AP Euro Midterm (Chapters 10-18) - Multiple Choice and Short Answers

When did French religious wars begin? A) After the massacre of Vassy en Champagne (1562) B) After the massacre of St. Bartholomew's day (1572) C) After the death of Catherine de Medici D) After the marriage of Henry of Navarra

A) After the massacre of Vassy en Champagne (1562)

The Woman's March on Versailles on October 4, 1789, was a crucial turning point in the French Revolution because it A) Brought the king and assembly back to Paris B) Was embraced and supported by the king and queen C) Was a peace offering to the monarchy after the storming of the Bastille D) Called for the replacing of Louis XVI with Marie Antoinette

A) Brought the king and assembly back to Paris

The "winner" of the Thirty Years' War seems to have been A) France B) The Empire C) The papacy D) Bohemia E) Sweden

A) France

Where did the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre occur? A) France B) England C) Spain D) The Netherlands E) The Holy Roman Empire

A) France

What is William of Orange known for? A) He led the movement for the independence of the Netherlands from Spain B) He led the Turks against Spain C) He was the captain of the Spanish Armada D) Along with the Duke of Alba, he suppressed the Protestant revolt E) He was one of the elector princes in the Holy Roman Empire

A) He led the movement for the independence of the Netherlands from Spain

The famous title page illustration (look at the attached file) for Hobbes's Leviathan "Hence it is evident, that absolute monarchy, which by some men is counted the only government in the world, is indeed inconsistent with civil society, and so can be no form of civil government at all". John Locke, Of Civil Government (1690) A) Briefly explain the position of the TWO philosophers toward the best system of government a country could adopt. B) Briefly explain ONE political development of the ideas of Hobbes or Locke in an European country.

A) Hobbes was a philosopher who believed that humans in their natural state were greedy, always desiring more power. For this reason, he believed that an absolute government was the only way to sufficiently control the cupidity of men. Locke, however, believed that humans in their natural state were creatures of reason and basic goodwill. He thought that humans were in a modest competition in which authority was needed to sort out any problems. His ideal government was one with limited authority, moderate liberty, and toleration. B) One political development of Hobbes occurred in France. Under Louis XIV, France became an absolute monarchy. Louis ruled with one king, one faith, and one law. France's government made visible the idea of Hobbes that an absolute government was the only form of government that could sufficiently control men.

All of the following statements about the Edict of Nantes are true EXCEPT A) It banned Huguenot military forces and fortresses B) It promoted religious toleration C) It guaranteed freedom of worship for French Calvinists D) It followed a major civil war in France E) It was revoked by Louis XIV

A) It banned Huguenot military forces and fortresses

The Treaty of Westphalia finally granted Calvinists _________. A) Legal recognition B) The power to fortify their towns C) The authority to gather in public E) The permission to worship within the borders of cities

A) Legal recognition

Historians have argued that in the 18th century women were limited to the domestic sphere. A) Identify TWO pieces of evidence that support this argument and explain how each supports the argument. B) Identify ONE piece of evidence that undermines this argument and explain how the evidence undermines the argument.

A) Many people living in 18th century Europe believed that a woman's life experience was based on her capacity to raise and maintain a household. Also, women rarely received an education so many professions were not available to them. This fact encouraged them to stay at home and raise a family. Marie Cunitz is an example of a woman whose work was under-appreciated during the scientific revolution. She wrote a book yet her husband received all of the credit for her work. Maria Winkelmann is another women who was barred from scientific discovery. She helped her husband in his lab, but when he died she was not allowed to continue his work. Women were discouraged from pursuing lives outside of the household, and so their achievements were overlooked by society. B) One example that undermines this argument is Emilie du Chatelet. She used her extensive knowledge on mathematics to assist Voltaire in his French popularization of Newton's science. She also used her understanding of math to translate Newton's Principia into French. Chatelet pursued her education in a time when this was not encouraged, and so she undermines the argument that women were limited to the domestic sphere.

The establishment of French absolutism was primarily the work of royal ministers such as Richelieu and A) Mazarin B) Colbert C) Walpole D) Montesquieu

A) Mazarin

The main feature of Prussian absolutism is: A) Militarism B) Education C) Westernization D) Religoius' toleration

A) Militarism

The king's primary opponents in the very first stage of the struggle that led to the French Revolution were the A) Nobles B) Clergy C) British and Dutch D) Middle-class members of the Third Estate E) Haitian slaves

A) Nobles

"Commerce, which ought naturally be, among nations, as among individuals, a bond of union and friendship, has become the most fertile source of discord and animosity. [...] In every country it always is and must be the interest of the great body of the people to buy whatever they want of those who sell it cheapest. [...] The competition between states is advantageous to the great body of the people, who profit greatly besides by the good market which the great expense of such a nation affords them in every other way. Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, 1776 A) Briefly identify and describe ONE cause, according to Smith, for which the commerce has become source of discord and animosity. B) Briefly identify and describe what Smith suggests to overcome this situation C) Briefly identify and describe another economic theory spread in this period

A) One cause, according to Smith, for which commerce has become a source of discord and animosity is because it should be the interest of the body of people to buy what they need from whoever sells it cheapest. In commerce, countries feel that if another country has more resources than them, they must have less. This promotes animosity among nations, and decreases the possibility of competition between states. States in commerce are not competing to gain revenue from the people, but are trying to gain more resources before other countries can. B) Smith suggests that competition between states could overcome the situation. Competition would be beneficial to the great body of people because it would create a good market. The body of people would benefit from this competition because if businesses are competing for more customers, they will probably lower their prices. Lower prices profit the body of people. C) Another economic theory that spread in this period was created by the physiocrats, French economic reformers. They believed that the government should have a limited role in trade and commerce. This idea was similar to Adam Smith's laissez-faire economy in which the government has almost no involvement in trade. This contrasts with mercantilism which had been widely used before the Enlightenment. In mercantilism, the government heavily regulates trade and commerce to benefit the state. Mercantilism assumes that the earth's resources are scarce and so it promotes animosity among countries.

What are the decisions of the Council of Trent?

At the Council of Trent, some advice from Luther was accepted, and the selling of indulgences stopped. Not all of Luther's advice was taken, however, and many Catholic beliefs that Luther disagreed with were reaffirmed during the council. It was also decided that bishops should live in their diocese. Members of the clergy had to be better dressed, better educated, remain celibate, and be more active among the parishioners.

