lay behind them all.

Why were there revolts against Charles V

because he requested additional tax funds so that he could take the Spanish troops and try to unify the HRE. So, effectively, he wasted all of Spain's $ from the new world on stupid wars! Naturally, when Charles V left for war, the poor people revolted but the nobles put down the rebellion before Charles V came back. The nobles sided against the peasants only because along with attacking Charles, they attacked the nobles.

Who was Louis XI

began his reign after the Hundred Years War, which weakened the crown. At the beginning of his reign, there was anarchy, and the king had no power. However, changes he made reestablished the crown's power

What was the Decameron

book written by Boccaccio that is now thought of as the first prose masterpiece ever written in Italian; one of the first books intended for entertainment and is groundbreaking in its frank treatment of relationships and its creation of ordinary, realistic characters.

incelebacy def

church officials getting married and having children.

nepotism def

control by a particular family.

Diggers

faction that wanted all people to vote and wanted to share all the wealth equally.

what did humanism do

glorified the culture of Ancient Greece and Rome; an essential element of the Renaissance

Zwingli

had beliefs very similar to Luther, except that he believed that NONE of the sacraments bestowed grace, and that they were purely symbolic. He also felt that for people to lead godly lives, they had to be constantly disciplined and threatened - Calvinism without predestination.

Royal administration in France

had three departments: the Chancery (had charge of formal documents), the Treasury ($), and the Parlement of France (the court of law). Roman law was used, which helped the king because the monarch was then able to issue ordinances.

pluralism def

having more than one position at a time.

Changes made by Charles VIII

he began the invasion of Italy, which was eventually a failure, since the Hapsburgs kicked his butt. However, it did provide a distraction for the restless and aggressive nobles.

Who took Cromwell's place after he died

his son Richard was unable to maintain power so Charles II was summoned back from France and the monarchy was restored

The Treaty of Dover

in exchange for military support (against the Dutch) and $, Charles would try to convert England back to Catholicism and to convert back to Catholicism himself

Radicals

many radical sects broke out, and after Munster (where a sect called the Melchiorties gained political control of the city and began to establish a heavenly Jerusalem on earth) they were all persecuted. Since some believed that Baptism should only be administered to adults who asked to be baptized, they were all called the Anabaptists (rebaptisers).

Renaisance def

means the rebirth of culture. However, it would be more accurately put as the rebirth of ancient culture since the Middle Ages did have a form of culture, just not the same culture as the ancients.

Local administration in England

members of the gentry (not technically members of the nobility, but still had large estates and were dominant political figures) were chosen to become JPs. The JPs were voluntary unpaid officials that served as the principal public servant in the more than forty counties. Since the gentry wanted appointments for reasons of status, the king could always count on their support.

The Declaration of Indulgence

not to enforce the laws against Catholics and the non-Conformists (they were simply included to mask Charles' pro-Catholic sentiment). Parliament saw through the trick, however, and demanded that the king retract the declaration, which he did

What did civic humanists believe?

participation in public affairs was essential for human development and that individuals should not cut themselves off from society and study the world. Instead, they should help make changes in it by becoming a part of government

The Petition of Right

passed in 1628 (Charles simply agreed to be able to get more $), it stated the rights of Parliament, such as: 1. Due Process of Law (Habeas Corpus) 2. No taxation w/out Parliament's consent. 3. No billeting of troops. 4. Parliament must be called frequently (not specific).

Millenary Petition

petition given to James as soon as he reached the capital signed by 1,000 churchmen which asked James to move the Anglican Church further away from Catholicism (no popery, no bishops) and to simply and "purify" the services instead. James responded by saying simply, "No bishop, no King," because he felt that the bishops, as traditional figures of authority should stay, since otherwise people could also begin questioning his authority.

humanism def

philosophical system based upon the capacity of human kind for rational, objective thought and action stresses human reason and is centered in human nature, interest in ideals, as distinct from religious philosophies based in a higher God

Gunpowder Plot

plot by Catholics to assassinate king and Parliament whose discovery raised a lot of anti-Catholic sentiment in England.

