Ap euro timeline stuff

Ferdinand III of Austria

"After the Thirty Years' War Ferdinand took over the remains of the Holy Roman Empire, which consisted of Austria, Styria, and the Tyrol. Under Ferdinand III he established the first standing army for the empire, that would

Dmitiri Mendelev

"One of the most important fields in science had emerged from this era known as organic chemistry. This field is completely based around the idea of carbon and its many compounds. Originally the field was founded by russian scientist Dmitri Mendeleev who codified the rules of chemistry in periodic law and the table. The importance of this discovery is the fact that it allowed many new inventions for industry. For some German companies they discovered a very effective way to use coke produced by furnaces.

Public transportation

"Transportaition in cities drastically improved at this time as eectricc street cars relaced horse drawn carriages. Electric cars were essentially better than every other mass form of transport especially when compared to that of a horse. New electric cars allowed for more mobility of both the urban workers and middle class, which in turn allows for more productivity in a city. Also with electric and horse drawn cars there was a greater opportunity for houses that would be in better conditions.

The Gleaners

A painting created by Francois Millet that summarized the plight of the lower class peasants. The picture displays the backbreaking work of hard working women as they collect every grain in a field. This not only highlights the harsh working condition of the peasants, but also how desperate they were as every piece of food was necessary to survive.

Lawrence of Arabia

A British colonel who was necessary in the conquering and overall disruption of the middle east. The major importance he had was simply inspiring the arab nationalists against the Turkish overlords. Thiss in turn allowed the British armies to crush the Ottomans and overall decieve the Arabs into thinking they'd gain independence.

Francis Rakoczy

A Hungarian prince who at the time of the War for Spanish Succession tried to rise up against the Hapsburgs. Prince Rakoczy was defeated along with his forces, but this rebellion forced the Hapsburg to change. A few changes were the restoration of traditional privaleges of Hungarian aristocracy, while the nobles had to accept the Hapsburg.

James I of England

A Scottish king who after Elixabeth died took over in her stead as she didn't have any heir. James was not a popular leader as he was a scottish ruler to begin with as well as the fact that Engand was in a tremendous amount of debt at this point. James I was significant in that he enforced the idea of divine right, which angered all of Parliament. Another issue was that he was sympathetic to the Roman Catholics that remained in England.

Cornelus Vermuyden

A famous Dutch engineer who directed one of the largest drainage projects in Yorkshire. The reason the drainage projects were important was the fact that it provided vasts amount of land, and replaced the mosquito producing swamps. Another factor is the fact that the new land provided was not under the authority of common rights, tus allowing more new crops to be used.

Nuclear family

A generally misinterpreted fact about European society was the idea that the families were extended and only as time passed it would become the nuclear family today. The truth is that most families in Europe were nuclear from the start, mostly because more people meant more mouths to feed. The reality is that a peasant family couldn't provide enough food for an entire extended family. I aaddition commuity controls would prevent physical attraction from occurring between man and women, as well as force men and women to marry before having child.

Dutch East India Company

A group of wealthy merchants in Hollands decided to join together for a joint stock company. The investors would recieve a percentage of the profits proportionate to that of their investment. The power of this company grew ever larger until the point where they controlled the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, and Malacca, and dominated trading in East Asia. The company was a major source of revenue that supported the Dutch's high standard of living.

D Day

A major push into Normandy by the combined forces of the British and the United States. This push was necessary in the liberation of France and the overall victory of the allies. THe battle itself cost over 2 million men and almost half a million vehicles in that time. The Allies followed this sucessful push with anoter series of sucessful campagins especially in Italy. It overall was a very important victory that allowed the Us to enter more of Europe.

National Assembly takes the church lands

A majority of the people in the National Assembly were against the state church and as a result they decided to take away the church's land in France. The land would then be sold back to the easnats to create a more equal system. Another key religious decree they made was the fact they forced clergy to take an oath to be loyal to the government. The effect was disatrous as they angered man yof the peasants who at this time were rather content.

Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre

A savage catholic attack occured on Calvinists in Paris the day of Margaret of Valois and the Protestant Henry of Navarre. Admiral Gaspard de Coligny the leader of the Huguneots of France was assassinated by Henry of Guise which resulted in a murderous rampage of Catholica against the Hugenots. The event led to the big civil war between the three Henry's of France.

Globalization

AS technology advanced the world was overall being further and further connected to one another. Globalization entailed overall more connections in each part of the world which was apparent in the fact that most of the economies out there were now interconnected for better or worse. New cultures would develop as a result of this and overall the world would never be the same as almost everything could be seen or heard.

Adam Smith

Adam Smith was a renowned philosher who was most known for his publication of the "Wealth of Nations." Adam Smith was a peculiar man who was well educated at the university of Oxford, and famous throughout Europe. However one of his many unique traits was his air headedness as he would completely lose track of himself within a conversation, or not know where he was at a time. In any case the man was very intelligent as he summarized most of the time periods econmomy.

Austria and Prussia declare the Declaration of Pillnitz

After the arrest of King Louis XVI and his wife the monarchs of Prussia and Austria were frightened as they realized the revolution could spread to their own countries. As a result they declared that they would intervene in Frence if things went too far. The rulers made a bad call in that instead of disuading the revolution, it actually caused more rage in France.

Abolishment of slave trade

After 1750 there was a serious call for the end of slavery, which can be attributed to the Enlightnement as well as stronger morals at the time. Then a serious political movement occured in 1788 and 1792 that was primarily led by many British women. Finally Parliament abolished slavery, but slavery was still practiced thorughout Britain's colonies.

Velvet Divorce/Czechoslovakia

After Czechoslovakia gained its independence from the velvet revolution, it went through a "velvet divorce". The divorce was really when Slovakian nationalists wanted to have a country of their own known as the Slovak Republic while the Czechs would have the Czech republic. The government actually gave in very peacfully and as a result both adopted liberal democratic values of Western Europe.

Defeat of Spanish Armada

After England helped the seven Protestant provinces in the Low countries Philip II was paid by the pope to fight England. He built an armada of 130 ships that were sent to help transport his other land army into England. However the English had a navy of 150 smaller and better equiped ships that detroyed more than half the armada as well as mother nature wrecking many ships of the armada. the result of the conflict is the slow turnn in spanish history where they lose most of their power, while England rises in nationalism.

Pilgrmage off Grace

After Henry VII separated England from the pope's power there were many peasants and educated elite that apposed the change. As a result in 1536 there was a large rebellion starting in the north that included many classes that proved to be the largest in England's history. The movement came to an end when the "pilgrims" accepted a truce, which resulted in the execution of their leaders.

Napoleon III of France

After Louis Phillipe was kicked out of power, Louis Napoleon made his way into power by popular vote by the French. He won the electiion due to his ties to the actual Napoleon as well as the fact that he actually used pamphlets to inform the populace of his policies which proved very popular. He won the election and was very effective in reforming the homeland as he actually rebuilt Paris and was a strong believer in the ideas of democracy. He also gave the workers the right to unionize, and was eveentually popularly elected to be the emperor of France. His rule however was tinged by the defeats he suffered in foreign lands especially the Germans.

Leonid Brezhnev

After Nikita Brezhnev cam to power and was quite frankly the complete oippositye of the former ruler. Unlike Nikita Leonid actaully started talking of how Stalin was actually not that bad and overall spoke of Stalin's positive reforms. HE essentailly marked the end of all liberal; reforms in the Soviet areas and saw the restablishment of older policies such as a stronger miltiary and the arms race.

Charles II of England

After Oliver Cromwell's regime fell, the English were ready to go back to a monarchy for government. The person they chose was Charles II who was the eldest son of Charles I. One key feature of his rulership was that he worked with Parliament throught the use of a cabal. The cabal consited five members that were answerable to Parliament for the decisions of king, and were necessary during this time for cooperation among the crown and Parliament. Another important event in Charles II time was that even though Parliament worked with Charles, they didn't give him enough money so as a result he had to make an agreement with Louis XIV. The agreement gave him 200,000 pounds annually, while Charles had to relax laws against the Catholics. This agreement was leaked to the public and caused a massive anti-Catholic wave of fear.

Chartist Movement

After RObert Owen's union failed many workers went in the Charrist movement which demanded the political democracy. Every man would have the right to vote, and it was a very popular notion as millions wanted said right. Workers also campaigned for a limited work days and hours, and the movement in general helped unite the social class.

Destalinization

After Stalin had died a new leader had arisen to the helm of the Soviet Union known as Nikita K. He was teh first open soviet toi discredit Stalin as being a very violent and overall having many flaws during his regime. As such there came a period of time in the Soviet Union where major refoms and rights were granted to its citizens. The period was known as destalinization as it effectively tore down the cult of personality around stalin and implemmented better reforms.

Displaced person

After WW2 there was a serious amount opf people who had their homes destroyed or were simply forced out of their country by the Germans or Russians. There were a serious amount of Jews who had been left without a home as well as orphans who lost their parents in the war. These peopl either immigrated out of Europe or lived in displaced person camps while waiting for new homes and oportunities.

Nurmeberg trials

After World War Ii the Nazi party or at least tghe leaders were hunted down and put on trial for their actions save a few who cooperated with the allies in their pursuit. The main pursuit was to denazifie Europe and was carried out by all of the allie, but this attempt was lack luster as the process was wseen by many to be impractical. In the end 45,000 people related to the Nazis were either killed or put into prison, other Nazis actually obtained high political power in the west and east by cooperating.

Napoleon Escapes Elba

After being exiled by the coalition of Europe Napoleon was forced to the island of Elba. The coalition in an attempt to reform the power in Europe restablished the monarchy. However this new ruler Louis XVIII was weak, and Napoleon seized this to escape his exile. As a result Napoleon returned to France and for a hundred days ruled France in an attempt to restablish his power.

neocolonialism

After former colonies had gained independence the national commmunity fought over influenc in these countries inm order to either spread communism or democray. THe major proponets of this new form of colonialization was the Us who would usually dominate these countries economically and influence their governments substantially. Usually loans were given to these poor countries and when they couldn't pay back thes loans the power would keep them underfoot.

Zionism

After many years of anti sesmitism in Europe their arose what was essentially a counter ideallogy founded by Karl Ueger. The concept itself was just saying that jews should have their own country as most of Europe hated them. The ideal; ocation became Palestie, which of course would lead to modern day issues in the middle east.

Henry anullement

After ten years of marriage to Catherine Henry grew tired of her, and wanted an annullment which i essentially saying the marriage was never legitament. However this annullement was not approved by the pope as the original marriage was anexception to the rules of the church and by allowing the annullement the pope would admit he was wrong. As a result Henry decided he would separate from the church in order to marry Anne Boelyn. The event overall led to the establishment of the Anglican church and the separation of England from the Church.

Battle of Quebec

After the British had been repelled constantly by the French in North America under the leadership of marquis de Montcalm, a new leader named William Pitt entered the fray. WIlliam Pitt was a wealthy man due to his grandfather and resdistributed forces in Europe to the New wold. As a result he began to destroy the French navya nd cut off the French provinces in the new world, until finally in 1759 with land and naval forces a combined seige on the frotress in Quebec defeated Montcalm.

France Declares war on Austria

After the Declaration of Pillnitz, there was outrage among those in teh Legislative Assembly, who at the time were conytrolled by the Jacobin club. They were a group of young radical men, who in April declared war on Austria. The war became the idea of freeing those repressed by a monarchy and to end the monarchy.

Seven Year War

After the European War of the Austrain Succession, Maria Theresa was determined to regain the property of Silesia and as a result she crafted a hasty alliance with Russia and France. The alliance aimed to conquer Prussia, but it was a hard fight. Frederick II led his army valiantly against greater forces and snatched many great victories against larger armies. He was almost defeated until the leader of the Russian forces dies, and the new leader Peter III withdrew Russian forces out of respect for Frederick.

National Assembly abolishes fuedal privelages

After the Great Fear occured the National Assembly in the ensuing chaos had to appeal to peasant demands. As a result they decided abolish the former rights of nobles concening rights such as game laws. This was actually a very wise decisionas it satisfied most of the peasants, and essentially ended the rebellion of the peasants as they were satisfied.

Holy Alliance

After the Napoleonic wars there was an intense fear of revolution within the counttries of Austria, Prussia, and Russia. The three powers being led by Metternich came to represent the repression of all revolutionary ideals throughout Europe. In their time until 1848 most revolutions were completely crushed by the three powers.

Sacking of rome

After the Pope Clement VII switched his support from Charles V to the French, Charle retaliated by allowing his soldiers to sack Rome. This benefitted Chalres as many of his troops were almost read to betray Charles, and the sacking captured a lot of wealth from Rome. The effect of this event was the overall devsestation of Rome as well as influencing Clement VII's decision on Henry VIII annullment.

War of the Three Henry's

After the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre a civil war broke out between Henry of Guise, Henry of Navarre, and King Henry III. Henry of Guise claimed to be king due to his heritage as well as using Catholics rage to exterminate the Calvinist, while King Henry III was simply trying to retain power. Catherine de Medici the mother of Henry III, and the overall puppet master of the Massacre died as well as Henry of Guise and Henry II due to assasinations. The winner in the end was Henry of Navarre who became Henry IV and was a defining turh in Frances religious toleration.

Christian Democrats

After the War there caem a need for a new leadership that would not be too radical but still be willing to make reforms. THis new political body arose in the form of the Christian democrats who were obviously tradional in some sense but were extremely open to reforms concerning the economy. These leader essentially rebuilt Europe and were essentially the only thing keeping it together.

Diet of Worms

After the conroversy over Martin Luther's public denouncement of the church , Germany was on the brink of revolution, so as a rsponse Charles V ordered Luther to appear at the diet of Worms. Luther was ordered to recant, but refused to and as a result was declared an outlaw. However Luther was protected by Frederick of Saxony who most likely defended Luther as an act of defiance against Charles V.

German Peasant Revolts

After the crop failiures in 1523 and 1524 many peasants resented the nobles as well as the fact that common land had been taken by the nobles. As a result in 1525 Swabian peasants met at the city of Memingen and wrote the "Twelve Articles" that outlined their complaints, while citing Luther as a source. Luther initiallysuported the peasants, but once they started to rebel he quickly changed his view to support the nobles as they were his protectors and hated the use of armed force by peasants. Revolts broke out across many parts of he Holy Roman Empire, but by the end the nobles crushed the revolt.

Times of Truoble

After the death of Ivan IV in Russia there was a great power vaccum as he had always held an iron grip over Russia. The result was a long chaotic period in which the Russians were trying to find a new ruler. The cossacks at the time arose, which would ultimatly end the time period as they were a major threat to the nobility that united them.

Napoleon is exiled to St. Helena for the rest of his life

After the defeat at Waterloo by the combined forces of Europe, the europeans power permanently sent Napoleon to the island of St.Helena. Napoleon however took revenge in glorifying his legacy and convincing many of how important he was.

British in Egypt

After the defeat of Muhammed Ali his grandson Ishmael came to power. Although Ishmael did try to trun Egypt into a modern state he actualy worsened the situation by spending money on very large producst such as the Suez canal. Since he drove Egypt into such debt he actually owed the FRench and English money. This in turn allowed for the British to control the economic situation of Egypt, and when the people rebelled th eBRitish simply gained more power and used the khedive as their puppets.

Spain's decline

After the defeat of the Spanish Armada by the British Spain was expierencing an era of depressions. There are many reasons the Spanish declined, but the key features were the fact that the monarchy was consistently weaker as they inbred with one another. Also the Spnish experienced an massive inflation tht devasteated their economy to the point where they really couldn't recover.

Children relationship

After the enlightenment and the romanticism movement, children were actually taken care of. The teddy bear helps express this idea as more and more parents would spend quality time with their children rather than having one and expecting them to die. There was more love and care and possibly gifts to the children to help them grow and do better than their parents. Mothers would actually breast feed their children as it was more accepted to be endearing and less gross, while fathers would play with their child. Parents would love their children more so and spend more lavish items upon them such as the idea of a teddy bear or doll.