The map above depicts Europe around A) 1800 B) 1500 C) 1700 D) 1950 E) 1900

B) 1500

Catherine de Medicis convinced the king to execute the Protestant leaders in the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre because she claimed that _______. A) The Guise family had plotted to kill him and take the throne for themselves B) A Protestant coup was afoot, and that he must save the crown from an attack on Paris C) The had been plotting an assassination of Coligny D) The Huguenots had already massacred thousands of peasants

B) A Protestant coup was afoot, and that he must save the crown from an attack on Paris

The French Revolution was set on a new course by the declaration of war in April 1792 against A) Italy B) Austria C) Great Britain D) Russia E) Holland

B) Austria

When Charles V abdicated, his son Philip received all of the following except A) The kingdom of Sicily B) Austria C) The Low Countries D) Spain E) Milan

B) Austria

The Committee of Public Safety was successful in all of these areas EXCEPT A) Stabilizing wages and prices B) Bringing political violence to an end C) Conducting the war effort D) Providing a consistent food supply to the army and city workers E) Not requiring peasants to pay compensation for lands seized from the beginning of the revolution.

B) Bringing political violence to an end

The Tennis Court Oath, taken by the members of the A) A) New National Assembly at Versailles in 1789, A) Vowed loyalty to absolutism B) Defied royal absolutism by committing to a constitution C) Was taken only by the clergy D) Proposed the institution of state terror E) Planned to reinstate the Treaty of Nantes

B) Defied royal absolutism by committing to a constitution

Voting in the Estates General was traditionally A) Based on the principles of one person/one vote (i.e. per head B) Done by estate (i.e. per order) C) In the form of a national referendum D) The exclusive reserve of the nobility E) Split the lower and middle classes

B) Done by estate (i.e. per order)

Which of the following statements most accurately explains the impact that the fourth period of the Thirty Years' War—the Swedish-French period—had on Germany? A) During the Swedish-French period of the war, Germans gained great wealth from looting the nations of France, Sweden, and Spain. B) During the fourth period of the war, French, Swedish, and Spanish soldiers looted all of Germany, killing an estimated one-third of its population. C) During the Swedish-French period of the war, the Germans were largely left alone while the battles waged in France and the Netherlands D) During the fourth period of the war, the Germans lost mostly material wealth from looters, but few people were killed

B) During the fourth period of the war, French, Swedish, and Spanish soldiers looted all of Germany, killing an estimated one-third of its population.

The 16th Century religious wars that had plagued France were largely ended with the A) accession of Louis XI B) Edict of Nantes C) Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day D) Threaty of Cateau-Cambresis E) resolution of the Hapsburg-Bourbon conflict by the Peace of Augsburg

B) Edict of Nantes

The Constitution of 1791in France A) Abolished the monarchy B) Established a constitutional monarchy C) Gave the vote to all citizens D) Reestablished the old provinces E) Guaranteed income equality

B) Established a constitutional monarchy

The French Reign of Terror is most closely associated with the A) Women's march to Versailles B) Establishment of the Committee of Public Safety C) Issuance of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy D) Drafting of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen E) Reform of civil and criminal law

B) Establishment of the Committee of Public Safety

The spark that caused the English Glorious Revolution was the A) Conflict between nobles and peasants B) Fear of a Catholic dynasty being established by James II C) Economic dislocation that had resulted from the civil war D) Defeat suffered in the War of the Spanish Succession

B) Fear of a Catholic dynasty being established by James II

The cartoon above from seventeenth-century England is an attempt to ridicule A) Support of William and Mary by the Dutch B) Fighting between royalists and parliamentary armies during the English Civil War C) The movement of Puritans to the New World D) The widespread practice of wagering on dog fights

B) Fighting between royalists and parliamentary armies during the English Civil War

Which of the following best characterizes the Table of Ranks of Peter the Great of Russia? A) It separated the Russian population into distinct classes B) It set educational and performance levels for civil servants C) It required the nobility to serve in the Russian army D) It legalized serfdom

B) It set educational and performance levels for civil servants

The government of England after the Glorious Revolution is a great example of: A) Absolute monarchy B) Parliamentary monarchy C) Dictatorship D) Republic

B) Parliamentary monarchy

The contemporary drawing above of the storming of the Bastille was intended to portray A) Aristocratic support for the old regime B) Popular participation in the revolutionary process C) Protests for high rents for land D) The imprisonment of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette after the September Massacres

B) Popular participation in the revolutionary process

The meeting of the Estates General in 1789 marked a significant step toward revolution in France because it A) Exposed the plans of Louis XVI to abdicate in favor of his son B) Provided a legitimate forum for critics of the Old Regime C) Included a proposal to confiscate noble estates to raise government revenue D) Revealed the extent of papal influence on the French royal family E) Gave the clergy and the nobility an opportunity to defend their privileges

B) Provided a legitimate forum for critics of the Old Regime

Queen Elizabeth I was cautious and firm with groups such as the ________ ensuring that nothing lessened the hierarchical unity of the Church of England. A) Catholics B) Puritans C) Congregationalists D) Jews E) Anabaptists

B) Puritans

The Peace of Westphalia (1648) A) Transferred Louisiana from France to Britain. B) Recognized the independence of the Netherlands. C) Recognized the unity of the German Empire. D) Was a triumph of the hapsburg polity to unity. E) Recognized the primacy of Russia in the Baltic

B) Recognized the independence of the Netherlands.

On the night of August 4, 1789, the national Constituent Assembly attempted to halt peasant rebellion and disorder by A) Opening royal granaries B) Renouncing aristocratic feudal rights, dues, and tithes C) Reasserting Catholicism as the state religion D) Sending troops to protect the chateaux E) Arresting Louis XVI

B) Renouncing aristocratic feudal rights, dues, and tithes

Prussia of the early 18th century is remembered as: A) Athene of the North B) Sparta of the North C) Rome of the North D) Babilonia of the West

B) Sparta of the North

Who were the three powerful families that sought the French monarchy after the death of king Henry II? A) The Bourbons, Racheals, and Orleans B) The Bourbons, Montmorency-Chatillons, and Guises C) The Burgundians, Ostrogoths, and Guises D) The Bourbons, Lombards, and Franks E) The Bourbons, the Medici, the Albas

B) The Bourbons, Montmorency-Chatillons, and Guises

Which of the following classes, through its demand for universal male suffrage and its violent street tactics, kept the French Revolution moving in a more radical phase? A) The peasants B) The Parisian sans-culottes C) Rank-and-file soldiers in the army D) The émigrés E) The slaves

B) The Parisian sans-culottes

In the final stages of the Thirty Years' War, Cardinal Richelieu of France sent aid to A) The Catholic Austrian Hapsburgs B) The Protestant monarchs of the Dutch Republic and Sweden C) The Catholic Spanish Hapsburgs D) Russia E) Prussia

B) The Protestant monarchs of the Dutch Republic and Sweden

The Fronde were directed primarily against A) The power of French landlords B) The authority of the absolute monarchy C) The influence of the nobility D) The wealth of the church

B) The authority of the absolute monarchy

The principle of cuius regio, eius religio- incorporated into the peace settlement at the close of the Thirty Years' War- signified A) A weakening of the authority of the Holy Roman Empire B) The power of monarchs to dictate the religion of their state or principality C) An increase in papal authority in the Holy Roman Empire D) Increased authority in religious controversies E) That religion was a private matter to be decided by each individual

B) The power of monarchs to dictate the religion of their state or principality

Louis XIV installed his royal court at A) Paris B) Versailles C) Aix D) Dijon

B) Versailles

"That the pretended power of suspending the laws, or for execution of the laws, by regal authority, without the consent of Parliament is illegal... That the raising of keeping of a standing army within the kingdom in the name of peace, unless it be with the consent of Parliament, is against the law." The first English monarch to accept and rule in accordance with these decrees (Bill of rights) was A) George I B) William III (William and Mary) C) Queen Anne D) Charles II

B) William III (William and Mary)

English Puritanism developed during the reign of Elizabeth I A) In reaction to the failure of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement to implement the reforms of the Council of Trent. B) Because of Elizabeth I's intention to extend Protestant sentiment throughout the realm. C) Because of the dissatisfaction with the scope and breath of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement among the Marian Exiles and the will to revolt against popery D) As a direct reaction to the Jesuit Mission led by Edmund Campion. E) to maintain the hierarchical and ceremonial aspects of the Church of England.