Test Act

prohibited anyone who had not had an Anglican communion from entering into the army or public service. The law was aimed at excluding Catholics.

What did artists gain for the first time during the Renaissance

recognition and prestige

Lawmaking in France

representative assemblies, known as Estates, limited the throne's power because the estates had to approve measures made by the king before they were enacted. The throne was forced to negotiate with the estates, especially to raise taxes. Nevertheless, the Estates never were as powerful as the English Parliament. The taxes (the sales tax, hearth tax, and salt tax) all went to the crown and after 1451, they could be collected on the king's authority alone.

Henry II

son of Francis I. Under his rule, the French finally lost the Italian war to the Hapsburgs.

Changes made by Henry VIII

tended to enact more radical measures than did his father, such as: 1. In 1513 he beat invading Scottish army @ Flodden, near England's north border. 2. Decided to break with the Roman Catholic Church after advice from Thomas Cromwell. This had the effect of stimulating the economy since church funds stayed in the country and the church lands were annexed. It also greatly strengthened the Parliament and gave it more responsibility. 3. The break with the Church also had the effect of making a reorganization of the administration necessary. They made six departments, each with specific functions. Cromwell was the executive of the councils. A Privy Council was also established, consisting of the king's advisers.

Long Parliament (1640-1660)

the Parliament that was reinstated after Charles I dissolved it, and passed laws that tried to reassert the power of Parliament over the monarchy

transubstantiation def

the ability of the priests to perform a miracle turning the wine and bread into Christ's blood and body

Judiciary in England

the common law (based on the interpretations and precedents made by individual judges), not Roman law was in effect, and traveling judges administered it. This helped unify the country as well.

What was the Reformation

the final splitting of the Western Church into two halves

predestination def

the idea that God decided whether or not a person would be saved as soon as they were born

simony def

the sale of Church positions, which quickly led to people becoming Church officials purely for economic motives, and not for spiritual ones.

Indulgences definition

the sale of indulgences was the biggest moneymaker for the Church. When a person paid for an indulgence, it supposedly excused the sins they had committed (the more $, the more sins forgiven) even without them having to repent. Indulgences could even be bought for future sins not yet committed and for others, especially those who had just died, and were supposed to make a person's passage into heaven faster.

Local administration in France

there was no real system for local government, and aristocrats were virtually independent rulers until the new monarchs came along.

Lawmaking in England

though the Parliament grew in power, it always remained subordinate to the crown. Nevertheless, the English kings knew that they couldn't take severe measures without its consent. The Parliament contributed to the unification of the country, even though it took away power from kings.

Army in France

unlike the English, they had a standing army that was rarely used but always a threat, so it increased the king's power. However, it took an enormous amount of funding.

Who was Petarch

was the first humanist of the Renaissance; greatly admired the Greeks and Romans and preferred them to his own contemporaries, who he saw as barbaric; felt that the only true examples of moral and proper behavior could come from the Ancients. Though he was a lawyer and cleric by trade, he devoted himself to writing poetry, papers, and letters, which were often to the famous Greeks and Romans.

Charles II's Rule

was very easygoing and had no problem with compromising with Parliament. After the interregnum both parties were eager to compromise; The Treaty of Dover;The Declaration of Indulgence;Test Act

The Avignon Exile and Great Schism

were both events that greatly undermined both the power and prestige of the Church, and made many people begin to question its holiness and the absolute power of the Papacy. People realized that the Church was a human institution with its own faults.

Who were Guarino da Verona & Vittorino da Feltre

were educators who turned the ideals of the humanists into a practical curriculum. They founded a school in which students learned Latin, Greek, mathematics, music, philosophy, and social graces.

The Printing Press

à before the invention of the printing press in the mid-1400s, many people didn't have access to information or changes in religious thought except through word of mouth and the village viellées. With the printing press, new ideas, and the dissatisfaction with the church, could spread quickly, and people could read the Bible for themselves.