Shock Therapy in Poland

After the fall of the Soviet union the former sateliite sates had many things to consider in trying to recover from the failing system. As such Poland was actually one of the most sucessful in recoverring and instituing the same policy as thye Russians. They too stopped most price controls while alos privatizing many istitutes, this actually was still devastating at the beginning. However the Polish people had the support of the WWest which helped them during this transition period, ovrall allowing for major economic growth.

World Trade Organization

After the fall of the Soviet union there arose three powerful supernational organizations, and one of them was the WTO. This organization had over 150 members included into it and held the responsibility of monitoring the financial sections of the world. The organization was in charge of making sure that the import and export systems of each country was controlled and carefully monitored.

The Turkish Wars

After the final attack on vienna by the Ottomans in 1683, the Hapsburg and many Europeans responded swiftly to push back the Ottomans. The overall result of these wars was the expansion of the Hapsburg power over the areas of Hungary. The war also was the final war by the Ottomans in an attempt to challenge the powers of Europe.

September Massacres

After the imprisonment of the king by the National Convention there arose a series violents mobs. Angry crowds feuled by rumors of invasiona and counterevolutionaries, killed and imprisoned many priests and aristorcrats. It occurred at the very beginning of what many people consider the second revolution.

Vladimir Putin

After the overall failure of Yeltsin, the people of Russia electedd a former KGB member to the president's seat named Vladimir Putin. Putin was a return to many communistic adn stlain like reforms in russia as he cracked down on the Oligarchs, while also taking over key industries for the government. He practiced some authoritarian rulership as hee did suppress the freeedom of speech for particular newspapers as well as increase the military as well as the secret police. His rule however did see the recovery of Russia's economy until 2008 where the economic crisis returned globally, also he was very anti western believing Russia needs to look out for itself.

Cottage industry

After the proletarianization of the peasants, the now landless peasants had to find a new employment. Thus the notion of "domestic industry" grew rapidly throughout England. There are many varitations of this industry, but the most common was the putting out system. It consisted of a family of peasants being given raw materials from a merchant to create a produt, that would be later sold by the merchant. The sytsem had many benfits including the fact that they were no standars, which means that a guild didn't regulate the products and horde the profits. The new indusrty coul produce mny common items used by everyday people, and as stated before usually involved a family of peasants doing most of the wrok. Sometimes the family would hire a spinster to do more complicated process, and was in general considered a small business.

Revolution in Prussia

After the revolts in Austria, the Prussian people were inspired to demand more and try and obtain a liberal constitution. The king Frederick Wlliam IV caved into the demands adn tried to make a German National state. Hwever the urban workers and their mddle class allies varied on what they wanted. fracturing the revolution. Finally the Prussian Constituent Assembly was formed to write a new constituion, but they then were absorbed into the war around Denmanrk. Eventually the king FRederick William of Prussia was elected by the National Assembly to be meperor of the German state, but ultimatley failed as both Austria and Russia forced Prussia back down.

European War of Austrain Succession

After the ruler Charles VI died in 1740, he had his young daughter Maria Teresa take over the Austrian empire. However the moment she takes power Frederick II actually attacks Austria and captured SIlesia. This event marked multiple countires trying to capture the territories of Austria nad overall devastated Austria's power, while officially recognizing Prussia's power.

The Wild Tartars of the Crimea

After the wars of King Lousi XIV and the war between Sweden and Poland, there was an air of tension for the people of Prussia. The tension was justified as the Tartars of Crimea swept into Prussia attacking and killing thousands of people. The Tartars also took approximatly fifty thousand people as slaves, and as a result the Estaes were further weakened and the justified the money for an army.

Alexander II of Russia

Alexande II of Russia was most famous for his abolishemnt of serfdom in Russia. Not only that, but he also created zemstovs, as well as improved the miltary might of Russioa extrmely at this point in time. He was ironically killed on the day he was going to give a constitutuion.

Postindustrial society

Another name for this "era" would be the information age as it saw the massive closure of older heavy industriy areas. The idea came about when the economic crisis came as well as the technological advances continued to occur. With these technologies many jobs became replacble thus allowing for many people to lose their jobs as well as the massive closure of factories that simply weren't needed anymore such as steel and mining.

Council for Mutual Economic Assistance

Another response from the Soviets to the US and the Western allies was the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, which directly opposed the Amrshall plan. It was created for all countires in the Eastern bloc to help them financailly. The plan essentially established the idea of the iron curtain which separated Europe in East and West.

Apothecaries

Apothecaries developed years before the 18th century, but were still respected among the medical world. They used nature and natural herbs to provide cures to diseases that were lurking about, and were generally accepted in towns and cities. Apothecaries were usually expensive due to the fact that many of their prescriptions contained hundreds fo ingredients.

Protestant Maximilien de Bethune Financer advisor

Appointed by Henry IV, he was the duke of Sully that improved Frances financial situation. He combined the taxes on salt, sales, transit, and lease into one tax that increased revenue due to a revival in trade. Another major accomplishment was that he was the first French official to fund oversea trade in the form of the Council for Trade. Lastly he started to contruct a country wide highway system to improve France's communicaion.

Georges Haussman

Appointed by Napoleon III to rebuild the city of Paris in an effective manner. He was actually very effective which shocked many people of Europe as he actually improved the city dramatically,. He first destroyed many of the poorer sections and opened the streets up to allow for more free mobility. Also he imporved the recreational area as he allowed more parks in the area. Overall he was a very effective man who transformed Paris into an effective city.

Jean Baptiste Colbert of France

Appointed to be the controller general of finances by Louis XIV, he was necessary in dictating the future of Frances economy. He applied the ideas of mercantism to France's econmy by applying the idea of exporting items,while never buying items from foreign nations. Colbert supported almost every form of industry including the naval aspects of France, and the cloth industry. The lasting impat of his policies improved almost every industry he invested in, but the economy failed to improve because it was based on agriculture.

Popolo rising

Around the 13 century the cities of Italy were controlled by wealthy urban nobles that made it impossible for lower class citizens to obtain office. As a result the heavily taxed and disenfranchised resented their condition, and decided to take the cities over using force and violence. Sadly the new popolo were as bad as the urban nobility due to the fact they were just as exclusive in their political positions.

Tarriff Protection

As continental countries realized that they could not compete with the ever cheaper goods of Britain, they decided they had to intervene so as to not force the country into bankcruptcy. The measures they took included tariff protection which essentially made any product made by a foreign country far more expensive, which in turn allowed businesses in continental countries to develop and not be destroyed by the British.

France declares war on Britain, Holland, and Spain

As international pressure arose, the National Assembly ina a daring move declared war on every other country surrounding them. The war at first was not going well for the FRench as they were unprepared against the formal and well organized armies of Europe. However after France enforced the first draft the tides turned as France simply had a larger army than the rest of Europe.

Revisionism

As time progressed the extreme values of socialists and overall MArx's ideas, became more acceptable. In fact many socialistsd demands were being met with little issue, so as time progressed socialism changed, as thwey realizeds they didn't need a violent revolution. The new form of socialism was defined in Edward Bernsteins Evolutionary Socialism.

DIgital Era

At the dawn of a new era there arose new technolgy that would change te entirety of communication. Welcome to the era of digitalization, the impact of this tehnology is the fact that now the world was more connected than ever, processes that took days could now take seconds everyhting was accelerating at a rapid pace. In addition companies such as BBC now had to compete with online servicces like Netflix changing how communication and entertainment industries.

Positism/August Comte

Auguste Comte was not originally recognized for his work into social science, but his main work "System of Positive Philosophy" during the time of realism suddenly emerged as a very popular piece. His main contribution to social science was the positive method which essentially said that through the scientific method the laws governing human behavior would be discovered. He also proposed that all scientific progress went through approximately three phases with the first being theological, the metaphysical, and finally the scientific. His work paved the way for future methods and studies into social sciences, and is still used today

Castigiliones The Courtier

Baldassare Castigilione most famous piece of literature is "The Courtier," which was about education. The book revolved around turning men into the perfect gentleman in the sense of knowledge, and body. The book was a revolutionary idea that encouraged education among many people.

National banks

Banks in general were essential to the development of the Industrial Revolution as they were key in providing funds necessary for inventors. Banks developed in Belgium for example that had limited labiltiy for the invesotrs resulting in Belgium advancing in their development in the Industrial Revolution. The most famous of banks included the Credit Mbilier of Paris developed by two jewish journalists that allowed most of the railroad systems of Europe to develop.

Blood Sports

Blood sports involved the use of bullbaiting and cockfighting. Bullbaiting was the use of a bull to be attcked and killed by ferocious gos, while cockbating was the use of roosters to fight eachother. People would view these fights and take bets on which would win. They were popular among the commoners, but were not popular among the nobles later on.

Lberal Reform in Great Britain

Before reforms occurred in England, it was a state of idstress as prices of food had risen astronomically and the aristocrats who at irst controlled the government were not helping the situation in the Con Laws. There were huge protests such as the Battle of Peterloo, that frightened the nobles but did not stop them. Eventually the middle class and industrialists joined together to eventually gain the most power in Parliamen in the Hous eof commons. In addition there was the Whig party which was generally more responsive to the people and merchant class. Eventually new acts were passed that limited the amount of work hours, the repealment of the Corn Laws, and more representation in the government.

Diet of the poor

Before the introduction of other vegetables, the diet of poor mostly consisted of bread and easy to grow root vegetables. The lack of nutrients at this time caused some diseases to occur among the poor like scurvy, and waz a serious issue. However when new foods were introduced such as potatos many necessary nutrients were involved, thus improving there overall life. One thing to note is the fact that the poor always wanted to have meat as it was a sign of wealth.

Recovery in Britain

Britain recovered remarkably during this time, but they were admittably slow. The British government withdrew from the gold standard, and established extremely high tariffs. The government actually focused more on the development of national trade rather than that of international trade. Housing was growing constantly and Britain did very well iuntil conditions were actually considered better than that of 1920s condition.

Benito Mussolini

Benito Mussolini was an Italian politician who before the first World WAr was a part of the Socialist Party in Italy. However after leaving the war due to medical issues, he actually started buillding his own following known as the Black shirts among disgrunteled veterans. He then being an opportunist switched his political agenda to be completely against socialsim in order to gain the support of the middle class and conservative people of Italy. Benito Mussolini was the founder of fascism and was super nationalistic claiming that Italy would return to greatness much like the Romans of old times. HE then controlled the press and almost became a complete totalitarean government, but was limited by the Catholic Church.

Fossil Fuel issues

Besides the issue of global warming fossil fuels entailed another set of issues politically. In this case the Middle East and Russia both had the largest supply of oil in the world which was a major issue for Western countries like the US. The Russians for instance would use their large supply as a threat to other nations to not intervene as if oil was restricted then the other nations would have no supply of energy. The middle East practices this same policy as they too have used oil to their advantage as shown when the OPEC cut off the west.

Tycho Brahe

Born to a rich Danish noble, he recieved a good education to be a part of the governemt. The importance of his character is that he took an interest into astronomy and took note of many changes in space. In addition he used the most advanced observatory to take note of these changes. He never was able to interpret these finds as he wasn't actually invested enough into mathematics, but his accurate notes were necessary for future mathematicians.

Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin was a scientist from England who was essentially the father of evolution in a sense. He developed the theory of every organism coming from a previous one, but changing its own form for the survival of the fittest. As such his theory sparked a lot of tension in Europe as the theory of evolution underminded the church's main beliefs about humanity. He was heavily chastized, while many in the scientific communiy gernerally agreed with him. Eventually scientific reasoning beat out religous beliefs, as more secular beliefs occurred.

Fronde

Cardinal Jules Mazarin was the sucessor to Richelieus and tried to increase the royal revenue, but his attempts led to a civil war known as the Fronde. The Fronde was caused by both a resentment among the poor as well as many nobles feeling cheated by the new reforms placed by the monarchy. The result was the fact that the government had to compromise with the nobles, as well as the fact that the economy of France was completely devastated for years to come. The last impact of the Fronde was that the King Louis XIV was traumatized by the experience as some rebellions actually held the king hostage.

Cardinal Richelieu's administrative system

Cardinal Richelieu being one of the most beneficial servants of France set up a system that assigned an intendent to each of France's 32 districts. The intendents were responsible for judicial, financial, and policing their own respectful areas, but they were also key transmitting information to the crown. An intendent usually came from class known as the nobles of the robe, but could not be natives of their district. Overall the system would later on lead to conflict, but it also was necessary in the centralization of France.

Count Camillo Benso di Cavour

Cavour was a statesmen for the kingdom of Sardinia, who planned to unite all of Italy. He wroked hard to create a liberal constitution, and was the key component to Sardinias inner structure. He made an allliance with FRanmce to help expell teh Austrians from Italy, but the FRench betrayed the Italians. The Italians still won land in Lombardy, but had to ced some land to appease the French. Eventually he manipulated a popular leader among the Italian people to finally unite Italy.

Charles Fourier

Charles Foulier was essentially a lunatic, as he was a salesment who eventually believed that someone would come and give him money if stayed in a room and waited. In addition he believed that marriage should be abolished as he thought unions between people should be based on love and sexual freedom. His most important idea was the fact that he had the plans for a hotel that would make an equal society that would be perfect in his eyes.

Charles agrees to the Peace of Augsburg

Charles V had to agree to the Peace of Ausburg, which resulted in him recognizing that Lutheranism was a religion. In addition the document required that each prince had to choose a religion for his region, which resulted in most of northern and central Germany being Lutheranwhile the southern part remained Roman Catholic. The document however did not give people religious freedom as people had to either change or leave the area depending on their relgion.

Abdictated Charles V of the Hapsburg

Charles V in his last years decided that instead of leaving his vast amount of land to his son Philip II he split his land between his son and brother Ferdinand II. He gave Ferdinand I the land of the HRE while his son got the New world, Spain, and the Low lands. The result of the abdictation was alot of tension between Philip an d the low lands as at the ceremony when Charles gave the land to Philip he spojke in Flemish, but Philip responded in Spanish. Many people of the low countries felt Philip was not one of their own, whereas they always felt Charles V was a part of their people.

Ferdinand Magellan sails the globe

Charles V of Spain sponsored Magellan to find a sea route to the islands of Moluccas. The result however was Magellan sailing around the coast of South America as well as finding the Phillipines in his voyage. He died during the journey, but his crew were the first to officially sail the world in three years. He revealed how large the world was to the Europeans as well as ending their dream to find a route west to asia.

Pragmatic Sanction (Charles VI)

Charles VI of the Hapsburg set up the Pragmatic Sanction in order to help keep their territory controlled. The sanction itself stated that the Hapsburg possessions were never to be divided and were always to be passed intact to a single heir. Charles wanted this to be approved by the nobles because his own heir was female and he new the empire would collaspe witout it.

Pragmatic Sanctions of Bourges

Charles VII created the document to assert the French crown's authority over the church. The document itself said that a council had power over the papacy, which in turn allowed the king to appoint church officials. The other key part of the agreement was that the pope was deprived of alot of revenue.

Charles VII of France

Charles VII was an oddball of a king as he was generally thought to be weak at first, but surpisingly he actually started the reconstruction of France. His contribution was he expelled all the english by 1453, as well as setting up an official permanent royal army. In addition he actually rearranged the royal council to encourage the middle class, and a tax called the gabelle. Without him France may never have developed, thus engraving his name in history.

Charles XII of Sweden

Charles was the only eighteen when he came to the throne and had to face the forces of Russia. Orignally it was believed that Charles would be easily defeated by the Russians, but the reality was that he shocked the Russians. Charles VI actually led an assault on a miltary base that pushed the Russians back, but it must be said that he did not win the war.