C) Because of the dissatisfaction with the scope and breath of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement among the Marian Exiles and the will to revolt against popery

Bavaria was a major center of _______. A) Calvinist power B) Lutheran power C) Catholic power D) Anabaptist agitation E) Puritan revolts

C) Catholic power

Robespierre argued that Terror was A) An expression of love for country B) An unfortunate, but necessary, consequence of circumstances C) Consequence of the general principle of democracy applied to a pressing need D) The nefarious activities of conuterrevolutionary forces within the republic E) A ritual of the "Cult of the Supreme Being"

C) Consequence of the general principle of democracy applied to a pressing need

During the Reign of Terror, Robespierre tried to A) Execute all French nobles B) Restore the Catholic Church C) Crush all opposition to the revolution D) Reinstate the monarchy E) ign a separate peace treaty with countries fighting against France

C) Crush all opposition to the revolution

"Behold, an immense people united in a single person; behold this holy power, paternal, and absolute; behold the secret cause which governs the whole body of the state, contained in a single head; you see the image of God in the king, and you have the idea of royal majesty..." This passage by the French Bishop Bossuet illustrates the concept of A) Sovereignty B) Parliamentarism C) Divine right D) Papal authority

C) Divine right

Henry IV provided French Huguenots with the right to practice their religion through the A) Edict of Potsdam B) Edict of Fontainbleau C) Edict of Nantes D) Agreement with the Papacy E) Peace of Amiens

C) Edict of Nantes

The most successful politique was ________. A) Mary Stuart B) Philip II of Spain C) Elizabeth I of England D) Mary I of England E) Ann Boleyn

C) Elizabeth I of England

What substantial changes occurred when Elizabeth I took the throne following Mary I of England? A) Elizabeth eliminated the tolerance for theater and dramatic creativity supported by Mary I B) Elizabeth changed the irresponsible financial policies promoted by Mary I C) Elizabeth reversed Mary's harsh restrictions against Protestants in favor of religious tolerance. D) Elizabeth more fully enforced strict policies against religious disunity and dealt harshly with heretics

C) Elizabeth reversed Mary's harsh restrictions against Protestants in favor of religious tolerance.

The "Defenestration of Prague" was a response to which monarch's policies? A) Elizabeth I B) Mary Stuart C) Ferdinand II, Archduke of Styria D) Philip II E) Mary Tudor

C) Ferdinand II, Archduke of Styria

In 1685 _________________ was the strongest and most highly centralized (absolute) state in Europe A) Spain B) England C) France D) The Netherlands

C) France

The painting above by Francois Dubois, an eyewitness, describes the massacre on St. Bartholomew's Day of 1572 of A) Dutch nobility B) German peasants C) French Calvinists D) Spanish Catholics E) English merchants

C) French Calvinists

As a consequence of the Great Northern War, Peter the Great A) Replaced his insane half-brother Feodor as czar of Russia B) Drove the Turks from the northern shores of the Black Sea C) Gave Russia a "window to the West" on the Baltic Sea D) Extended Russian holdings into central Siberia

C) Gave Russia a "window to the West" on the Baltic Sea

Who is the father of the modern warfare? A) Cardinal Richelieu, prime minister of France B) Philip II, king of Spain C) Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden D) Elizabeth I, queen of England

C) Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden

The Huguenots were staunch foes of the French monarchy until ________. A) The Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye B) The Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre C) Henry of Navarre came to power D) Elizabeth I provided financial and military support for their cause

C) Henry of Navarre came to power

The ideals of the French Revolution were best expressed in the phrase A) Nobility, power, aristocracy B) Equality, humanity, godliness C) Liberty, equality, fraternity D) Justice, honor, socialism E) Pure race, pure blood, pure nation

C) Liberty, equality, fraternity

The largest portion of France's pre-1789 debt came from A) Expenditures on the royal court B) Costs of welfare programs C) Military expenditures D) Costs for developing infrastructure (roads, bridges, canals, ports) E) Foreign aid payments to the American colonial rebels

C) Military expenditures

Which of the following best explains the attitude of many European monarchs toward the French Revolution? A) Since the Revolution was strictly the internal affair of the French government, European monarchs paid little attention B) Many rushed to aid Louis XVI. C) On the one hand they welcomed anything that would weaken France's position; on the other hand, they feared the revolution spreading to their countries. D) Many felt that it was time that radical reform came to France; therefore, they supported the revolution. E) Several nations saw the opportunity to gain France's throne for themselves after supporting the Revolutionaries.

C) On the one hand they welcomed anything that would weaken France's position; on the other hand, they feared the revolution spreading to their countries.

Which of the following most accurately describes the political system of the Dutch republic of the seventeenth century? A) Popular democracy B) Rule by an absolute monarch C) Republic ruled by the wealthy merchants D) Control by feudal lords

C) Republic ruled by the wealthy merchants

The Thirty Years' War began as a ________. A) Peasant uprising in Germany B) Trade war between Bohemia and Saxony C) Revolt of Bohemian Protestant nobility against an unpopular king D) Border dispute between Bavaria and Austria

C) Revolt of Bohemian Protestant nobility against an unpopular king

Boyards is the name of: A) Russian army B) Prussian soldiers C) Russian nobilty D) French nobilty

C) Russian nobilty

The cartoon above illustrates which of the following? A) Renaissance rejection of medieval Christianity B) Late-eighteenth-century calls for abolition of the Atlantic slave trade C) Social inequalities under the Old Regime in France D) Aristocratic hostility to Peter the Great's efforts to Westernize Russia E) Napoleon's suppression of the Spanish nationalist movement

C) Social inequalities under the Old Regime in France

During the Thirty Years' War, the Lutheran movement was saved from extinction by the military intervention of which foreign monarch? A) French king, Philip the Fair B) English king, Henry VIII C) Swedish king, Gustavus Adolphus D) Austrian Emperor, Charles V E) Spanish king, Philip II

C) Swedish king, Gustavus Adolphus

The Peace of Utrecht A) Resulted in the political and economic collapse of France. B) Elevated England to the greatest power in the world. C) Terminated the Wars of the Age of Louis XIV and restored peace to Europe. D) Transferred Canada to England.

C) Terminated the Wars of the Age of Louis XIV and restored peace to Europe

Which of the following best summarizes the impact of Rousseau's ideas on the development of the French Revolution? A) Rousseau's advocacy of full participatory democracy led to France establishing a form of direct democracy B) Rousseau's suggestion that property should be held by the "community" led to the Jacobins confiscating the property of nobles and distributing it to the poor peasants C) The Jacobins took Rousseau's concept of the "general will" to mean all the people of France must support the ideals of the Revolution D) Rousseau's rejection of separation of power is what influenced the Constitution of 1791 E) Rousseau advocated for the use of terror in keeping an equal society.

C) The Jacobins took Rousseau's concept of the "general will" to mean all the people of France must support the ideals of the Revolution

The bourgeoisie belonged to which of the following groups? A) The First Estate B) The Second Estate C) The Third Estate D) The aristocracy E) Émigrés

C) The Third Estate

Which of the following became a symbol of the Reign of Terror? A) The Tennis Court Oath B) The Reveillon riots C) The guillotine D) The National Assembly E) The Directory

C) The guillotine

Which of the following best describes the French Third Estate? A) The palace at the Tuileries, which was chief royal residence after Versailles and the Louvre B) The nobility of the robe, who acquired noble rank and title by purchase C) The non-noble, nonclericical section of the Estates-General D) The revolutionary faction that launched the Reign of Terror E) Counterrevolutionary provinces that resisted the National Assembly

C) The non-noble, nonclericical section of the Estates-Genera

During the 16th and 17th centuries, all of the following represented challenges to royal authority EXCEPT A) The parliaments B) New Model Army C) The palace of Versailles D) Puritans

C) The palace of Versailles

What did Mary I of England and Philip II of Spain have in common? A) They were all Protestants. B) They were all considered politiques. C) They all sacrificed their political goals by refusing to compromise on religion. E) They gained their religious goals and successfully restricted religious worship in their own lands.

C) They all sacrificed their political goals by refusing to compromise on religion.

One of the first actions Ferdinand took as king of Bohemia was to ________. A) Declare the Lutheran religion as the only legal religion in Bohemia B) Warn the Jesuits to leave or be exiled or sentenced to death C) Ban the practice of Catholicism in Protestant Bohemia D) Revoke the religious freedoms of the Bohemian Protestants

D) Revoke the religious freedoms of the Bohemian Protestants

What agreement did the Dutch Catholics and Protestants come to after the atrocity of the Spanish Fury? A) The Union of Arras B) The Perpetual Edict C) The Union of Utrecht D) The Pacification of Ghent

D) The Pacification of Ghent

The calling of the Estates-General in France by King Louis XVI in 1789 was the direct result of A) An uprising of the sans-culottes in Paris B) France's defeats in the Seven Years' War by Great Britain C) The impact of the ideology advocated in the American Revolution D) The failure of the Assembly of Notables to endorse the monarch's program of tax reform E) The recommendation by the French Director General of Finance, Jacques Necker

D) The failure of the Assembly of Notables to endorse the monarch's program of tax reform

The majority of victims of the Reign of Terror were A) Nobles B) Clergy C) Foreign enemies D) The peasants and laboring class

D) The peasants and laboring class

Which of the following represents the final defeat of efforts by the Ottoman Empire to acquire large areas of central Europe? A) The battle of Poltava (1709) B) The fall of Costantinople (1453) C) The battle of Nordlingen (1634) D) The siege of Vienna (1683)

D) The siege of Vienna (1683)

Peter the Great's purpose in building the city of St. Petersburg was A) To escape the influence of Mongol forces in Moscow. B) The establishment within Russia of a region free of serfdom. C) To throw off the powerful pressures of the monks of the Greek Orthodox Church D) To hasten the Westernization of Russia

D) To hasten the Westernization of Russia

What happened during the period of discoveries? What countries are most involved? What did they do with the populations who lived in those lands?

During the period of discoveries, the Americas were found. Portugal and Spain were the most involved with their discoveries and explored the New World more than any other countries at the time. The populations of natives living in the Americas greatly decreased because of explorers from Portugal and Spain. The explorers used the natives as slaves in mining and agriculture, and introduced many new diseases to them. This caused the population of Native Americans to decrease dramatically as a result of explorations by Spain and Portugal.

The Edict of Restitution stated that A) Calvinism was the religion of the Empire B) Bohemia was to be restored to Czech rule C) Catholic princes in Germany would be responsible for all costs of the Thirty Years' War D) Lutheran, Calvinist, and Catholic princes would be allowed to rule in Germany E) All Catholic properties lost to Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire since 1552 would be restored and only Catholicism and Lutheranism would be allowed in the Empire

E) All Catholic properties lost to Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire since 1552 would be restored and only Catholicism and Lutheranism would be allowed in the Empire

he map above, showing religious divisions in Europe around 1600, illustrates which of the following differences between Lutheranism and Calvinism? A) Lutheran areas were more densely populated and urbanized than were Calvinist areas. B) Lutheran areas were geographically closer to papal influence than were Calvinist areas. C) Calvinist areas were more likely to be influenced by minor sects than were Lutheran areas D) Calvinists were more likely to share a common language that were Lutherans E) Calvinists were more likely to be a minority within a state than were Lutherans

E) Calvinists were more likely to be a minority within a state than were Lutherans

All of the following states were militarily involved in the Thirty Years' War EXCEPT A) Sweden B) Austria C) France D) Denmark E) England

E) England

A primary goal of Philip II of Spain was to A) Grant toleration to religious minorities B) Create a monarchy accessible to the people C) Reunite the Spanish and Austrian Hapsburg empires D) Strengthen the Spanish economy E) Maintain Spanish control over the Netherlands

E) Maintain Spanish control over the Netherlands

Each of the following contributed to the inability of the anti-French alliance to defeat Revolutionary France EXCEPT A) Prussia and Austria were more preoccupied with the partitions of Poland B) Britain's military strength was mostly concentrated in the navy C) The Dutch army was not a large enough force to make a difference in the fighting D) The revolutionary zeal of the French forces E) Mass desertions from the anti-French coalition

E) Mass desertions from the anti-French coalition

The Thirty Years' War A) Began when the Bohemians attempted to place a Catholic on the throne B) Served to promote German unity C) Did not involve France D) Resulted in the expulsion of the Ottoman Turks from the Balkans E) Saw Danish troops fighting on the side of the German Protestants

E) Saw Danish troops fighting on the side of the German Protestants

ALL of the following were factors in Elizabeth I's decision to intervene in the Dutch revolt EXCEPT A) Damage to the English wool industry B) The assassination of William the Silent C) The fall of Antwerp to the Spanish E) The impact of inflation on the Spanish economy D) Fear of a Spanish invasion of England

E) The impact of inflation on the Spanish economy

The 1793 revolt in the Vendée was in support of A) The Jacobins B) The Prussians C) The Girondists D) Napoleon E) The monarchy

E) The monarchy

The Bastille in Paris was stormed on July 14, 1789, A) In order to capture the royal family B) To defend against Austrian invasion C) To free the Marquis de Lafayette D) To arrest the refractory priests opposing the revolution E) To seize arms to defend against royal reprisals

E) To seize arms to defend against royal reprisals

What did the Second Act of Uniformity establish?