Christopher Columbus goes to the Americas

Christopher colombus being sponsored by Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain left to find a western route to India and china. However he found America instead in the Carribean and started the enslavement of the natives in the New World. He brought great wealth to the spanish, but still was cruel to the native population.

Conservatism

Conservatism was mostly supported by the aristocracy, and was essentially the idea of keeping Europe in the feudal era. The conservatives at the time of the Congress of Vienna held power as both Russia, Austria, and Prussia were all ruled by monarchs. As such between 1815 and 1848 conservatives ruled Europe and tried to crush all new ideas.

Copernicus prints the "On the Revoltuion of the Heavenly Spheres"

Copernicus was a deeply religious man who disagreed with Ptolemy's idea of the Earth. As such he devised that the sun was the center of the universe with the Earth revolving around the sun, which was against the usual belief of the time. He only printed the book moments before his death, as to not be condemned by the Church.

The Act in Restraint of Appeals

Created by Henry using the Parliament to legalize the Reformation in England, it declared the king to be the surpreme sovereign of England. The act also forbade judicial appeals to the papacy, which effectively gave the Crown the most legal authority in England. Also this was the first act of three that separated the English religion from the Roman Church.

Developed socialism

DEveloped socialism was a nre form of communism developed by the Soviets in order to slightly reform.One such policy of the new form was that they collectivized agriculture while nationalizing at the same time. Althoug it wasn't extreme as some places reatined private ownership. The soviets tried to implement economic planning, but utlimatly failed.

David Cameron

David Cameron was the most recent British Prime minster to retire,and was considered a conservative man. His main contribution was stating that there should be a vote in 5 years to see if the United Kingdom would stay in the EU.The result not in th ebook mind you was known as Brexit as anti EU people voted to leave the union, which caused panick as scotland, wales, and Ireland all wanted to stay in the union. THe fact of the matter is that it could mean the end of the EU if more countries leave.

David Ricardo

David Ricardo was essentially the man who believed that wages would never be more than what was subsistent. HE essentially thought in the iron law of wges that workers as population grew would never truly be enough to allow a luxry life, and was overall a pessimist. HE was also a friend of Thomas Malthus and an overall very popular man.

Dawes Plan

Dawe's plan was formulated by the American banker Charles G.Dawes, that was meant to help Germany pay war reparations. In this case the plan was accepted by almost everyone including Germany, the United States, France, and Britain. The idea was essentially that the United states would give Germany private loans that would then be used to stimulate growth and pay off the reparations to france and Britain. The system worked at the beginning and actually saved the GErmans economy, but this plan had many flaws. Another important aspect was that along with this plan there was a peace treaty called the Kellogg-Briand Pact, which condemned war entirely.

Famine Foods

Due to ineffective farming methods or crisis years in which agricultural plights are througout the land there was very little food. As such many eople had to feed off of bark, chestnuts, and other assorted foods like grass. There was even some cannabolism in the 17th century, but overall famine foods highlighted how hard it was during this time.

Fall of the Eastern Bloc

Due to the economic pressures resulting all the way back in the 1970s the Soviet Union was starting its collaspe. The major country that started the major collaspe of the Eastern Bloc involved Poland. Free elections were held in poland, and surprisingly the communists did not win, and eventually Poland broke away from the union, the process was slow. Overall more and more pieces of the EAstern bloc started to leave the Union as well as the WArsaw pact.

Book of Common Prayer

During Edward VI's reign he pushed England toward the goal of becoming a Protestant religion, and as a result his chief advisor Archbishop Thomas Cranmer wrote the "Book of Common Prayer". The Archbishop worked with other Protestant theologists in order to create a book that was in the vernacular language of English to state the services of the Church of England. The book served to unify English beliefs in a form that could be understood by at least nobles.

China liberation

During World War II and after there was a serious conflict in China that devolved into civil war. One side was the deocratic side that had a lrage support from the Us, but had a very weak army as they were poorly organized. The other side was the communistic Mao Zedong who had a smaller amount of people but a very well organized army. Eventually the democratic side had to flee to Taiwan while the communists overall won China and implemented many Stalin reforms.

Winston Churchill

During World War II, Winston Churchill was the prime minsiter of the Kingdom of Great Britain and was a very stubborn leader. He was essential in maintaining Britain's spirit of not giving up against the Germans, stating that he would not surrender until all nations are liberated from Germany. He also stated how it was the weakness of the allied powers befor eht ewar that caused so much destruction as it was perfectly preventable.

The New Deal

During the Great Depression the president Franklin D. Roselvelt implemented a very experimental method in trying to promote growth in america. The policies implemented usually involved socialistic ideals like the government creating jobs for the poor or at least trying. ANother important one was trying to helop the farmers who at this time weere suffering severly. The most important programs would include the WPA and the National Revoery Administration. It ultimately couldn't fix AMerica.

Energy Crisis

During the Industrial Revolution, Brtain and other countries faced a major issue in suppling the sufficient amount of energy for new machinery. In Britain they originally used wood for energy, but after so much deforestation the supply of wood dwindleded. The iron indusrty was slowing to a halt, until finally Brtisih engineers developed a practical steam engine that used steam to power itself. The steam engines were then able to obtain coal that was used as a major sorce of energy for the rest of England.

Methods of Contraception

During the eighteenth century family control and population control were very important at the time. Many of the people also wanted to avoid venereal diseases, so as a result they developed methods to prevent this. For some men in London they use a sheath or fast set which essentially was an old form of a condum.

Challenges for Women

During the later half of the cetury women were majorly advocating for equal opportunity in a world dominated by sexism. Many women were inspired by new books written st the time pointing out the inequlity in society and overall progress women still need to make. One of the major reasons women used to support their right to equality includes the fact that they could draw upon s many historical points that showed how women were important to everything.

Cossack Emelion Pugachev

During the rein of Catherine the Great there was a major cossack rebellion led by Emelion Pugachev. He proclaimed himself to be the true tsar and decreed that serfdom to be abolished. He continued to slaughter lords throughout his rebellion over most of southern Russia, but eventually he was defeated by the professionly trained army of Catherine.

Christian rebirth

During the time of the first World war and thereafter people needed reinsurance from traditional sources, and as such christianity rose. Usually science would undermine the churches authority, but at this time the churhc was a source of hope and despair. MAny people in the idealogy of christian extentionalism believed they needed to repent to god in the hopes of his fogiveness. It made a very tight-nit family, but also encouraged some anti semitism.

Edwin Chadwick

Edwin Chadwick was a british man who was important in cleaning up the cities. He cared for the poor and was the main architect for the public health acts enacted by Parliament. He was the man who had thought of using a sewage sytem of pipes that would clean up a city and prevent disease.

Egypts rise

Egypt after their horrendous defeat at the hands of the Israelis there arose a great nationalistic revolution in Egypt,. In this revolution the cunning leader Abdel Nasser a general rose to be thye leader of Egypt. He was particualary smart when it caem to playing both sides of the superpowers as he oobtained loans from the US while buying Soviet arms. He also wasa the one who started the Suez Canal crisis which showed Europe could not longer maintain imperilaism.

Industrial Revlution in Britain

England was the first country to industrailize at this time. The reason behind it includes the fact that they had an isolation from the years of war occurring on the continent. In addition England was a pioneer in the Agricultural Revolution, which was important as it provided the necessary working clas to start cities and industrialization.England for years was ahead of every other country in terms of economic power as well as industry.

Erasmus enforces christ

Erasmus was famous for his considerable knowledge on Greek culture, but also for his idea of education. The two main themes of his writing is that education is needed for reform especially through the teachings of the bible as well as that Christianity is about Christs life. The impact of his writng is that he encouraged others to study the classics as well as enforcing Christianity being taught in school.

World Bank and International Monetary Fund

Established after WW2 these organizations have grown to span the globe until the point where they are considered supernational organizations. Most of their funds come from the US and WEstern Europe and have the authority to grant loans to countries if they implement neoliberal reforms like budget reduction. These two were very active in rebuilding the Eastern Bloc as they granted a lot of loans.

Fascism

Fascism was an idea created by the dictator Mussolini, that was very matiomalistic. The ideals of fascism included private property and the overall power of one leader. Fascisit leaders such as Mussolin and Hitler would use propaganda to encourage the idea of them being the ultimate leaders and were very chraismatic. In any case fascism could be summarized as being supernationalistic and the idea of being loyal to one leader or psrty. THe leaders also in control of multiple aspects of a perspns life and was used un schoool as well..

Existentialism

Existentilsm was a product of the psychological effects of the first World War. It is essentially the ultimate form of depression at tiimes as it forces people to think about themselves, and look at themselves in objectivity. Now this idea was not meant to be depressing, but it quickly developed into this considering the GReat Depression and all the other events of this era. It overall allowed leaders such as Hitler to rise as people needed hope.

Movie and Radio

Film arose top be one of the most iportant forms of media at this time. The reason behind this was the fact that it was necessary in showing propaganda and trying to show people countries ideals. America arose to be one of the most iimportant film industriies, and one of the most famous silence film actors was Charlie Chaplin, who made fun of politics at time. Radio also arose to be very important to the distributioon of propaganda as alm,ost everyone hada radio. It was an effective form of communication and connected each country togetrher significantly.

Methodists

Formed by John Wesley, they were best known for how devout they were to the christianity. The metodists were a devout group who were important in that they rejeted Calvin's idea of predestination as well as asserting the idea of all men and women being able to get into heaven through righteous acts. The group gained a lot of support in England as well as areas around the Netherlands.

Fritz Harkourt

Francis Harkout was a pioneer in German engineering, who during his time in England wished to bring industry to Purssia. He set up a shop in Ruhr Valey where he was known as the Watt of Germany. Sadly the man actually was forced out of his own company for over the years he lost most of his fortune. He iddi howver become very famous and a pinoeer for Prussia's industrialization.

Recovery in France

Frances's recovery from the Great Depression was very difficult as France was not united in terms of politics. Once the Depression truly impacted the people unsurprisingly there was a social revolution. In this case the Popular Front formed which was a combination of the Communists, Socialists, and Radicals, who in May 1936 gained control of the French parliament. Once in power they were led by Leon Blum and launched the only reform which gave workers a paid vacation and a limited 48 hour work week. The attempt was a failiure as inflation and other economic solutions arose.

Francisco Pizarro conquers the Inca

Francesco pizarro much like Hernando dreamed of conquest and making history, and his achievement was conqueoring the incan empire. The ruler of the incas was aware of the Spanish and tried to set them up, but they captured him. The Spanish then executed him and raided the city of Cusco with all of its gold.

Francis Bacon solidifies empericism

Francis Bacon was an important English writer who was most renowned for his formation of empriicism. The idea of empiricism is that all knowledge derives from sense experience, rather simpe belief. The way this theory applied to real science was that scientists could basically perform experiments rather than assume facts. Another fact about Francis Bacon was that he provided a radically new and effective justification for private nad public support of scientific inquiry.

FDR (Franklin Roselvelt)

Franklin D. Rosselvelt was one of the most important presidents at this time for establishing many policies still effecting the us today. He was the main president who attempted to fix the issue of the Depression in his New Deal. True it must be said that the Congress and Supreme Court considered him to be far to powerful and constantly fought with him. He was of course the commander in cheif during the time of World War II.

Frederick Williams "The Great Elector"

Frederick Williams was basically the man that formed what would be called Prussia. He added the estates of Prussia, Brndenburg, and scattered holdings along the Rhine. He then manipulated the nobility of the Estates by taking away their economic power, while exempting them from taxation. Frederick also set up a standing army for Prussia that was slowly gaining power.

Freidrich List

Freidrich was a german man who was a journalist that urged the government to develop programs to help industry evolve. He believed in the idea of economic nationalism which essentially demanded government intervention rather than what England had established which was lassiez faire. It was also to help germany catch up to Britain as they were severly behind in terms of industry.

Friedrich Engles

Freidrich was a pessimistic German man, who beieved that the middle class abused the urban workers. In his book "The Conditioning of the Working CLass in England" he attacked the middle class stating they were mass murderers who did nothing to help the working class. Capitalism was also a very prudent cause for the abuse as competition caused the ruthelessness among people, in addition he was a very good friend of KArl Marx.

Functionalism

Functionalism was a very popular idea in architecture at this time where everything built should be functional and less ornamental. Buildings at this time included sky scrapers and simple buildings which all served their functions to the upmost effect,. However there was a development of the Bauhaus which was aGerman school that combined functionalism with art and made actually very pretty structures.

German Unification

German unification was primarily obtained by the man known Otto Von Bismarck. It started with the conquering of scheleswig and Holstein area against Denmark. Prussia became the leading German country, and as Bismarck instigated war with Austria he gained the support of the central german states. The Prussian statre was very lenient on the Austrians with minimal demands besides Venice. The unification then occurred when they instigated another war with France resulting in the southern states joining Prussia leading to William I being crwoned emperor of Germany.

Effect of globalization of the human side

Globalization had a multitude of effects, but to say the least it was certainly not equal. Instead it actually divided many people depending on wealth and ethnicity, for instance in America and Western Europe black people had a tendency to be jobless than white people. In addition globalization allowed for outourcing to occur which meant that many jobs in Europe could instead be done at a cheaper rate in Asia, thus taking away many heavy industry based jobs. Another effect of globlization was the widespread protest to it such as Mcdonalds, where Italians protested it over being against traditions.

Pereostroika

Gorbachev's other policy was known as Perestroika which was aimed to help repair the Soviets economy. To begin the Soviet Union was not in a good spot economically speaking as most of their funds went towards the military, which is obviously a poor decision. The policy entailed a loosening of Communist ideals by allowing cooperative private ownership as well as not implementing as many price controls. This policy would ultimately fail as the new rules allowed more people to leave and overall couldn't save such a terrible economy.

Gout/scurvy

Gout was caused by a lack of vitamin A and C, which was not helped by the lack of exercise among the upper class. Sucry was also caused by alack of vitamin C, which in turn rots your limbs and gums. These diseases were prevalent among the poor and rich throughout the land. Only after the introduction of potatos and other vegetables did the disease become less prevalent except among the rich.

Guissepi Garibaldi

Guiseppi Gartaibaldi was a young ambitious man, who was key in uniting Italy. He became a hero to the Italian people as defended the Italians against the Austrians, and continued to support Italian nationalism. Then he led his men through sicilly, and essentially united Italy. One caviot was the fact that cavoiur manipulated him teh entire time.

Gustava Vasa

Gustava Vasa was necessary in the spreading of Lutheranism in Sweden as he led a successful revolution against Denmark to earn Sweden's independence. As king he seized church lands and demanded the bishops loyalty taking full advantage of the new ideas revolving at the time. When Olaus Petri wanted to set up a Lutheran church, Gustava fuly approved of it, and made sweden a Lutheran country.

Helmut Kohl

Helmut Kohl was West Germany's leader at the time when Germany was reunified with East Germany. he was responsible for a ten point plan that was meant to allow for a smooth transition that did not involve any violence. One part of his plan was allowing for the East German Marks(currency) to be exchanged alomost equally inot the far more wealthy West German currency. Also other Christian democrats helped him beat out any form of competition politically.

Hernando Cortes conquers the Mexica Empire

Hernando Cortes was an ambitious man who left Cuba to find the Mexica empire otherwise known as the Aztecs. At first he learned about them, but eventually he saw that he could destroy them and rob them of their resources. As a result he destroyed the city of Tenochtitlan and brought the Aztec empire to an end.

Ivan III

His biggest contribution to the power of Moscow was his conquering of the wealthy state of Novgorod. When he conquered the sate he added 80 percent of the land to Moscow with half of it being his own property. The other pieces of land were distributed to the new members of the service nobility who served in his army.

Mental institutions/hospitals

Hospitals at this were hated and terrifying institutes. Many people actually tried to avoid these places as hospitals were mostly filthy, with no ventilation, and drunk nurses. In fact you were more likely to die in a hospital due to how bad these conditions were, and there was the fac tthat diseases thrived in these areas. Mental hospitals were just as bad as hospitals as most of the time the people were treated like prisoners. They used multiple forms of torture and were feared througout the land.