The "Second Act of Uniformity" established that a revised version of Thomas Cranmore's Book of Common Prayer be used in churches throughout England. This book contained forty-two articles that determined the English faith, including denying transubstantiation and other Protestant beliefs. This book helped to reform churches in England, after the English Reformation.

Explain what are the causes the led to the First French Revolution

The First French Revolution was caused by a chain of events. France had a large amount of debt because it spent a lot of money on the aristocracy. Also, French aid in the American Revolution led to even greater debt. No monarch was able to make the nobility or clergy pay taxes to generate revenue that would appease the debt, and taxes usually fell into the hands of the peasants. There was also rising prices of bread which further upset poor French citizens who could not afford to eat. Tensions between the monarchy and the different classes of France grew. When the Estates General was called, it was a moment when all voices could be heard. This started a feeling of change that seized France and led to the First French Revolution. The events such as the Tennis Court Oath and the Fall of Bastille furthered the revolutionary flame.

What type of government did The Netherlands have in the 17th century? What were its main features?

The Netherlands' established a republic. The seven provinces still held considerable authority while being governed through negotiations by the Estates General which met in Hauge. This was comprised of a representative from each province, Holland being the richest province and dominating the Estates General.

What is the Peace of Augsburg, when was it sign and what did it establish?

The Peace of Augsburg was an agreement signed in September 1555, which established that a ruler would decide what religion is practiced in his own land. If people were not apart of the religion chosen, they could convert or move to a different kingdom that practiced their religion.

Which of the following religious groups benefited form the Edict of Nantes? A) Huguenots B) Calvinists C) Lutherans D) Catholics E) Zwinglians

A) Huguenots

The emblem shown above was that of A) Frederick the Great B) Peter the Great C) Louis XIV D) Charles XII

C) Louis XIV

Which French city was the center of radical politics during the French Revolution? A) Versailles B) Marseille C) Toulon D) Paris E) Vendee

D) Paris

"It is possible to obtain knowledge highly useful in life, and we can have a practical philosophy, by means of which, knowing the force and the actions of fire, water, air, and of the stars, of the heavens, and of all the bodies that surround us - knowing them as distinctly as we know the various crafts of the artisans - we may in the same fashion employ them in all the uses for which they are suited, thus rendering ourselves the masters and the possessors of nature. This is to be desired, not only with a view to the invention of an infinity of arts by which we would be enabled to enjoy without heavy labor the fruits of the earth and all its conveniences, but above all for the preservation of health, which is, without doubt, of all blessings in this life, the first of all goods and the foundation on which the others rest" Descartes, Discourse on Method, 1637 A) Briefly identify and describe ONE of the ideas discussed in the document, explaining why it is innovative comparing with the past. B) Briefly identify and describe ONE of the scientists who are related with the ideas expressed in this document. C) Briefly identify and describe how the innovation in the way of studying and thinking in this period have caused conflicts or discussions within the society.

A) One idea discussed in this documents is using investigation and observation to expand society's knowledge of nature. Previously, speculative philosophy was a method of answering natural problems in life. Descartes discouraged this speculative philosophy, and wanted to encourage the use of a type of experimentation that would allow humans to better understand fire, water, air, the stars, the heavens, and the bodies that surround us. By understanding the force and actions of these elements, humans would be able to have control over them and use them to their advantage. B) Galileo relates well with the ideas expressed in this document. He created scientific method to help prove his theories, rather than believing them because he had solely observed something. His scientific method was a process of observing, forming a hypothesis, and experimenting to verify his hypothesis. He also used tools such as the telescope to more accurately observe and experiment with his ideas. Galileo pioneered the idea of verifying hypotheses by using experimentation and observation. C) In a society dominated by religion, the idea of experimenting to prove why things happen in nature caused conflict within society. Most members of society based what they believed solely on what Scripture or the Church had said. Experimenting and observing nature seemed like questioning God, and people thought that was wrong. For example, Galileo, a Catholic, ran into trouble with the Church when he proclaimed that the earth revolved around the sun when in Scripture it had said that the sun revolves around the earth. Galileo had used experimentation and observation to prove that he was right, but the Church, and members of society, were not ready to deny what Scripture had said. Also, many people just believed what they heard even if there was no proof to verify new ideas. Now, there were ways to prove ideas that went against what society had believed for years. This caused discussions within society about what discoveries were valid or not.

"The most detestable example of fanaticism was that of the burghers of Paris who on St. Batholomew's Night went about assassinating and butchering all their fellow citizens who did not go to mass. Once fanaticism has corrupted a mind, the malady is almost incurable... The only remedy for this epidemic malady is the philosophical spirit which, spread gradually, at last times men's habits and prevents the disease from starting; for once the disease has made any progress, one must flee and wait for the air to clear itself. Laws and religion are not strong enough against the spiritual pest; religion, far from being healthy food for infected brains, turns to poison in them..." Voltaire, Philosophical Dictionary, 1764 A) Briefly identify and describe ONE idea of Voltaire described in the document. B) Briefly identify and describe the main features toward religion of Enlightenment philosophers.

A) One idea of Voltaire in this document is that religious fanaticism is similar to a disease. The philosophical spirit is the only cure for religious fanaticism. The habits of men can prevent the "disease" from starting, but if it has made any progress a person should flee and wait until the end of the fanaticism. B) The Enlightenment philosophes felt that ecclesiastical institutions, such as the Christian church, were the greatest impediment of human improvement for man. Many religions caused people to look toward the world to come, and not to focus on the world they were currently living in. Philosophes were not against religion altogether, and so deism was created. Deism is a religion with two major creeds: there is a God who created the world and nature can empirically prove that, and there is life after death. The religion of deism satisfied the philosophes and although there was not a huge deist movement, it did provide some with a non-dogmatic basis for their beliefs.

As a consequence of the English "Glorious" or "Bloodless" Revolution of 1688-89, A) The principle of constitutional monarchy was firmly established and William of Orange became king of England B) The Hanovarian dynasty came to the throne C) Oliver Cromwell was overthrown D) Charles I Stuart was executed

A) The principle of constitutional monarchy was firmly established and William of Orange became king of England

The cause of the War of Spanish succession was A) The prospect of Louis XIV controlling both the French and Spanish thrones B) The cutting off of an English merchant ship captain's ear by the crew of a Spanish revenue cutter C) French fear of a political merger between England and the Netherlands D) Louis XIV's revocation of the Edict of Nantes

A) The prospect of Louis XIV controlling both the French and Spanish thrones

"Once it is demonstrated that man and woman are not and ought not be constituted in the same way in either character or temperament, it follows that they ought not have the same education, [...] they ought not to do the same things. The goal of their labors is common, but their labors themselves are different, and consequently so are the tastes directing them" Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Emile, 1762 A) Identify ONE piece of evidence, according to Rousseau, that supports the argument discussed in the document and explain why. B) Identify TWO pieces of evidence supported during Enlightenment that undermine this argument and explain why.

A) One piece of evidence that supports the argument discussed is that men and women perform different roles in society, and so they should be educated differently. Rousseau thinks that because men and women will ultimately have different jobs in their lives, it does not make sense for them to be educated equally. Women will perform domestic roles, raising children and caring for the house, while men will pursue a career. This idea drastically decreased the opportunities for women outside of the home. Rousseau thought that because men and women have different jobs, they should be educated differently. B) Mary Wollstonecraft wrote a document in response to Rousseau's writing that undermines Rousseau's argument. She wrote that women are often defined by their gender, and are not given opportunities to achieve what men can achieve. She also wrote that men have always made women feel inferior to them. Wollstonecraft thinks that men cannot determine whether women are actually inferior to them if they have not given women a chance to prove that they are intelligent. Also, the idea that Wollstonecraft was able to write a document that contended what Rousseau said is almost like a piece of evidence itself. Rousseau thinks that women should not be educated similar to men, but Wollstonecraft is clearly well-educated enough to contest his ideas.

The ruler of Spain for most of the later 1500s was _________. A) Philip II B) Ferdinand I C) Charles V D) Carlos I E) Henry IV

A) Philip II

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy A) Placed the French Catholic Church under state control B) Made Catholicism the official religion in France C) Made the clergy part of the Third Estate D) Put France under the direct control of the Pope and E) The Roman Catholic Church

A) Placed the French Catholic Church under state control

The defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 A) Prevented Philip II from reuniting western Europe under Catholic rule B) Impeded the flow of silver from the New World to Spain C) Ended Spanish attempts to subdue the revolt in the Netherlands D) Prevented Spain from protecting its possessions in the New World E) Allowed the English to conquer Ireland

A) Prevented Philip II from reuniting western Europe under Catholic rule

King Henry IV stunned France, Spain, and the pope by ________. A) Publicly abandoning the Protestant faith and embracing Catholicism B) Publicly abandoning the Catholic faith and embracing Protestantism C) Declaring France Protestant, but hoping it would remain politically weak D) Declaring France Catholic, but hoping it would remain politically weak

A) Publicly abandoning the Protestant faith and embracing Catholicism

The Act of Supremacy that passed Parliament in 1559 A) Repealed Mary Tudor's anti-Protestant legislation and asserted Elizabeth's right as supreme governor over spiritual and secular affairs B) Mandated a revised version of the second Book of Common Prayer C) Enabled Elizabeth I to declare war on Spain D) Required Elizabeth to deal cautiously with Protestants E) Resulted in England and France signing a mutual defense pact

A) Repealed Mary Tudor's anti-Protestant legislation and asserted Elizabeth's right as supreme governor over spiritual and secular affairs

Which of the following forms of government would most likely win the approval of politique? A) Secular government in which religion plays no role B) Theocracy C) Parliamentary government D) Huguenot government E) Government based on the ideas of Pople Innocent III

A) Secular government in which religion plays no role

Which of the following was a provision of the Bill of Rights (1689)? A) Taxation could occur only with Parliamentary consent B) All English men over twenty-one could vote C) Kings would have to swear allegiance to Parliament D) A Roman Catholic could be a king

A) Taxation could occur only with Parliamentary consent

What was the reaction from Europe when the Turks invaded Austria? A) The Spanish under Philip II allied with Venice, Genoa, and the Pope to defend Europe against the Turks B) Europeans largely ignored the invasion and allowed Austria to be taken over C) The Greeks stepped up to defend Austria and defeat the Turks. D) The Huguenots came to the aid of Austria in hopes of gaining momentum for their resistance movement. E) The movement called Reconquista, guided by Ferdinand and Isabella

A) The Spanish under Philip II allied with Venice, Genoa, and the Pope to defend Europe against the Turks

French policy during the French (international) phase of the Thirty Years' War was motivated by A) The desire to maintain the political fragmentation of the empire B) The necessity to support its ally, Spain C) Religious beliefs D) Richelieu's hatred of the Protestants E) The desire to end Swedish influence in Germany

A) The desire to maintain the political fragmentation of the empire

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed all of the following EXCEPT A) The emancipation of women B) An elective legislature C) Protection of righs of property D) Religious toleration E) Equal protection under the law

A) The emancipation of women

A) Describe the symbols of the picture attached. B) Choose ONE of the symbols described and explain its importance during the French Revolution.

A) There are numerous symbols within this painting that relate to the French Revolution. There is a picture of Rousseau, whose ideas influenced revolutionaries, at the top. Beneath him are two flags which represent the flags of the French Revolution. On the left there is a triangular monument which is the monument of equality. Near the monument are two maidens shaking hands; they represent good faith and good will. In the middle of the picture is a monument covered in roses that represents the republic. On top of this monument sits the red cap of liberty worn by the sans-culottes. Below this monuments are assignats, the currency of the revolution. Growing from the assignats is the tree of liberty. In the foreground of the picture, there is a man working, wearing the red cap of liberty. On the right side of the picture there is a cannon and a faint guillotine; these are two symbols of the revolution. There is also a soldier who represents the revolution. Then there are two structures. The structure on the right represents the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens and the French Revolution. There is also an eye that is watching over every aspect of the revolution, but it is not known whose eye it is. B) One symbol in this painting is the guillotine. This was an especially important item during the Reign of Terror, when thousands were killed because it was thought they were against the Revolution. The guillotine was believed to be a form of execution that killed equally, and so it was widely used during a Revolution that sought equality.

Which of the following statements best characterizes the Russian strelski? A) They comprised an elite military group, with great influence in Russian politics and fought against Peter The Great's attempt of Westernization B) As intellectuals, they were an important group at court C) They were the leaders of the Decembrist revolt of 1825 D) As church leaders, they contributed to the myth of Holy Russia

A) They comprised an elite military group, with great influence in Russian politics and fought against Peter The Great's attempt of Westernization

"Art. 1: Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good". A) Explain to what document this article belongs, when it was issued and the features of the society it is fighting against. B) Who is Olympe de Gouges? What did she do? Why is she important?

A) This article belongs to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens. It was issued during the First French Revolution, a time when the citizens of France wanted true equality. During the Old Regime, the nobility and clergy received special treatment while the middle to lower classes of France received nothing for their work. The citizens of France wanted to break away from this Old Regime idea, and to do this they needed equality. This is why the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens was written, to define what equality meant to the men of France. B) Olympe de Gouges was a French women during the French Revolution who spoke for the rights of women. In her writings she used the words of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens and applied them to women. She explained why women were and should be considered equal to men and given the same rights as them. She was later guillotined as a result of her writing that promoted equality among genders.