Great Famine (Irish)

IReland had grown more and more dependent on the potato crop as it provided enough food the irish esily and thrived in their terrain. However in 1820 the Great Famine had occurred where a virus attacked the plants, resulting in utter crop devasteation. The population of Ireland which was originally growing exponentailly suddenly collasped resulting in a popiulation of 8.8 million to 4.4 million. I t was overall a terrible effect that te British didn't help as they continued to tax and rent the irsh peasants.

Imperialism

Imperialism in general is the use of superior technolgy to control another country or people. The amount of controoled, varied ass for older versions of imperialism involved very litttle control over the areas,but as time progressed more complex controls were made such as economic, social , and political control. Imperialism was very popular as itr alolowed new forms of raw materials, and other sources throughut the land.

Impressionism/postimpressionism

Impressionism was the major form of art before the first world war and was focused on superrealism. Some famous artists would include Claude Monet and Camille Pisarro. The next stage that was also developing at this time was post impressionism which actually focused on the mind and the fantasy worlds artists envisioned such as Starry Night.

Debate with Jan Eck

In 1519 after publishing the controversial Ninety-five theses the Catholic debater John Eck met with Luther at Lepzig and forced him into admitting that the pope and general council were flawed. The debate clearly outlined what Martin Luther believed as well as provoking the church into threatening him. As a result of the debate the Reformation was accelerated as both sides were itted against eachother.

United Sates declares war

In 1917 the Germans resumed unrestricted submarine warfare against the British in an attempt to starve them. It was a very big gamble that was ultimatly Germany's downfall, as Woodrow Wilson was able to convince the Americans and Congress that Germany must be stopped. Thus the United States entered the war and tipped the scales in favor of the Triple Entente.

Ethnic cleansing

In 1992 the tragedy of the Yugoslavakian cival war spread to Bosnia-Hersegovina where they also declared independence fromt he Serbian state. The Serbians in the area refused to be ruled by the Bosnians, and as such the Serbian armies invaded. Their goal was different this time as instead of simply conqueroring their goal was to perform ethnic cleansing, essentailly killing all of the other ethnicities in the area. The Serbians would make forceful deportations, murder, rape, and overall destruction of the area, as well as the establiment of concentration camps.

Dissent in Czechoslvakia

In Czechoslavakia a small group led by Vaclav HAzel te future president of Czechoslovakia protested in 1979. The group essentailly created a manifesto known as Charter 77 that complained to the Soviets that they were violating the Helsinki Accords in not guaranteeing the rights of the citizens. THe group was immediately repressed but they had a lasting impact on the Czechs that would later allow for rrevolution.

Velvet REvolution

In Czechoslovakia the fall of communism was relativly peacful as it started in November and went onward to December. The velvet revolution as it was called began with students and other intellectuals performing demonstrations, as well as the author Vaclav Havel. With these ideals on display the protestors took control of the street, and the Communist government gave in. In the end Havel was elected the president of Czechoslovakia.

Inquisition

In a political move, Ferdinand and Isabella in order to conrol the people's anger against the Jews and conversos, they set up the Inqusition with Pope Sixtus IV. The Inqusition allowed the government to perform tribunals that deemed whether a person converso was guilty of failing to adhere to Christianity. Also it allowed Ferdinand and Isabella to bebome very popular rulers for punishing the non christians.

95 theses to Albert

In a response to the selling of indulgences Martin Luther punlished his "Ninety-five Theses on the Power of Indulgences". The importance of the writing is that it showed many people the issue of indulgences as well as presenting some of Luther's ideals. As a result Luther gained popularity among people as well as delivering the important message that the pope may not be infallible.

Revolts in Spain/Sicily

In both areas there were major revolts that almost turned into revolutions. Howver before these revolutions could occur MEtternich the head of Austria decided to team up with Alexander to overall crush these revolutions including one in Naples. In the case of Spain the French rushed the revolt and replaced it with Bourbon dynasty.

Cuban Missle Crisis

In one of the most violatile situations of the Cold War, the situation involved the Soviets providing missiles to the communist government of Cuba. The intelligence agency of ther US discovered these nuclear missiles and the presidentat the time John F. Kennedy ordered a naval blockade around Cuba. After a very tense time in diplomacy Soviets agreed to remove the missiles as long as the Cuban government be left alone. There was a secret agreement to remove missiles in Turkey by the US.

Permanent Taxation by Frederick Williams

In order to maintain his stading army, Frederick the Great Elector set up a permanet tax without the consent of the Estates. From their the Estates powers rapidly declined, while the Great Elector rose farther up in power economically and miltary wise. The revenue of the state actully tripled under him as well as the army growing to thrity thousand.

The Counter Reformation

In response to the sudden surgence of the protestant movement the Catholic Church took many progressive steps in order to regain control. It also involved Catholic efforts in converting heretics back to the church, and that the belief common at the time was that heretics could "infect others." If heretics would not convert then it was the duty of the Catholics to expell them or exterminate them.

Great Patriotic war for the Fatherland

In stark contrast to the usual efforts of Stalin the time of World WAr II saw less suppression on his part. This was due to the strong nationalistic notions of the Russian people who didn't require an enemy created by Stalinas Germany was easy to target. This notion created the name of the Great Patriotic War of the Fatherland and bolstered the strength of the Russian military intensly.

New left

In the 1960s there arose a new view in terms of politics, that was known as the New left which held very counteculture ideals. To begin the New left essentailly believed that communism was a terrible system while the WEst's capitalism was inhuman as it seemed to destroy people's lives. They sought instead a form of socialism that was in the middle ground between capitalism and communism, while they attacked the "culture" of the age.

Extreme right wing

In the 1970s and the 1980s new political groups arose that were known to be extremely right wing. One example of was the National Front in France, whose ideals were of course very conservative. One of the major ideals of these new radicals incolved the idea of anti imigrant and only white people jobs in Europe. These groups eventually started gaining seats in Europe and were honestly very scary in how openly rascist they were.

Green Party

In the 1970s there was a major movement towards the environment, as many people realized that industialization and atomic material was seriously hurting the environment. Of course there was plenty of evidence for these concerns as oil spills would occur regulary and of course the nuclear disater of Chandrynopal. OVerall a new party emerged that mostly focused on the environemnt known as the Green Party, and they actually gained a few seat in Europe demanding that the government intervene and protect nature.

Children in the Industrial Revolution

In the industrial Revolution, in particular the beginning, had many issues concerning child labor. The original idea of working in a factory was very strange to the workers in the cottage industry. As a result children were limited in their ability to work, but as time went on factory owners used orphans as workers. Eventualy most children were used in labor and worked in terrible conditions that resulted in many grwing up with malformitites. However as the industrial revolution went on they actually had restraints that limited their work hours as well as enforcing children's education.

Infantcide

Infanticide was the killing of any newborn child, which since medieval times was considered a crime punishable by death. Sadly the crime still did not disappear as many people killed their child so they didn't have to feed them. One method was known "overlaying" which involved a parent rolling their child over and suffocating them. Eventually in Austria a law was required that stated children five and under could bot sleep with their children.

Luisitania sinks

In the usage of submarines by the Germans the most important ship to be sunk by Germans was the Luisitania. The ship itself was a British passenger ship that was also carrying British ammunition and arms. Around a 1000 lives were lsot, with most importantly 139 american lives, and it forced the Germans to restrict submarine warfare or risk total war against the Untied States. This allowed for the British to recover as well as stoke the flames of war in America against the British.

Inida

India even before the second world war was experiencing a very difficult time as they were trying to gain independence form the British. However they had one of the greatest leasders in history known as Gandhi to lead them to independence. Sadly when the world war broke through the push for independence was postponed, but once the war ended India finally gained its independence. When this happened however there was a great migration as the Muslims went to try ahnd form their own state knoiwn as Pakistan while the Hindus fled said area. Overall there was great violence between the people resulting in heated violence

Shock Therapy in Russia

Instituted by the president Boris Yeltsin the shock therapy was a massive change in the economic situation of Russia in an attempt to fix it. Some policies implemented in this program included the use of overall ending 90 percent of the price controls on Russian goods, as well as rapid privatization. This attempt ultimately failed and actually destroyed the Russian economy as inflation increases while production decreased by 20 percent. It ultimately failed due to the fact that the Russian industry wasm originally a monopoly by the government, but now capitalists had a monoply. It overall made the Russian people view democracy as corrupt and make Yeltsin a villain.

Newton's the Principia

Isaac Newton was a deeply religious scientist who is considered one of the greatest men of science. HIs major contribution came in the form of his book "the Principia" which basically connected all the former works or Galileo, Copernicus, and Kepler's laws. It determined the law of gravitation as well as making Newton the father of calculus, as well as unifying the views of the universe.

Wedding of Isabella and Ferdinand

Isabella of Castille's and Ferdinand of Aargon's marriage was the beginning of the unification of Spain. True the marriage itself did not unify all of Spain, but it did combine two of the most powerful people at the time.Ferdinand and Isabella both shared the same goal in trying to conquer or unite the royal houses together, but this does not occur to the extent they hoped for.

Italian Unification

Italian unification was alllowed by the powerful rulerrship of the Piedmont Sardinia Advisor Cavour,. Cavour much like Bismarck was a conservative leader, but recognied the importance of natiopnalism. As such he attempted an alliance with France to defeat Austria, but Napoleon III betrayed them . This resulted in little territory actually being obtained, but later on when Gariabldi arose as a heroic icon of Italy. Cavour would use this opportubnity to obtain lower itlay, while the middle of Italy would slowly join until Rome joined in 1870.

Ivan I of Russia

Ivan I was one of the most important Musovite princes as he built up the wealth of the family as well as increasing the influence of the Muscovites. He did so by loaning money to less fortunate families, and keeping them in their debt. Another important contribution he made was gaining the support of the Mongols by supporting them when the prince of Tver rebelled against the Mongols. He led the army that crushed the Tvers, and obtained the right to tax the areas subjugated by the Mongols.

Ivan IV the Terrible

Ivan the Terrible from a very young age already showed signs of his cruelty. He ruled Russia with an iron grip, but was necessary in expanding the power of Russia. He did so in his constant conquests, in which he defeated the old Mongol kingdoms of Kaza and Astrakhan. Another important fact of Ivan was that he centralized power for the monarchs by basically killing or forcing the nobles to join his army. He would frequently go on rampages that decimated some populations in areas. Ivan also violently punished and controlled the peasants, in which many fled to become what was known as the cossacks.

J.A. Hobson

J.A, Hobson was a major opponent to the idea of imperialism and argued that the unfair treatment of the people showed that the Europeans were not superior. HE also argued that imperialism simply his the growing issues domestically, which was not wrong as nations used these exploits to glorify themselves.

James Watt

James Watt was a very successful engineer who was most famous for his study of the steam engine. He studied at a Scottish university and at aparticular time he was givent he chance to look at a THomas Savery and Thomas Newcomen engine, but saw that he had a solution to its inefficiencies. At that point he added a condenser that essentially allowed the steam engine to be viable and efficient.

Jean Jacques Roussea "The Social Contract"

Jean Jacques Roussea's greatest contribution to the politics concerens his publication of the "The Social Contract." The political theory included two pieces known as general will and popular soverignity. General will was sacred and absolute, and reflected the common interest of all the people. However the will may not reflect the majorities as some decisions were better for the future.

Jean Jaccques Rousseau "Emile"

Jean Jacques Rousseau wrote a famous book known as "Emile" that revolved around the treatment of children. It was a very influential on parents belief on children, as he wrote on how a child should be treated with tender love and care. In addition he proposed a system of new teaching methods that were completely gender bias, which aso influenced many people's education of children.

Jethro Tull

Jethro Tulll was most known for his role in trying to convince people to use horses rather than oxen to plow. In addition he was a major advocate for the use of a drilling method to plant seeds rather than simply spreading them. Lastly he and many people at the time were experimenting with selective breeding, and actually produced faster horses for hunting.

Gutenburg's movable type writer

Johann Gutenburg, Johann Fust, and Peter Schoffer were the three men that worked together in creating the movable type. The effect this invention had on the people occurred over many years, and included the use of propaganda by the government. Another effect was the stimulation of literacy among people, but it can be said that the majority of people were still illiterate.

Johannes Kepler three laws

Johannes Kepler was an apprentice to Brahe, but unlike his mentor he actually could interpret the data. He created three laws of planetary motion based on the data that consisted of the first one being that the planets move around the sun in an eliptical pattern. The second law stated that the planets don't move at a constant speed, and the last law was that for an orbit to be completed the planet's distance changed the time it took.

John Knox converts Scotland

John Knox was key to converting the country of Scotland to the religion similar to Calvinism. He studied with John Calvin in Geneva and wanted to establish the same ideals in Scotland, and he did so by convincing the Scottish parliament to encact a legislation ending papal authority. The Church of Scotland was strictly calvinist with the people being called presbyterians that controlled many aspects of the political life of Scotland. John Knox wrote the "Book of Common Order" that became the basic liturigical directory of the church.

John wesley

John Welsley was most famous for his founding of the methodist group. He's comparable to that of Martin Luther as he was very insecure in his own ssalvation, and as a result a emotionl experience occurred that encouraged him to preach the word of God throughout the land. He started spreading the message of how everyone has the chance to get into heaven across the land by traveling approximatel y 225,000 miles by horseback and preaching to all in open fields.

Joseph II of Austria

Joseph II was known to be the "revolutionary emperor" for his attempt to follow Enlightenment. When he came to power he granted relgious toleration of both the jews and Protestants in an unprecedented move. He continued to make more reforms such as the abolishment of serfdom in 1781, and in 1789 he tries to convert peasant's payments into cash. All of his reforms however were met violently and many people disagreed with him. Sadly Joseph II died prematurely and in the end all of his reforms were washed away.

Joseph Lister

Joseph Lister was an english surgeon who was inspired by Louis Pastuer's and Robert Knochs work to develop a cure to airial bacteria. He actually made a chemical concoction that would be known as a antiseptic solution that was very effective. He helped reduce mortality rates drastically and help the life of the people of England.

Joseph Stalin

Joseph Stalin was the man who took over Russia after Lenin and could be considered one of the worst dictators in history. He manipulated his opponents to eventually rise to the head of the communist party, and take over. He then manipulated and the people of Russia by showing propaganda showing how he was the hero of the nation. Stalin turned Russia into what most would consider modern russia a communist party run by a government who controls all of the industry. He enacted five year plans and was effective in industrializing Russia, but failed in improving the agricultural side of industry.

Karl Marx

Karl Marx was the son of Jewish man who converted to Christianity and studied at the University of Berlin. He worked with Friedrich Engels and together they published the Communitst Manifesto, and was regarded the working class as the backbone of society. He was very influential in later politics and is by far one the most important philospphers who still impact the modern world.

Vladamir Ilyich Lenin

LEnin the man who essentially created Russian communism was born into a middle class family, and had a brother who was executed by the Tsar. He was then banished as h was a revolutionary, and started to develop his own ideals on communis. He proposed that industry was not necesssary to revolution, as well as capitalism being unesscesary as Russia didn't have either. As such he was a revolutionary, who was originally hired to enter Russia by the Germans in an attempt to weaken them. He returned and had a cult following known as the Bolsheviks, and eventually overthrew the provisional government. He then held an election that did not vote the bolsheviks into power, so he basically ismissed it and held absolute authority in Russia.

Leopold II of Belgium

LEopold II was the king of Belgium during the time of imperialsim, and desired to build up more territories for belgium. As such he sent Henry M. Stanley who captured the territory of the congo. It made Leopold the ruler of the congo, not the Belgian government, and was essentially the match that started the scramble for Africa.

Leon Trotsky

Leon TRotsky was Lenin's right hand man who was in charge of the military branch of Lenin's party. He was very loyal to the ideals and was an excellent organizer who built up the Red's army very effectively. He was in charge of the coup against the Petrograd Soviets, His major downfall was teh fact that he supported the war, whihc was extremely unpoular among the people.

Liberalism

Liberalism was a new idealogy that was based on the ideas of Liberte and Equalite that was most represented in the French Revolution. Most believers in the liberalism wanted laissez faire for an economic policy for the government. They believed in freedom of speech, assembly, and freedom from arbitrary arrest, and the most radical wanted democracy.

Life in the Eastern Bloc

Life in the Eastern bloc varied depending on where you lived but in general could be considered worse than the west. One of the most major aspects was production in these areas as the government focused on heavy industry neglecting consumer goods which int run caused many strikes in the Eastern Bloc./ In addition there was no consumer revolution as most people lived off of the bare minimal.

Charles Townsend

Lord Charles Townsend was known for his impact on the agrciulture in England. He learned of turnips and clover while serving in Holland, and as a result he he brought these crops to England. In addition he properly maintained his land through the use of mannuer. Eventually by the end of his days he was known for constantly talking about turnips, but he won in the end as many adopted his agricultural methods.

Louis Pastuer

Louis Pastuer wasa a french scientist who was responsible for the theory of germs and fermentation. He developed a system of heating beer nd other products that contained yeast, in what is now formally known as pastuerization. Overall his work was the major source that allowed scientists of later generations to develop cures.

Louis XI of France

Louis XI is a prime example of being "New Monarch," otherwise known as a Machiavellian. He was the son of Charles VII and known to be a treacherous character. However he also helped France in many remarkable ways, such as invading and capturing the kingdoms of Burgundy, Anjou, Bar, Maine, and Provence. He also helped to booster the economics of France through the promotion of new industries, and new trade routes.

Fall of La Rochelle

Louis XIII saw that the Protestant towns were actually dividing the French, and as such wanted to end Protestant miltary and political independence. La Rochelle was a key Protestant city that was essentially the stronghold for the huguenots, and thus Luois carefully supervised the siege of the city. The city fell in October resulting in the reinforecment of Catholic ideas, but the Protestants were still allowed to pray.

Urban Revolts in France

Louis XIII, Cardinal Richelieu, and Louis XIV all had to face a major series of revolts that occurred sppratically throughout an approximate age of 80 years. The causes for these revolts can mostly attributed to the intendents of the new system as many of the local people were offended by the intendents who were foreigners that tried to tax them. The reaction to these revolts however were feeble as any resistance might make martys out the rebellion, and cause more uprisings in the area.

Revoking the Edict of Nantes

Louis XIV of France revoked the Edict of Nantes that was established by his grandfather Henry IV. By revoking the Edict it stopped all Huegenots from practicing Calvinism in France, by the destruction of their churches, and the forced conversions of Huguenots. If they didn't convert to Catholicism the Huegeunots fled France. The long term impacts of this choice was that the middle class of France was essentially wiped out leaving France's economy in a downfall, while the choice also united France concerning relgions.

The War of the League of Ausburg

Louis XIV thought that at the time when the Hapsburg were distracted by the Turks that Louis could capture more territory in the Netherlands and Austria. However even though he had the strongest army and navy, he underestimated the amount the swiftness of Europe to unite against him. Austria was able to stave off the Turks, while uniting with Spain the rest of the Holy Roman Empire, as well as England. In the end the war ended as neither side could afford to maintain the wars progress resuting in little exchange of land.

Revolution of 1830 France

Louis XVIII's son Charles X was a very conservative leader who believed himself to have the same rights as medieval kings. As such he tried to repeal the Constitutional Charter of 1814 which allowed the middle class or at least 100000 of them to vote. AS a result there was an immediate reaction and in three days the French government completely collasped. The upper middle class then selected Louis Philippe to be the king of France and yhe wealthy elite actually tightened its control as the old aristocracy lost most of its power.

Margaret Thatcher

MAgaret Thatcher was one of the new conservative leaders that would guide the world for the coming years, and held the position of Pirme minister in Britain. Her conservative policies involved the use of laizzez policies adn in particular the new policies of neoliberalism. To be more specific she used the policy of selling state run institutions to private companies, as well as implement many free market policies. Although she did help Britian in returning to a freerer form of capitalism, she did increase unemployment by double as well as cause many heavy industry to close.

Marxism

MArxism is relatable to that of socialism as they are comparable as cousins. They were founded by Karl Marx in his Communist Manifesto. To summarize his idealogy is his idea that society was split into two parties. One would be the bourgeiosis while the other were the proletariots who would one day fight each other until the proletariots won. The result would be the end of capitalism as well as the end of government as society t that point would have no need.

Machiavelli's The Prince

Machiaveli's The Prince is one of the most important books in history. The book was written by Machiavelli, a Florentine politican, who at the time was removed from Florence and living a simple life. He wrote the book as a manuel for rulers in the hopes of gaining the trust of the Medici family. The book is legendary as it shows what most would consider the modern politician as well as being controversial for Machiavelli's cold attitude.

Madame Geoffrin

Madame Geoffrin was a very rich noble women who was in a gilded cage due to her controlling husband. Her importance was that upon her husband's death she broke out of her cage and started to host salons. These salons were important as they helped spread the ideas of philosophes, as well as helped secure some funds. For instance she was a key member in the publising of the Encyclopedia as she not only financially supported the writers, she also gathered information for it.

Surgeons

Many surgeons made contributions to the medical world at this time, but were considered equal to that of a barber unlike physicians. They had a lot of practical experience as most of them worked on batttlefields, but were the people were fearful of them as they performed surgery without any pain reducer. Some of their treatments involved the use of cauterizing a wound as well as usually cutting off a leg or arm.

Marriage

Marriage was different depending on the class of the couple. For instsance in the middle class started to marry for the sake of economic goals and improving their own class. An important idea as well was the fact tat the age difference between the husband and wife was pretty large as most men would wait to marry in order to establish their own lives. In the working class marraige was more or less for love, and was generally good for both sides.

Martin declares he'll be a friar

Martin Luther's life changed drastically when in the summer of 1505 he experienced a fierce thunder storm. At that moment he was terrified for his life and declared he'll be a friar if the storm spares him. At first Luther regretted his decision as it meant giving up his life at school, but without this storm one of the most important religious figures may never rise up.

Marriage in 1477 Habsburg/Burgundy

Maximilian I of the house of Habsburg married Mary of Burgundy in 1477, which resulted in the combined forces of Burgundy and the most powerful family in Austria. The mariage resulted in constant fight between the French and the Holy Roman empire that would impact the territory of Germany for years. Another effect of this marriage is that it gave Charles V one of the largest empires at the time as he was a descendent of Maximilian and Mary.

Mein Kampf

Mein Kampf was the main book defining Adolf hitlers beliefs, and was of grave importance in trying to convince the people to his ideals. He wrote it during his time in jail after his first failed attempt to obtain power in Germany. It overall represents his legacies and is the main source of inspiration for his followers.

Carlsbad Decrees

Metternich 's policies was very influential in both the Germany Confederation and Italian Peninsula. AS a resulthe was able to issue the Carslbad Decrees which stated that in the 38 German member states that they had to drive out all of the subversive ideas in their universities nad newsapers. The decrees also established a permanent committee of spies and investigators to punish any radical organizations.

Prince Klemens Von Metternich of Austria

Metternich was a key politian for Austria as he had a brilliant successful career for most of his life. He was a very conservative man who saw that the French wars were due to the actions and ideals of revolutionary ideas, so in his part in the Congress he tried to retain many conservative ideals. He was also an opponent of liberalism and nationalism as he served Austria which wasa very diverse country in terms of and and ethnicity.

Midwives

Midwives helped women through their time of child labor, and were usually very good at it. They organized the events surrounding a childs birth as well as helped the wife in breast feeding or the menstrual cycle. However as time progressed and surgeons and physicians steadily grew in reputation, midwives were gnerally looked down upon. Another factor in this idea was the fact that many believed midwives would cause any issue in a childs development.

Mikhail Gorbachev

Mikail Gorbachev was the last of the Soviet leaders who tried to save its power but in the end saw its collaspe in 1991. He was a very charming leader who noticed that the Soveit Union was falling far behind the West. As such he undertook the mission to try and improve the economic situation of the Soviets, as well implementing new reforms. The action he took concerning the west was actually trying to forge strong bonds again in order to try an improve the oviets condition. He cut down on military spending dramatically including the eimination of the nuclear stockpile Russia had possessed. In the end he was the last communistic leader of the Soviets.

Cubism/Dadaism

Modern art and its multiple branches are very complicated as multiple art forms rose consecutively, however two significant ones were daism and cubism. Cubism was founded by Pablo Picaso and used various objects to form pictures anbd were very deometric. The other form of art was daism which was the most random piece of art introduced. It essentially made fun of all pieces of art and was just nosense.

French Classicism

Much like the Baroque art of the period in the sense that Baroque was highly detailed and dramatic, French classicism differed in that it was more restrained. French Classicism was more relatable to that of the Renaissance in that it was elgant, balanced, and focused on antiquity. Many examples of this form of art was seen in VErsailles as it was a center of all art.

Muhammed Ali

Muhammed Ali was a Turkih general who took control of Egypt, and built it into a formidable threat. He used brutal tactics to destroy any political or miltiary threat within Egypt, until he became the leader of Egypt and was able to challenge the authority of he Ottoman Empire. AS a result the European powers were called upon by the Ottomans to subdue him, and the Europeans would rather have a weak Ottoman empire than that of a united Egypt.

Multiculturalism

Multiculturalism is the idea of a literal multi cultural society from around the globe. This only occurred recently as globilization and technology allowed for this blending of cultures. In Europe there was now a large population of Muslims within it, which diversified the opulation while also increasing tensions as many didn't want foreigners. One example of multicuturalism can most certainly be seen in the development of music, as American rap wnet around he world and new international stars rose to promise.

NATO

NATO which stands for North Atlantic Treaty Organization, is a military pact between the Us and its European allies, as well as canada. The promise was that if one nation was attacked the others would step and defend them. The pact was meant to defend against teh forces of Communism.

Nationalism

Nationalism was essentially revolving around the idea of one language and one culture. Early advocates said that people were defined by their own cultural identity, and as time progressed the idea of people unting under a common cultural unit would create a nation. Nationalism was a very popular idea as people desired a cultural unity, but in Austria was not a fan as they were a very diverse cultural people.

Nativism

Nativism sprung from the Great migration as the native population within countries saw te immigrants as threats to their own lives. The belief that the native population shoukld be better treated than that of the immigrants started to grow and can be sen with the GReat White walls. Citizenship rules were also complicated as a result of this growing belief.

Neoliberalism

Neoliberalism was a return to the older policy of a hands off economy with little government intervention. There was a consecutive wave of these politicians in Europe and America in the case of England they got Margaret Thatcher while America got Reagan. These politicans would cut back spending on social welfare programs and overall cut back government spending on institutions such as schools and overall had controversial results. It did provided economic growth, but it also increased unemployment at the same time.

New Imperialism

New imperialsim differed greatly from that of an older im perialism, as it actually involved more control than before. The old imperialism had little effect on the political side of the territories obtasined, but in n ew imperialism that['s the key feature. governments such as Brtiain would essentailly establsih their government policies ohn these areas, and impact the government. Also it was the matter of how fast and how much effort was put into these countrties.

Nicholas II

Nicholas II was the last Tsar of Russia as he was there during the time of the first World WAr and apart of the Russian Revolution. He was a very conservative ruler who most would consider actually the perfect gentleman. However in miltary sense he was an idiot as he was not properly set up at the beginning of the war and his solution to unrest over the crown he decided to go to the front lines.

Glasnot

One of Gorbachev's plans to try and revitalize the soviet union involved the idea of the Glasnot. Eseentially it allowed for openiness which seems broad but it really means almost freedom of speech. It was meant to show progress in the Soviet Union, but the reality is that all of the critics of the Soviets arose and started printing very popular criicisms.

Nikita Khrushchev

Nikit Khrushchev was one of the most important leaders after Stalin as he was the firs tot truly speak poorly of the dictator and point out many of his flaws. In aq secret meeting he essentially tore down Stalin's cult of personality and reasoned that the soviets needed reform. As such when he came to power he enacted many liberal reforms, but during the second half of his rule there were a lot of flaws in his aggression. The most prominent of his failiures involves the Cuban missile crisis which saw the soviets huumiliated.

Diet of the rich

Nobles at this time were considered very gluttonous. They mostly consumed meat and wine while ignoring essential nutrients from vegetables. True the rich did consume foreign fruits, but a majority of the time they preferred to eat rich and fatty foods. As a result many nobles were very fat, overweight, and had diseases like gout. In addition the rich started to value white bread which essentially deprived the nutirents of bread.

OPEC

OPEC stands for Organization of Petrollium Exporting countries which was a middle Eastern organization that controlled all of the oil in th eMiddle East essentially. This group rose to prominence when it actually used its power to embargo all oil to th eUS. IT did so as the US supported the Israelis in the fourth Arab war. Overall they could control the price of oil and its distribution, and as such the countries in this organization grew very powerful and actuall caused an economic crisis once.

Nazi Propaganda

Oen the most major pieces of propaganda used by the German Nazi's at this time was the use of cinema. One of the most famous Nazi propaganda directors involved Leni Riefenstahl who was a female director. Her greatest work was the "Triumph of Will" which depicted a Nazi gathering and was surpremely popular among the people.

Thermodian Reaction

Once the Reign of Terror began, it was swiftly countered by the rise of modernists who wanted to stop the execution of all the people. The modernists stopped the economic controls of the Committee as well as disbanded the Jacobin club. Also they tried to help the sans coulatte who under the Committee were suppressed, but when they set up a new constitution the sans coulatte lost their voice. The new government that was set up was the Directory.

Women March on Versaille

One key part to understand is that the King at this time lived at Versaille but still had a spot in Paris. The king at that point decided that all of his affairs would occur at Versaille, but the woman and many men of the sans coulatte of Paris rose in protest. The crowd marched onto Versaille with scyths and pikes that then forced the King and Queen to march all the way back to Paris.

Henry VII of England

One of the "New Monarchs" who was key in developing Englands royal power. He subdued the power of the nobles through the use of a royal council that essentially eliminated the power of Parliament. Also he was responsible for gaining more territory for England through the marriage of his children. Lastly he used justices of the peace to maintain order in England rather than an official army.

Thomas More's Utopia

One of the Northern Renaissances's best literature pieces was Thomas More's Utopia which criticized the societies of Europe, as well as Henry VIII's break from the Catholic church. The book depicts a society that is considered perfect as everyone shares wealth and no one fights. The inhabitants of the island do interact with other countries and there are criminals, but the book is impressive in the way the society is portrayed. It showed how the people of northern Europe were just as brilliant as the Italian people. Sadly More was not well accepted after this book and got his head chopped off.

Madame du Chatelat translates the Principia

One of the closest friends and possible lover of Voltaire, Mdame du Chatelat was most famous for her translation of Newton's Principia. The significance of this translation is that it is still the main translation used in the French curriculum, as well as showed the intelligence of women. Madam du Chatelat was recognized by one of the most prolific minds at the time of being intellignet to be with said person and have intellectual thought.

Enclosures

One of the innovatons of the agricultural revolutions that in all reality spurred on the rest of the agricutural revolution. The enclosure syste was the idea of fencing off one's property, rather than letting it stay open to all. The system allowed new methods to develop in farming as most of the time nobles experimented in their private fields to porduce better c rops. Another key part of the enclosure system was the fact that it eliminated the common lans, which were necessary to the peasants.

Humanism

One of the key ideas of the Renaissance is humanism, which is the study of the classics. The classics themselves are the Greeks and Romans, which to the Renaissance men they were legendary. Another aspect of humanism is that it deciphered religion in a more realistic light.