This 1543 map (look at the attached file) of the heavens based on the writings of Nicholas Copernicus shows the earth and the other planets moving about the sun. A) Briefly identify and describe what it represents and the innovation idea that it develops. B) Briefly identify and describe ONE other scientist of this period who supported Copernicus' studies and describe how. C) Briefly identify and describe how the new scientific discoveries in this period have caused conflicts or discussions within the society.

A) This map represents a heliocentric view of the universe. Copernicus's heliocentric model shows the earth revolving around the sun, with the heavens around the outside of the universe. This was an innovative idea because most people believed everything revolved around the earth, putting humans at the center of the universe. Copernicus's idea was just a hypothesis and he did not prove it using any scientific methods. B) Galileo was a scientist of the period who supported a heliocentric view of the universe. He was able to use tools such as the telescope and scientific method to verify ideas on heliocentricism. Galileo was one of the first to use this scientific method which involved observing, forming a hypothesis, and experimenting to prove the hypothesis. Galileo verified Copernicus's ideas so that a heliocentric model seemed more believable and scientifically proven. C) The idea of a heliocentric universe upset the Catholic Church. In Scripture, it had been said that the earth was the center of the universe and everything revolved around it. Now, Galileo, a Catholic, was saying that the earth revolved around the sun and that Scripture should not be read completely literally when dealing with natural problems. The Catholic Church felt that Galileo was promoting the Protestant idea that everyone can interpret Scripture, and this caused them to place Galileo under house arrest until he renounced his statement. The Church and society were not yet ready to accept ideas that seemed to go against what had been said in Scripture.

Look at the painting attached (Jacques-Louis David, Oath of the Horatii, 1784), then answer the questions: A) Briefly identify what is the style of this painting, than explain ONE element of it that relates this style with the new ideas of Enlightenment. B) Briefly identify and describe another piece of art (sculpture, painting, building...) of this period related with the style used for this painting. C) Briefly identify and describe the main features of another artistic style of this period.

A) This painting portrays the neoclassic style. One idea during the Enlightenment was that women were far less superior than men, and should only work inside the domestic sphere. This image portrays the women as weeping and unable to be strong, which supports this argument. The men are strong and are going to fight for their country, while the women are weak and must remain at home. The women are also much smaller when compared with the men. This further promotes the idea that men are superior to women. B) The Pantheon in Paris is a building that is related with the neoclassic style. It was originally built as a church, but eventually became used to house the remains of philosophes like Voltaire. C) Another artistic style of this period was Rococo. The Rococo style usually portrayed nobles in their leisure times, and became associated with Louis XIV and absolutism. Paintings were often light and used pastel colors, and pieces of Rococo art were detailed and decadent.

The cahiers (notebooks) written on the eve of the French Revolution served which of the following purposes? A) To present grievances and proposals for reform B) To form the basis of a new constitution and code of laws C) To represent the guilds' interests to the aristocracy and bourgeoisie D) To restore the aristocracy to a full partnership with the monarchy E) To make the clergy responsible to the national bureaucracy

A) To present grievances and proposals for reform

Which of the following were most adversely affected by the increases in the price of food led to by Louis XVI's missmanagement and drought? A) Urban workers B) Wealthy merchants C) The clergy D) The nobility

A) Urban workers

Between 1618 and 1648, the Thirty Years' War involved A) Virtually every major European land B) Primarily nations in southern Europe C) Only religious factions in the British Isles D) Only the 360 political entities that comprised Germany E) Only nations south of Denmark

A) Virtually every major European land

Jansenists A) Were a group of Catholics disenchanted with the influence of the Jesuit order B) Were a minority Protestant sect in France that supported the goals of the Huguenots C) Were recognized by Louis XIV as having the same rights as other religious groups in France D) Were a group of Catholics most closely aligned with the Jesuit order that sought recognition from Louis XIV

A) Were a group of Catholics disenchanted with the influence of the Jesuit order

How did Henry IV stop religious war in France? A) With his conversion to Catholicism and the publication of the Edict of Nantes B) With the publication of the edict of Fontainbleau C) With the edict of Chateaubriand D) Using the force against Protestants and all revolts

A) With his conversion to Catholicism and the publication of the Edict of Nantes

The seven northern provinces of the Netherlands gained formal independence from Spain: A) With the Peace of Westphalia B) With the edict of Restitution C) With the edict of Nantes D) With the Pacification of Ghent E) With the Peace of Augsburg

A) With the Peace of Westphalia

How was the Peace of Augsburg like the Treaty of Westphalia? A) Both agreements restricted the rights of Protestants throughout Europe. B) Both agreements denied the authority of the Holy Roman Emperor. C) Both agreements established the right of Protestants to fortify their own towns. D) Both agreements established that the ruler of a land may determine the official religion of that land.

D) Both agreements established that the ruler of a land may determine the official religion of that land.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen asserted A) Gender equality B) Freedom from slavery C) Individualism and property rights D) Civic equality and popular sovereignty

D) Civic equality and popular sovereignty

The levée en masse A) Provided for universal male suffrage B) Determined all foreigners to be enemies of the Republic C) Capitulated to women's right to bear arms D) Conscripted males into the army and directed economic production to military purposes E) Repurposed the Catholic Mass as a ritual of civic virtue

D) Conscripted males into the army and directed economic production to military purposes

At the beginning of 18th century the dynasty (Bourbons) of Louis XIV controlled: A) France and England B) France and Prussia C) Holy Roman Empire and Prussia D) France and Spain

D) France and Spain

The Habsburg Emperor Charles VI (1711-1740) issued the Pragmatic Sanction in order to A) Provide for the division of his territories after his death B) Allow him to partition Poland C) Allow him to trade Protestant lands that he ruled in Germany for Catholic lands D) Guarantee the succession of his eldest daughter to the throne

D) Guarantee the succession of his eldest daughter to the throne

"Paris is worth a Mass" was said by A) Henry VIII B) Louis XVIII C) Louis XIV D) Henry IV E) Louis Philippe

D) Henry IV

All of the following were elements of the Treaty of Westphalia of 1648 EXCEPT A) It rescinded Ferdinand's Edict of Restitution B) It reasserted the religious settlement of the Peace of Augsburg C) It recognized Calvinists D) It elevated Sweden to the rank of an elector state E) It proclaimed the independence of the Swiss Confederacy and the United Provinces of Holland

D) It elevated Sweden to the rank of an elector state

Cardinal Richelieu served as "Prime Minister" to A) William I B) Henry IV C) Louis XIV D) Louis XIII

D) Louis XIII

'L'etat c'est moi' ("I am the state") is the famous statement of A) Louis XIII B) Catherine de Medicis C) Henry IV D) Louis XIV