Don Quixote

One of the masterpieces of literature in the world, it was created by the Spanish writer Miguel de Cervantes. The piece is significant in that it depicted an accurate Spain at the time. The book showed that Spain was idealistic, but wasn't practical at the time.

Baron de Montesquieu "The Spirits of Law"

One of the most important pieces of literature in its impact on other societies was the "Spirits of Law." The book essentially compared the monarchy, republics, and depotism, but came to the conclusion that the separation of powers was necessary to prevent tyranny. The separation of powers divided the government into three branches that included the judicial, executive, and the legislative branch. These branches would keep each other in check so as to prevent any form of tyranny. Montesquieu thought that England's system was the closest thing to the ideal systema nd wid=shed their sytem to be apllied to the ever turbulent French government.

Marco Polo explores Asia

One of the oldest explorers who during the time of the Monghols explored alll of Asia. He told tales of the great wealth of the Monghols and inspired many tales of the oriental culture. He was necessary in trying to inspire the later explorers such as Colombus, and contributed to a widened view of the world.

Decolonization of the Belgian Congo

One of the worst cases of decolonization in history was the Congos, as the Belgians were very resistant to this idea. When they fionally gave into thew idea of giving up the Congo they gave the people six months until offically being granted independence. The issue with this is that it gave the people no time to set up a new government, and when the Belgians left chaos broke out. The US had many financial investments in the area and essentially stated that the new government was close to that of a soviet regime and had the CIA capture Lumumba (leader of the government) and have him assassinated. The military then set up a dictator by the name of Joseph Mobutu who grew to be one of the richest men in the world while the Congo was one of the poorest.

Orientalism

Orientalism was an idea developed by Edward Said, a man who wanted to highlight the west's misunderstanding of the East. He proposed that the Europeans would never understand the Eastern country as they held al ot of stereotypes against them. He wanted to try and end this stereotyp of the east being a land of mystery so that more factual information could be represented. This of course ailed as the stereotypes still exist and europeans really idnt car.

Estates General

Originally created by Henry IV that created three esates that would meet to discuss policies effecting all as well as some forms of taxation In any case Louis XVI had to call the esates to make any form of progress, but the system was still outdated due it being called over a hundred years later. The result was a very inaccurate system that caused contempt among the estates, and a very long process of reforms.

Adolf Hitler

Originally from Austria, if you don't know who Hiter is leave. In any case his main ideals were outlined with his book Mein Kampf which he wrote while in jail for his stunt at a Beer Hall declarimg revolution. He gained power in the National Socialist workers party (NAzis) and eventually became the leader of the party. He then gained dictatorial powers and spread his ideals of his book stating how the Jews are evil and how Germany needed tp expand and eliminate those who weren't of the aryan race. He then proceeded to start World War II adn try to establish a German Empire. He would've gotten away with it if it weren't for the allies and his decision to betray Russia.

Hitlers rise to power

Originally pretty low in the Nazi party, Hitler with his ability to inspire and convince people rose higher. In the Reichstag the Nazi party appealed to conservative and middle class people and eventually gained a majority of 38%. Form there the NAzi party just continued to gain power outlawing and persecuting communist parties and other socialist parties. Then the Enabling Acts were given that named Hitler as chancellor and gave him dictatorial power for four years, and with that power he never resigned.

Versailles

Origninally a hunting lodge under Louis XIII of France, his son Louis XIV decided he would build a glorious palace that would be the envy of all. It was one of the most costly buildings in all of France as it required about a quarter of France's funds to be built. The importance of the building is that for King Louis XIV it was a key factor in manipulating the nobles. The king used social pressure to distract the nobles from his constant consolidation of power. If a noble were to be exiled from Versaille it was there social and practical political death.

Otto Von Bismarck of Prussia

Otto Von Bismarck is the man comparabvle to that of HItler in his importance on the future oif Germany. He was selectedx to be chancellor by Wililiam I, and was the man essentially who united all of germany. He was the main political mind behind the Prussian government and awas the one used nationalism to his advantage. He instigated wars, manipulated the kings letters, but was a smart man who usded blood and iron to obtain his goals. He also hated all forms of socialism, but did make many repeals such as the first social security as well as establishing equality under German law.

Edward Jenner innoculate smallpox

Perhaps one of the greatest medical achievements of the eighteenth century, Edward Jenner figured out a way to prevent smallpox. The method was simply using a vaccine by using the similar disease of cowpox, that was not nearly as deadly as smallpox. He performed many vaccinations and as a result was payedhighly by the British government.

Petrarch terms the word "Dark Ages"

Petrarch is considered to be one of the most important poets and humanists of the time as he was one of the few who thought of the middle ages as the "Dark Ages." By him coining the words it made the middle ages overshadowed by the Renaissance as well as misleading historians for years into thinking little development occured at that time. Petrarch was correct in that the Renaisssance was an age of rebirth, but he was responsible for misleading historians.

Physicans

Physicians were men who were apprenticed at an early age and studied at universities. They were considered to be the most educated doctors, but they still held many archaic views. For instance they still believed in the idea of purging, which used the idea of letting a man lose some form of a liquid to get rid of all illnesses.

Pierre Bayle publishes the Historical and Critical Dictionary

Pierre Bayle was one of the most famous of the skeptics in France,who also hated King Louis XIV. In his most famous book he examined religious beliefs as well as the persecutions that occurred throughout Europe. Bayle concludes that basically human nature varies and that many human beliefs are mostly wrong or varied. He also stated that nothing can ever be known beyond all doubt, which ties into his belief of skeptism as everything is questionable. Pierre Bayle was so popular that his book could be found among almost any noble family.

The selling of indulgences

Pope Leo X was low on funds at the time, but wanted to continue construction of the St.Peter's Basilica. As a result Pope Leo authorized Archbishop Albert to sell indulgences, which these indulgences allowed people to get into heaven in exchange for money. The Dominican Friar John Tetzel was very effective at selling the indulgences to the point where he made a jingle and a chart for indulgence prices.

Population Decline

Population is still growing rapidly at this time in poorer countries, but for Europe it was a differnet story. In this case population is actaully decreasing in the heavily industrialized areas of the world till the point where many people project the Europena population to decrease by the millions. This is not necessarily a bad thing as there is still a lot of immigrants flowing into Europe, as well as the fact that overpopulation is till a major issue at this point.

William II of Prussia

Possibly one of the biggest fools in Germenay, William II was the man respnosible for firing Bismarck. The two disagreed as William II thought he was more powerful than Bismarck, as well as the fact that he thought the socialists should be allowed a party. As such the most significant thing he did was establish the social democratic party in Germany, which would eventually fgrow to be the largest political party.

Privatization

Privatization was a popular notion among those who also believed in neoliberalism as it was a conservative policy. The idea was that the government woud sell off nationalized institutions to private companies in the hope that it would boost the economy. It was believed that privatization would be more efficient while also increasing competition which should in turn solve the economic issue of the time.

Voltaire (Francois Marie Arouquet)

Probably one of the most famous of the philosophe at the time of the Enlightenment, Voltaire was great writer. He expressed ideas of the freedom of speech, and was a major proponent aginst the idea of religious discrimination. Througuot his life he constantly wrote about his ideas , while also sharing these views with other philosophe. His views did get him trouble as he was beaten by French nobles and was exiled to England for a few years.

Prostitutes

Prostitutes were still very popular at this time and in fact grew in number due to how well it payed women. Many middle class men weren't allowed to marry for a long time, so prostitutes became accessible outlets for sex. Many times women would be offered large amounts of money, usually in the context of a poor women's amount, and simply concede. For most women prostitution was a stage that had to happen, but they would usually grow out of it and marry someone.

Grand National Consolidated Trades Union

RObert Owen was a major social reformer who wanted protect the rights of workers and actually was a factory owner who provided many benefits for his workers. In fact he organized the largest and most visionary of early unions known as the Grand consoidated Trades Union (that was mouthful). The union sadly filed but it did cement his legacy as a man for the common people to defend the rights of people.

Rasputin

Rasputin was astrange man who was originally a Russian priest from a peasant background. He gained considerable influence over the wife of Nicholas II as he was the only one able to prevent her son hemophilia from going out of control. AS such he essentially became the government, when the Tsar left, and was hated by many of the aristocrats. AS such they attempted to kill him, and they did succedd but in a wierd way.

Realism

Realism was the emerging art form of the 19th century that focused on painting a realistic picture of society as well as focusing on the lower classes. In literature it was very popular as it explored many taboo subjects such as sex and the psychological effects of society. Many realist did not see individualism as a good thing either as they thought reality was unchanging and there was little that could change it.

Rene Descartes vision

Rene was a french philosopher who during the Thirty's Year war was a soldier that experienced a vision. The vision helped him to see that geometry, spatial figure, and algebra were all linked together and resulted in the discovery of analytic geometry. In addition he developed the idea of Cartesian dualism, which basically meant that the world was comprised of two substances noth "matter" and "mind."

Republicanism

Repubicanism was a popular idea that was not a democracy but at least voting for representatives for the government. The main supporters of republicanism were split into two halves one radical and the other conservative. The major difference was that the radicals wanted universal suffrage (men) while the middle class dominated conservatives wanted only a few to vote.

Storming of the Bastille

Rioting worsened specifically in the urban class known as the sancs coulatte. There was a giant unemployment rate in Paris, and the fact that the King Louis XVI fired Necker, his financial expert, caused more outrage. The result was peasants assaulting the prison in order to obtain guns, and basically slaughtering many of the prisons employees. The King wanted the military to stop the citizens, but the leadder of the military at the time was Layfayette who basically said no as he believed that the revoltuion was more important.

Robert Owen

Robert Owens was a very important man in terms of workers rights. To begin he was a very sucessful capitalist who rose in power until he was known throughout England and respected as such. He had a dream though which was considered the utopia socialistic in that he wanted to create a community that would allow everyone an equal life. He attempted to establish these institutions in the united states but failed. Eventually he became the head of the Grand National Consolidated Union, but that also failed in the ned.

Maxillimen Robespierre political career

Robespierre is one of the most infamous politians during the French Revolution. He was a radical who believed in the ideals of the revolution similar to that of the mountains. In fact he became the head of the Mountains group, and the Committee of Public Safety. His most infamous act is the reign of terror, which involved the murder of hundreds of people included himself.

Romanticism

Romanticism was a growing idea and art style that arose around 1750. The key concepts of this art was nature in that it called for humanity to respect nature. Artwork varied greatly in this era but a key aspect of it was the use of exaggeration and unrealistic naute ironically, as well as nationalism. There was also many romanticist poets and social reformers who all believed that factories an dindustry were evil.

Russian Modernization

Russia at this point was severly behind every other nation, as at times they would reform, but they would always go two steps back. The russians also still practiced the idea of sefdom at this point, and most people living in Russia weer in terrible condition. It was only the Crimean war that started to show just how backwards Russia was, as they tried to fight the British and Freench oin order to seize the Ottoman's territory.

Hasburg-Valois War

Sadly the Hapsburg -Valois war was the beginning of the end for the Italian Renaissance. The war itself was between the European powers with Italy being the main battlefield. The cause was simply the impieralistic desires of Europe seeing the valnurable and constantly fighting city states of Italy. The results is the overall oppression of the Italians who were unable to unite with one another to expel the foreigners.

Saint Simon

Saint Simon was one of the most avid believers in utopian socialism. According to him he believed that the key to progress was proper social organization. In addition he believed in the idea of society being split into parasites and doers. Eventually the parasites which included lawyers, churchmen, and aristocracy would give everything they owned to the doers who consisted of doctors, scientists, and indusrtilists.

Saint Vincent de Paul

Saint Vincent de Paul is most know for his establishment of a home for orphans and abandoned children. He did so after he saw so many kids being abandoned and brought ti the steps of Notre Dame. His work inspired others to establish homes for the poor and unwanted children in England.

Savonarola's preaching

Savonarola was fiery preacher whose importance was the fact that he helped illustrate the instability of Italy as well the corruption. When foreigners invaded he preached of the failings of the Medici family, and eventually grew a following of common people that removed the Medici. However as time went on he lost popularity, and eventually executed. The importance of his death is that it showed how common people did not share the sae view as the elite.

Separatist

Separatists were groups of essentailly terrorist groups that were violent in trying to gain their political goals. The most prominent groups were in Spain and Ireland, with the Spanish one occurring in the Basque region. The spanish one was trying to gain its independence and used vilent methods such as bombs in order to do so. The other group was known as the IRA which was an Irish group that was determined to regain control of the Northern providences in Ireland still under control of the English. This group was especially violent as they killed apporximately 2000 citizens when they were negotiating peace.

Seigie Witte

Sergei Witte was the finance minsiter under Alexander III in Russia. He was the drving force for Russian modernization as he realized Russsia was very far behind. As such uunder his tme the amount of railroads in Russia doubled and he allowed foreigners into the country to improve everything.

Catherine The Great of Russia

She manipulated a young officer Gregory Orlov in order to execute her husband Peter III, and succeeded in obtaining the throne. Catherine was a major supporter of the Enlightenment, and as such tried to westernize Russia. In order to accomplish this she adopted many western syles, as well as invited many western philosphes, and craftsman. Another improvement she made in order to be more enlightened was the fact that she lessened torture and improve education. However even though she tried to reform, she met major opposition once the cossacks rebelled. In the end she conquered territories for Russia, and attempted to improve the society.

Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud was an Austrian man regarded as the father of psychology. He was the first man to actually talk to his patients to find the root of their mental issues. In doing so he propsed that humans have defense mechanisms that developed from some part of their subconsious thought that is separate from consious thought.

Social Darwinism

Social darwinism developed after Darwin revealed the idea of evolution to the world. The people who believed this idea thought that the idea of survivial of the fittest applied to everyone in society. The rich were usually the main supporters as it justified their rise to the top of society as well as criticized the lower classes.

(Utopian) Socialism

Socialism was a new idea that started in the French Revolution. It essentially was the idea of the government interacting more in the daiy lives of poeple. For instance some socialists wanted the use of a planned economy as they did in the French Revolution. They generally disliked the idea of indiviualism as it effected the idea of unity.

Solidarity

Solidarity was a democratic trade union that was key to the eventual independence of Poland. The group consisted mostly of workers and rose to prominence when the Catholci curch supporte them. The group was rather moderate as they only wanted to defend the rights gained in the Gdansk Agreement on behalf of the workers. The group eventually due to ineffective leadership and the fact that the government outlawed them was forced underground. The group howver was very popular in Poland and would later on become the government.

Spanish Civil War

Spain had essentilly been a mess since the 1600s and was still in conflict. This time the main conflict was what government Spain should adopt, and the two main ideas were republics or fascists. The main leader for the fascists was Francisco Franco who was being supported by Hitler and Mussolini with money and guns. The republic party was supported partially by the Soviet Union for money, while America and Britain did not intervene as they wanted to remain peaceful. Eventually Franco won and Spain was turned into a dictatorship.

Philip V of Spain

Spain recovered under the leadership of Louis XIV's grandson Philip V. He brought Spain back into power by spreading new ideas from France as well as rallying his people against the British. In addition after defeating Britain he reasserted the power of the monarchy and completely overhauled the finances of Spain.

Stagflation

Stagflation was a new economic termed coined in the 1980s to describe how bad the ressession was at the time. The main idea of stagflation was that there would be high increases in inflation while low growth would occur. Lving standards would also be low at this time, and it overall just said that this is s*it.

Suleiman the Magnificent (Ottomans)

Suleiman was considered to be the greatest sultan of all Ottoman emperors. The reason he could be considered the greatst ruler is due to the fact that he was the greatest conqueor for the Ottomans as he took many parts if Europe and Africa. SAnother interesting fact of Suleiman is that he actually married a concubine, which at the time was considered completely illegal.

William Laud of England

Supported by Charles I, William Laud was the archbishop of Canterbury who tried to impose elaborate and rich ceremonies on all of England's churches. However his main contribution is his attempt to impose two new elements on church organization of Scottland. The two changes he attempted was to create a new book of prayer known as "Book of Common Prayer," amd install bishoprics. The result was the Scottish revolt that forced Charles I to work with Parliament.

Edict of Nantes

The Edict granted all Huguenots in France the right of liberty of conscience and to publically worship ina selected town.There were a total of 150 public areas of worship that were established by Henry IV, and was key in settling the major religious divisions of France. Also it restored peace in France that helped unify it for the coming years of turmoil.

The Ruhr confrontation

TThe area known as the Ruhr was under the control of the French from World War I. It was meant to be a major source of work for the Germans to pay off their debt, but all it really didi was inspire hatred among the Germans. Their response was to passively protest by simplly not working or not showing up,. The French responded with by sealing off the area and the Rhineland in general only allowing food to enter to prevent Germany starving. It was a test of wills of two nations, and hurt the germans as inflation skyrocketed resulting in a social revolution. Only by Gustav Stresemann a new leader in August who called of the passive resistance of Germany did they succeed.

Decolonization

Teh process of decolonization was a very rapid process that only took a few decades or years to complete depending on the country. After Worrld WAr II and during it for that matter many of the collonies thge European powers orignally dominated were able to obtain there freedom. The long exhausted Europe was no longer able to divert its resources to its former colonies and in only a few decades most of Africa and Asia were free. One factor in the Asian sector waws the facft that the JApanese had overall crushed the idea of an unstoppable European army, allowing great amounts of nationalism to grow in these areas. Most areas were let go very peacefully, but a few sections were the complete opposite.

Long Parliament

The "Long Parliament" was known for being the Parliament that attempted to weaken the power of the monarchy for arounf twenty years. During their time they passed the Triennial Act, which forced the king to meet with Parliament every three years. Also the Act impeached William Laud and abolished the Court of High Commission, which Charles I was forced to accept as he needed their support to supress the Scottish.

Marriages between "New monarchs"

The "New monarchs" were one of the most manipulative people of the time, and even their own children are pawns. One of the most important marriages between these children is between Joanna the daughter of Isabella and Ferdinand and the son of the Holy Roman emperor. Another imortant marriage was between Henry's son Arthur and Catherine of Aaragon, which presented another tctical marriage for power.These marriges actually helped unite kingdoms that were key to later political events beyond the Renaissance.

The Hundred Years' War

The 100 Years' War was a conflict between England and France that was fought intermittently for a century, partly because it also became a French civil war. It was caused by French expansonist policies and economic factors such as the wool trade and control of Flemish towns. While the English won initial victories, the French ultimately won with the help of Joan of Arc, although both nations suffered devastating human and economic losses and the war shaped the future political structure of both nations.

Suez Canal crisi

The Egyptians had gaijned their independemce from Britain and were starting to grow in power significantly, and even had a very powerful leader named Nassir. Under his leadership he pushede reform and progress into Egypt, amnd in a nationalistic move he nationalzed the Suez Canal and removed the British. The powers of the west intervened but could not beat the Egyptians resulting in Nassergetting exactly what he wanted.

Arab Spring

The Arab spring was an event that involved the disposal of multiple regimes already established in th eMiddle East and Northern Africa. It all began with a man who set himself on firein protest official harassment. THis event inspired multipe groups to rebel at the same time in Tunisia. After the Tunisian president fleed, Egypt quickly followed, Libya came next, and Syria erupted into civl war. The arba spring occurred so quickly in part due to the new technology allowing ideals to spread much quicker.

Revolution in Austria

The Austrian Revolution was initally successful at the beginning as Ferdinand I of the Hapsburg family gave into the demands of reformers very quickly and allowing a liberal constitution. However the monarchy and the aristocrats united against the urban workers and artists. The old governmnet also exploited the revolutionary odea of nationalism as they provoked fear among the working class so as to fracture the revolution. Eventually under the leadership of Sophia and her son Francis Joseph they crushed the revolutionary but at cost.

Ausro-Prussian War

The Austro-Prussian war was started by the Prussian in order to drive out the Austrians in order to gain favor. The war was swift as it ended in seven weeks with Prussia as the victor. It essentially allowed for Prussia to gain the loyalty of the southerhn staters, as well as give venice to Italy.

Balfour Declaration

The Balfour declaration was this idealistic declaration that there would be a place for the Jews in the middle eat by ALfred Balfour of the British. It stated that there would be a place created in the currently conquered territory of PAlestine. This creation was in direct conflcit for the Arabs who for many years were religiously tolerant, and the creation of the state would shut out a majority of the population.

The Berlin Conference

The Berlin conference was a meeting of nations regarding the capturing if territory within Africa, and was led by Otto Von Bismarck. The meeting set up the rules fro dividing the territory of Africa which were essentially if you informed the other countries of your territories as well as having eenough soldiers to maintian said area it was theirs. This meeting prevented further wars occuring between the people of Europe.

End of bubonic plague

The Black Death had been a major factor in limiting the growth of Europe's population. However around 1600 the Black Death had mysteriously disappeared, but that's not to say there wasn't some reason behind the elimination of the plague which actually involves the elimination of the rats. The main transporter of the plague was the flea that lived off the black rats , however around 1600 a new rat had started to apperar. The new rat was the Asiatic rat that drove out and eliminated the black rat, which meant that the plagues transmission would be severly reduced.

Boer War

The Boer Wars occurred between the Afrikaners and those of the British settlers. The war in the end was a victory for the British under the leadership of Cecil Rhodes, and the area of South Africa was offically turned into a British colony. The Union of South Africa gave the Afrikaners the ability of self government, and held great political power even though they lost the war.

The Great Rebellion

The British had essentially gained control of India, and many of the native population were obviously upset. So at one poin the ammunition used for the rifles the Indian people were supposed to use was uspposedly covered in pig or beef grease, the result was the rebellion of the Indians. The grease itself was against their religious vbeliefs, and was overall a spark for the rebellion. It ultimatly fails as the British put down this revolution.

Hundred Days of Reform

The Chinese essentially realized that they were far behind much like the Russians realized, and as a result a series of reforms were issued that attempted to modernize China. Another reason for these reforms was the fact that the Chinese were afraid of being divided like Africa was, which in all reality was a true fear as each European coun try seemed to take a aprt under their authority.

Columbian Exchange

The Columbian exchange was the trade of food, technology, and culture between the people of the New world and the people of Europe. It also was an exchange of both disease and slaves between key points such as Africa and South America. The disease wrought by this exchange decimated the peoploe of the New World and helped in the conquest of the native people.

Francis I of France the Concordat of Bologna

The Concordat of Bologna revised the orginal Pragmatic Sanctions by allowing the French kings to effectively control the appointment and the policies of the church. For the church they were allowed to collect the first year's income of new bishops. The agreement allowed the church to regain some of its power whereas the French gained more power over the appointment of bishops.

Congress of Vienna

The Congress of Vienna were responsible for the peace treaty settling the Napoleonic WArs. The congress was successful in stopping war for about 100 years, but was highly criticized for not preparing any defense mechanism for future wars. In addition the congress was very lenient on its approach to France who was actually allowed to keep most of its land and only had to pay 700 million for damages by NApoleon when he retunred. Prussia and Russia both gained signiifcant land holdings through these discussions, and overall the balance of Powers were restored.

Corn Laws of 1815

The Corn Laws were established by the Tory party in order to retain control in England One thing to understand is the fact that the TOry party consisted of rich landowners, so when they passed the law it was meant to beneift them . The act itslef basically outlawed cheaper grain from being imported from other nations.

Stenk Razin of Russia

The Cossacks revolted again because the state was attempting to catch them as well as force them into serfdom. Stenka Razin led the Cossack forces up the Volga River and gathered a great army of peasants and poor, but this overall rebellion was defeated. The nobles in response actually increased the harshness of the serfdom as they wanted to control the peasants even more.

The Council of Trent

The Council of Trent was founded by Pope Paul III that met to reform the church and recouncile the Protestants. Lutherans and Calvinists were invited to the meetings, but the fact that they insisted that the Scriptures should be the only matter discussed meant that recounciliation was impossible. The council however did accomplish some goals such as solidifying some beliefs of the Church such as the fact that the seven sacraments would be kept as well as transubstantiation. Also the council suppressed the idea of pluralism and forced bishops to be in their own areas, and stopped the selling of indulgences.

National Assembly issues the Declaration of the Rights of man

The Declaration of the Rights of Man was an important document as it highlighted many of the ideals of the Revolution such as liberty, equality, adn fraternity. It became the document that overall highlighted the ideals of a representative government, and was iconic to most of Europe. Also it established the idea of all men being born equal, and was very similar to that of the American Declaration of Independence,

Golden Age of the Dutch

The Dutch during this time were at the peak of their power in terms of economical and miltary strength. The key features the Dutch had was that they were religiously tolerant, which allowed many middle class groups such as jews and muslims to prosper there. Another factor was that the Dutch were genius shipbuilders that instead of producing goods, they protected and transported goods for other countries. As a reslt the provinces grew larger and larger in their economic strength, until the English and French were forced to intervne.

Crystal Palace

The English realized they were the most advance of the nation, and as such decided to show off their power. They decided to build the crystal palace which would be the site of the Great Exihbition which was a competeition between inventions that woudl result in new ideas being exchanged.

Enlightenment

The Enlightenment was basically a new world view that consisted of people questioning traditional sources of informatation. New economic and social structures were formed during this thime, such as the separation of power or absolute monarchs. The Enlightenment was also majorly caused by the Scientific Revolution as it taught many values of being oneself.

European Union

The European Union was essentially a better version of the European common MArket as it did everyhing as before but expanded upon. The organization allowed for better movement within Europe, methods of free trade, and better for laboreres. One of the key ideas of the European union was the fact that it had a currency developed for Europe known as the Euro that would forever tie Europe together. this of course was a risky option as it meant if one country fell on hard time s the rest would suffer. In fact many countries barely had this passed as many were avidly against such ideals. The organzation even includes those from the WArsaw pact, although they still refuse to accept Turkey.

Fashoda encounter

The Fashoda encounter occurred when the FRench and British met in Africa trying to obtain the same piece of land which was the end of the Nile river. The French were aready in the village when the British showed up, and was one of the most intense moments in the Scramble of Africa. The FRench in this case backed off as they were dealing with the Dreyfus affair already.

Franco Prussian War

The Franco Prussian was supposedly started over the idea of the spanish ruler as both Prussia and France had canidates for both sides. The French were first to strike which allowed the other German states to rally around the Prussian army. The Prussian humilaited the French as they not only captured Napoleon III they also held PAris hostage for 6 months, as the city starved. They then forced the French to sign a treaty in VErsaille that gave Germany Lorranine, an dmade France pay siginificant coverages.

The French Revolution

The French Revolution is widely considered to be the most imortant revolution in history that had so many effects on history that its effects are still not fully known. At the time France was in debt with the ever increasing inflation and poor living conditions of the people resulted in the end of monarchial rule in France. However by the end of the revolution a dictaor came to power. True the revolution did help the peasants as well as the middle class as it did guarantee many rights. The FRench revolution is also noted for its horrific amount of violence as common people would slaughter nobles and parade with their heads on pikes.

Great Purges

The GReat Purges were implemented by Stalin in an attempt to control Russia and eliminate any person against the Stalinist Regime. Some major people targeted were the Kulats who were the peasants that rebelled when collectizviaion was applied by Stalin. Stalin then proceeded to murder millions and encouraged the idea of us versus them, while eliminating enemies. The secret police of Stalin carried out these missions everywhere in Russia.

German REvolution

The German revolution of 1918 occurred when the Germans had lost the war and were given harsh conditions. As such there were many people upset, adn decided to have a revolution whihc created a liberal provisional government, that actually didn't see radicals come to power making it only half revolution in the terms of Kante. The Social Democrats of Germany were far different form the Russians as they wanted to slowly see the decline of capitalism and were overall less violent.

Girodonists

The Girodonists were actually apart of teh Jacobin club, but were less radical than that of the Mountainist. Their key roles were the fact that they were less radical and were trying to prevet the Mountains from gaining complete control of the government. In addition they were against the execution of the King Louis XVI.

Glorious Revolution in England

The Glorious Revolution was glorious in that there was a transition of kingship with relatively no bloodshed. The transition of power gave William of Orange and Mary control of England, while James II was exiled to France. The revolutions impact is essentially the destruction of the idea of divine right as well as spliting the power between Paliament and the monarchhy.

Great Northen War

The Great Northern War began with Peter the Great and Denmark agreeing to attacking the Swedes. The result however was that Denmark was easily defeated by the Swedes, and the Russians had to deal with a long war. The Russains however defeated the Swedes and in particular Charle XII' army in Ukraine. Eventually Russia gained control of the land around the Baltic sea and was declared the winner as Sweden could never recover.

The Great Depression

The Great depression was a catasptrophic economical event that effectively destroyed almost every countries wealth. it orignally began in the United States when the stock market crashed as people were buying on the credit, which in turn resulteedd in the banks of America wanting to have their loans from Europe recalled. As such the banks in Euurope went down the drain as they couldn't afford to actually repay these debts, which in turn caused no other business able to take out loans. The depression was so legendary as it was so severe that it caused unemployment in America to increase form 5% to 33% and was so devastatingly long. Nothing could truly cure the depression, but that did not stop the countries from trying.

Great White Walls

The Great migration saw the mass imigration of an Asian populace to territories such as the United States and Austria. This migration caused a surge of fear within the white populace as they feared the ASian people would take theri jobs. AS such the government set up "great white walls" that prevented anyoen except white people from obtaining higher jobs within a country.

Revolution in Greece

The Greeks had been under the control of the turks for centuries, but had retained their indiviual personality throughout it all. As such they began to revolt against the foreign empire and formed secret societies to do such actions. The revolt was led by Alexander Ypsilanti a Greek patriot and a general in the Russian army. At first the Great Powers did not support the revolutiona s they didn't want any form of revolution even in the Ottoman Empire, but the Greeks appealed to the Great powers such as the Russians for being Orthodox, the AMericans for being culturally beautiful, and the Europeans for being against the Muslims. In 1827 Great Brtain, France, and Russia directed the Turks to accept an armistice, but they refused resulting in the navies cutting off and destroying the Turk's navy. The RUssians then ained the territory known as Romania, and ultimately Greece getting their independence with a German prince as their leader in 1832.

Helsinki Accords

The Helsinki Accords was the collaboration of overall 35 nations that agreed that Europe's current political frontiers should not be changed by force. They also accepted numerous provisions guaranteeing the civil rights and political freedoms of the citizens. It overall diminished the Cold WAr conflict as all nations essentially agreed that violence was not the solution, but the communists still violated many rights.

The Holocaust

The Holocaust is considered the most violent and well organized genocide in history. It involved a complex system of camps adn trains built throughout the German empire, and involved the persecution of Jews, slavs, gyspsies, and other inferior people. Gas chambers were implemented and other forms of torture were used, and most of it was executed by the secret police.

Napoleon Bonaparte's era

The Napoleonic era saw the rise of the dictator known as Napoleon. At first he was apart of the French government but then he overthrew the government and established the Consulatory. At that point Napoleon continued his military conquest of Europe. He continued to spread the ideals of the revolution, but also conquered most of Europe. He was seen to be an emperor, but still was idealistic and tried to defend France throughout his life. Eventually he ws defeated by the British and the Russians, and was evenualy exiled fro teh rest of his days.

Marshall Plan

The Marshall plan was another plan made by the Us in particular the secretary of state George C Marshall. The plan itself was meant to allow the Us to provide funds for Europoe in order to rebuild the economy, and proved very sucessful. The plan was offered to the countries in the Eastern Bloc, but being the Soiet Union simply said no.