D) Louis XIV

The term émigrés was used to describe A) Nobles who stayed in France to fight against the revolution B) Supporters of the revolution who came from the other countries C) Members of the mobs in the Paris streets D) Nobles against French Revolution, who fled France and fought from outside the country

D) Nobles against French Revolution, who fled France and fought from outside the country

Oliver Cromwell's Protectorate is best described as A) Popular democracy B) Cabinet-style parliamentary government C) Constitutional monarchy D) Puritan, military dictatorship

D) Puritan, military dictatorship

Explain why during the 17th century English Parliament and monarchy quarreled one against the other, what event ended the war and with what consequences

English Parliament and monarchy quarreled against one another during the 17th century because the monarchy was too independent of the parliament. The monarch would only call Parliament when it needed money to fight a war, but sometimes Parliament would not be called for years at a time. It seemed that the English Parliamentary monarchy was shifting away from Parliament. During the reign of Charles I, he attempted to imprison members of Parliament. This led to a civil war from 1642-1646 between the Cavaliers and the Roundheads. The Cavaliers supported the monarch and the Roundheads supported Parliament. Oliver Cromwell led supporters of Parliament to victory over Charles I. Then from 1649-1660, a Puritan republic ruled over England. Oliver Cromwell was a dictator during this time, even though he had refused the title of king because he did not believe he would succeed in this role. He enforced strict Puritan rules that banned theatergoing and other typical English pastimes. Eventually, Charles II restored the parliamentary monarchy and the Anglican Church in England.

Why do historians use the name Renaissance for the period between 15th and 16th century? What are its most important features?

Historians use the name Renaissance for the period between 15th and 16th century because it means "rebirth" and it was a time of cultural rebirth for Europe. Its most important features were a growing sense of nationalism, an urban economy based on capitalism and commerce, political centralization under a monarchy and growing lay and secular control of thought. There was also a change in art, from unrealistic works to more detailed and realistic works. The common vernacular also became popular and this, along with the printing press, allowed more people to become literate.

Explain the political situation of Spain, England and Holy Roman Empire at the end of the 15th century.

In 1469, Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabelle of Castille, two kingdoms in present-day Spain, married each other. Although the two kingdoms remained separate, their rule together allowed them to accomplish more than they could have if they were not married. During their rule, Christopher Columbus was encouraged to try to find a quick route to Asia for trading purposes, and instead he found the Americas, in 1492. Ferdinand and Isabella had two daughters, Joanna and Catherine of Aragon. Joanna married Archduke Philip, the son of the Holy Roman emperor. Their son, eventually known as Charles V, became the king of Spain, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and acquired land in the Americas. The other daughter, Catherine of Aragon, married Henry VIII, after she had been wed to his brother. Her marriage to Henry VIII was instrumental in the English Reformation. England was in political turmoil at the end of the 15th century. From 1455-1485, there was a civil war, called the War of Two Roses, between two families in England. This war eventually resulted in the establishment of the Tudor Dynasty, which would rule for many years. The Holy Roman Empire was fragmented and fractionalized, comprised of different lands with their own princes. Many reforms were passed to try and unite the different states within the empire. In the hope of some political unity, the Golden Bull was established and stated that seven princes elect an emperor. No reforms prevailed, and the Holy Roman Empire remained a land of fragmented states.

What are the main events happened in France, England and Holy Roman Empire between 1630 and 1661.

In England, conflicts between the monarch and Parliament shaped the events of this time. Charles I disregard for Parliament, and his attempt to have some members of Parliament arrested, led to a civil war in England. This civil war, from 1642-1646, ended in the defeat of Charles I by Oliver Cromwell. A Puritan republic was then established in England from 1649-1660. In France, Cardinal Richelieu and Cardinal Mazarin were creating a path for Louis XIV's absolute monarchy. In the Holy Roman Empire, the Habsburgs had considerable control of territory within the Holy Roman Empire, and Austria, along with Prussia, emerged as a power after the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648.

What are indulgences and why Luther was so angry with the Church for them?

Indulgences are a forgiveness for a temporal sin if one performs a "work of satisfaction." When the "work of satisfaction" is performed all the sins of a person are forgiven, temporal and eternal. This means that if a person were to die immediately after receiving an indulgence he could bypass purgatory, and go straight to Heaven. During Luther's time, Pope Leo X announced a Jubilee Year in which people could receive an indulgence if they made a payment to the church. The pope did this because he wanted to rebuild a cathedral in Rome. This angered Luther because he believed that the selling of indulgences turned salvation into something that could be bought and sold.

In the seventeenth-century France has been called the model of royal absolutism. How did Louis XIV create an absolute monarchy? What were the main features of French absolutism?

Louis XIV created an absolute monarchy by taking away the power of the nobility. Louis created the Palace of Versailles where he virtually made the nobility servants to him. In this way, he could take full control of the French monarchy, yet it still seemed that the nobles had some sense of power. Louis also displayed his wealth to show others that he was superior to them. The divine right of a king was a main feature of French absolutism. Bousset, Louis XIV's tutor, believed that only God could judge the thing, and the king's will was God's will. This meant that no one could go against the king's authority because they would also be going against God's authority. The idea of the divine right of kings allowed Louis XIV to gain total control without resistance from France.

What are the reasons for which Luther decided not to recant his thesis?

Luther stated that he would not recant his statements unless he was convinced by Scripture and plain reason, not by popes, that he had erred. He decided that he could not turn against what his conscience was telling him to believe. To recant his thesis would be to affirm the power of the pope, something Luther did not believe in.

What are the most important features of humanism?

One important feature of humanism is the revival of Greek and Latin studies, for the sake of doing so and also in the hopes of establishing norms and values in Europe that were found in the Greek and Latin works. Another very important feature of humanism was the emphasis on the importance of man. People were fascinated with studying man and discovering what features made the ideal man. The importance of man and revival of Greek and Latin studies were the most important features of humanism.

What were the main features of Russian process of Westernization? When did it happen and who was the protagonist?

The main features of the Russian process of Westernization were the acquisition of warm seas and the cultural revolution. The Westernization of Russia occurred during the rule of Peter the Great, who traveled to Europe and studied the lives of Europeans as much as he could. When he returned to Russia he hoped to mimic the European way of life in Russia. He taxed men who had beards because European men had clean faces and he cut off the long hand-covering sleeves on clothing which Europeans made fun of Russians for. He also paid to have noble families send their sons to Europe to be educated. He created a flag for Russia and St. Petersburg, which was closer the west, became the capital of Russia. Even the architecture in St. Petersburg reflected Europe. The acquisition of warm seas was also a feature of Westernization in Russia because it allowed for Russia to trade more with the west. Until that time Russia had only cold seas which were ice during most of the year. They could only trade with a few people, mainly in the east. The acquisition of warm seas and Peter the Great's institution of the ways of life he saw in Europe were the main features of the Russian process of Westernization.