May Events

The May event as it was known was originally a very peacful protest by a few student groups over the overcrowded universities and the cruelty of capitalism. This protest actually grew violent whent he Police in France attempted to removve and capture them resulting in 460 arrests, 367 wounded, and 200 cars bburned. The result was the fact that people were actually inspired by the students, and approximately 10 million workers went on strike. The government seemed to be on the verge of collaspe as there was little they could do, until the French government appealed to the workers rather than the radical students.

Medici Family

The Medici's were a powerful banking family that controlled the city of Florence. They were known to be a cunning and ruthless family that actually improved Florence in their paatron for the arts. Some of the artists they employed were Leonardo and Michelangelo. The main Medici individuals were Cosimo and Lorenzo both of which were strong leaders, but eventually the Medici were removed when the foreign powers of Europe intervened.

Meiji Restoration

The Meiji revolution was direct result of Matthew Perry's journey to Japan and forcing them to open up to foreigners. The shogun who was orignally against foreigners was overthrown, and Japan was pen to the west. The japanese government then helped revolutionize the industry growing their miltiary strength to rival that of the European powers.

Mine Acts of 1842

The Mine ACts of 1842 prohibited the underground work for all women as well as boys under the age of ten. This act caused tension for women as they were earning money for working in mines before, but with this ac many of them lost that opportubity resulting in them being forced to stay at home or find work elsewhere. The men justified this act by stating that women were weaker, and believed they should protect them from the horrors of the mines.

Muslim Brotherhood

The Muslim Brotherhood were Islamic extremists who wanted liberate Egypt from European control and actually restablish the "shari" law which was based on Muslim legal codes. This group spread throughout the Middle East with supporters varying depending on how extreme they were. They were considered extreme as they were willing to use violence to obtain their goal.

Louis XVI is executed

The National Convention was split between the Girodins and those of the Mountain, and in decidijng the fate of Louis XVI it was a very narrow margin that allowed for his exectuion. Many of the Girodins believed him to be guilty but did not desire his death, but Mountainists preferred that he pay the ultimate price. Antionette also would later share the same fate as her husband a few months later.

New Economic Policy

The New Economic policy was created and implemented by Lenin of Russia. The policy was meant to help increade russia's economy and introduced many capitalistic ideals in to Russia. Some parts of the policy included the use of private property, but ultimatly this policy wuld be removed by Stalin. Stalin himself removed this policy as he thoutht that he needed communistic ideals to improve Russia's economy which included the elmination of prviate property.

New Order

The New order was HItler's rule over Europe where he instituted the key policy of racial imperialism. Under this new order many social policies depended on what bloodline a people descended form, for instance the Dutch were treated better than other races as they were similarr to Germans. The Nazis actaully found willing collaborators in some countries either to save their own hides, or to turn over Jews out of anti semitism. Another factor in this stage was the fact that German soldiers were encouraged to steal and plunder the land, but to also pay for goods at times. Eastern Europe however differed from that of the better off Western side as the program was to eliminate all native people for the Germans.

Northern Renaissance

The Northern Renaissance differs from the Italian Renaissance in that it focused on Christianity more. True it can be said that the Italian Renaissance focused on Christianity, but northern Europeans went further and had less secular pictures. Most of their art was based on Cristianity, and few expressed different ideas. That is not to say the people of the Northern Renaissance were not talented as they too had perspective.

Oligarchs

The Oligarchs as they were called arose out of the new capitalistic policies implemented by the Russian government. They usually consosted of corrupted individuals or former soviet agents who now controlled most of the industry in Russia and oappporximately 80 percent of teh wealth. This group was starting to be cracked dsown upon under Vladimir Putin who was againsty these corrupt businessmen.

Paris Commune

The Paris Commune were a group of liberals in France who were against conservatists values. They eventually rebelled in Paris and attempted to establish their own dominacne, however they were immediatley crushed by the national guard. In response to this up roar France was turned into a republic as it caused the least amount of oppostition.

People's Budget

The People's Budget was a refrom meant top help gurantee some qualities of life in Brtiain for teh workers. This idea was propsoed once, but the House of Lords denied it. However the King pressured them to accept it as he threatened to simply cut out the House of Lords in general. The peoples budget was passed and esssentially taxed the wealthy that covered health insurance.

Petrograd Soviet

The Petrograd Soviets were the opposing form of government in Russia, that consisted of a large body of workers and poorer citizens. They saw themselves as teh grassroots of tru democracy, and were detrimentary to the provisional government. The most important order it gave was Army Order No.1 as it essentially tried to turn the army into a emocracy This was a terrible decision as it weakened the army, whihc was key to the stability of Russia.

Prince Eugens Palace

The Prince Eugene of Savoy was a french nobleman that was considered a hero among the people of France. He was considered a hero as he was a miltary mastermind who defeated the Turks as wellas gaining territory for France. Due to him being a hero he used the wealth bestowed to him by the king to build palaces that capture the ideals of Baroque. The palaces he built were extroadinary and beautiful, but were not comparable to that of Versailles.

Reign of terror

The Reign of Terror was in general the mass execution of approximately 40000 people. The entire affair was controlled by the Committee of Public Safety who was in turn controlled by Robespierre that started with the execution of Danton. The result was the mass killing of all who supposedly were against the revolutions government, and eventuallly modernists seized control to stem off the terror. Robespierre himself was executed by the terror, but the terrors main effect was more nationalism and overall zealous to spread the ideals of the nation.

Dreyfus Affair

The dreyfus affair was one of the most important trials of this age as it brought to light anti semitism. The man himself was a French officer who was a also a jew, he was accused of treason by the military, and they used fabricated evidence to try and win the trial. Dreyfus however gained powerful freiends from teh otheer classe, who believed him to be innocnent. Dreyfus actrually wins the trial which to m me was very boring

Nikon the division of church

The Russian Orthodox church was torn into two sides which consisted of the states church while the others were considered "Old believers." Nikon was a purist who saw the church as corrpt and wiched to change many of its policies, however the religious peasants were completely against his policies. It came to the point where over twenty tousand people burned themselves alive in protest of the new church reforms.

Russian Revolution of 1917

The Russian revolution of 1917 saw the fall of the moarchy or the Tsar and the arival of communist Russia. It all began with at how terrible Russia was doing in the War, as they realized just how far behind thwy were. The peasants and basically everyone else realized how terrible the government was, and so the current Tsar Nicholas tried to appease the people by going to the frontlines of the war to show that the monarchy wasn't weak. Of course this was a mistake as a man named Rasputin camed to power, who was then killed by the nobles as they realized he sucked too. Then a provisonal government was set up which still supported the war, and was not popular for that very reason. Thus enter Lenin who arose to power and spred his communistic ideals to Russia and its citizens

Disentegration of the Soviet Union

The Soviet Union itself was already on a decline as the Union was facing huge economic troubles as the time passed. Most of the time the Soviets were wasting their money on the military and as such had very little economic growth, unlike the United States. When Gorbachev came to power he kind of put the nail in the coffin as the only thing propping the government up was fear. WHen Gorbachev removed this fear by addding liberal reforms, the fear the Soviets had on every other country fell.

Treaty of Nanking

The TReaty Nanking was important for China as it essentially ended their attempts to oust the foreingers and maintina their isolationism. The treaty settled the conflict known as the Opium wars, where British merchants had essentially fed opium ot the people and got them addicted. The treaty of Nanling ended this war, and established the fact that the British were in charge of Hong Kong, and had more ports they could openly trade with.

Oath of the Tennis Court

The Third Estate was essentially locked out of their room in June. As a result the delegates of the third esate met on an empty tennis court in Versailles where they voted to call themselves to be the National Assembly and to not disband until they form a constitution. This was pivotal as the National Assembly was necessary for later changes in political structure, and it showed that the King was making huge mistakes.

Rejection of the Treaty by Americans

The Treaty of Versaille was not bad for Americans as it really didn't involve too many issues for them except the League of Nations. Woodrwo Wilson tried to convince Congress to join the League, but they had an issue of being forced to take part in any war the League was apart of as it took away their power. As such the United States never joined the League as Woodrow was stubborn to change any of it.

Treaty of Brest-Litovik

The Treaty was between the Russian and the Germans at the end of the first World War. THe treaty was necessary for the Russians as the Germans were clearly winning the war on their front, as well ass the fact that it was unpopular among the people. The treaty was very harsh against Russia as it cut away basically all of the land they had conquered in the last 300 years, and was comparabel to a meat axe. It was meant to create buffer states that would later on be known as Finland, Estonia, Latvia,Lithuania, and Poland.

Decline of US and European relation

The US and Europe orignally had a very good relation especially after WOrld WAr 2 as most of Europe felt the Americans were they're heros trying to protect them . However as time passed these relationships have begun to crumbles, as Europe sees America as being far too aggressive. For one AMericans refused to sign the Kyoto aggreement which would've have helped establish peace in general, as well as the fact that America ddeclared the war on terror. This of course entailed the invastion of Aghanisan and IRaq, which many in Europe questioned if that was effective at all.

The Vichy regime

The Vichy regime was set up in France after the Germans had already conquered the northern parts of France. The government was headed by Philipe Petain, who became prime minister, and essentailly was forced upon the French people by the Germans. The government was very unpopular as it was essentially admitting defeat in the eyes of French , while losing half of their own country.

WAr Raw MAterials Board

The War Raw Materials Board was commissioned by the Jewish industrialist Walter Rathenau who befor so was in charge of the largest electric company in Germany. The commission sought to rationalize and distribute raw materials, and under this board Germany evrything was carefully monitored and controlled. It was also this board that made innovations in terms of synthetic nitrates and rubber, as well as encourage recycling. The board also ditributed food depending on how much a person works.

Warsaw pact

The Warsaw pact was the response of the Soviets to that of the US and its Western allies. It was a military pact between the countries in the Eastern Bloc to help one another and essentially pledge there alleigance to that of the Soviet cause. This pact eventually fell with the fall of the Soviets as many countries lacked political freedom at the time.

Zemstov

The Zemstov was a form of government established by ALexander II in Russia. This form of government allowed local problems to be dealt with by a local government, with people being elected in a three class sytem. It did not lead to national election but was still a step foward.

Factory Act of 1833

The act limited the amount of hours a child beween nine and thirteen to only eight hours, while adolescents could work twelve hours. ANother condition of the act was the fact that forced children under nine to attend elementary school that factory owners had to establish. The Factory Act broke the pattern of a whole family working together in the factory.

Afrikaners

The afrikaners were the descendents of Dutch merchants who settleed in Africa during the age of discovery. The group intermingled with the local groups and developed a very distinct form of Dutch. The group were very proud of their heritage and were primarily in South Affrica. This group was conquered by the British, but would obtain greater rights than that of the black populace.

Lateran Agreemnt

The agreement essentially forced Mussolini to accept the fact that the Vatican and the Catholic church would act as an independent state. Mussolini didn't have the power to challenge the papal authority as the people of Italy would be horrifed if he turned on the Church. Overalll the significance of this agreement was that Mussolini would never become a totalitarean ruler.

Duma

The duma was established after the revolution of 1905 by Tsar Nicholas II in teh October Manifesto. The duma was essentially a constitutional monarchgy wioth a parliament with little power, because the Tsar held the most p0ower with his right to veto. The duma however was determined by universal male suffrage, but the Tsar would either fire or ignore all atttempts by the Duma to sieze control.

Agricultural Revolution

The agricultral revolution can e characterized as the sudden expansion and improvement of agrculture in many forms. The revoltuion mostly occurred in England and the Netherlands due to their own soil being rocky and overall terrible. As a result these countries had to develop better ways to farm to feed their ever expanding population. Some of these methods vary, but to name few would be the introduction crop rotation,mannuer, and better animals. The results of these methods was a major jump in the production of food that was approximately 300% more than just a few decades back. With these changes, the revolution was important in introducing the possibility of the industrial reovolution that would occur only due to these surplus supplies.

Three Emperor's League

The alliance was between the monarchial powers of Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Russia in an alliance against radicals. However as time progressed and the Russains sucessfully beat the Ottoman Empire, there were tensions between the Austria and Russia in the Balkans. AS such Germany and Austria formed a secret military alliance that would be against the Russians.

Encyclopedia: The Rational Dictionary of the Sciences, the Arts, and the Crafts" by Denis Diderot and Jean Le Rond d'Alembert

The authors were an unlikely pair who came from completely different backgrounds but both desired to change the genral thoughts of humanity. Thus the two worked together to produce the Encyclopedia that had the many of the new sciences discovered, while also trying to teach the people to expand their thought. For instance the book questioned relgion and proposed that critical thought was necessary in the world rather than pure faith. the book was overall trying to change the general way of thinking.

Battle for Britain

The battle for Britain of coursed revolved around Britain as the German focres attempted to crush the British in an arial battle. The battles resulted in the constant bombing of Britian, that the Germans thought would crush their spirit, but it had an inverse effect. The British people united together and started to actually produce more during this time, eventually tthe arial battles turned as the British had destroyed two thirds of the Germans forces.

Baron Paul d'Holbach "System of Nature"

The book was published during the later part of the Enlightenment where there was a dividing line between many philosphes. Baron Paul d'Holbahc however was unpopular among most of the philosophes as he published a very controversial book. In the book he states that humans are simply machines that are completely effected by outside factors, but this was not the controversiail part. The biggest controversy surrounding the piece was the fact that he claimed that relgion, God, and government were all myths. This deeply impacted the philosophe movement as many philosophe such as Voltaire believed that there existed a god, but not a structural church.

Battle of Marne

The battle of the Marne was a major event as it was technically the first major battle between the Germans, French, British, and Belgians. The fight began with the Germans pushing the Belgians back, who were then reinforced by the British and French. The Germans attempted to encircle France, and were slowly proceeding, but then the French force of 1 million men along with about 100000 British men retreated,but then attacked a German gap on September 6. For three days the French used all of its powers to push back the German army, and actually succeded essentially saving France.

Death of Anastasia

The beloved wife of Ivan the Terrible could be seen as one of the more positive aspects of his life. As it was noted that when he married her that his tendencies to violent and cruel act decreased, when compared to his earlier years. However her death drove Ivan to maddness as he blamed the boyars for his troubles, and sought to punish all. So following her death Ivan used a group of unquestioning soldiers that eliminated boyars and their relatives, as well as the peasants lving there.

Bolsheviks

The bolsheviks were known as the "majority" group in Russia who were led by Vladamir Lenin. Their opposing group were the Mensheviks, adn orignally in the MArxian Socialist group they were actually the minority. AS time passed however their ideals were very popular among the repressed such as urban workers, and gined power in Russia. They became known as the Reds, and had to fact the whites rebellion who were aristocrats that did not want to see Lenin in power.

Bernard de Fontenelle "Conversations on the Plurality of World"

The book itself shows two people, one male and the other female, having a conversation about the world and space. Both people come from wealthy families, and were possibly in love with one another. The key ideas of Fontenelle were that innovation was actually amazing and not something to be feared, which was demonstrated in the reactions of the two people. The idea of the human mind developing further was a trend among many of the period as they felt they moved beyond the classics into a better age unlike the Renaissance.

Essay concerning Human Understanding by John Locke

The book revolved around how human beings learn and how they form ideas. John Locke's essay was profound as it basically showed many of his own beliefs, while also introducing the idea of tabula rasa. Tabla rasa was the idea that humans are born a blank slab that only develop unique characteristics depending on the environmen tin which they grow up. Human development therefore is completely based on education and their parents treatment on said child.

Berlin west vs east

The capital of Germany was rather divided as teh city and Germany itself was divided in half by the Soviets and the Allies. The western zones of Berlin were subject to the Us and its allies, and would become known as the Federal Republic of Germany, while the Soviet's area became known as German Democratic Republic. The tension over this city was siignificant as the Allies already made their first move in replacing the currency of the western germans, which resulted in the Soviets then barricading all entry points around Berlin that they controlled. This rebuke failed as the Us and its allies used planes to constantly drop in supplies.

Carnival

The carnivals were different when compared to todays ideas as they are based on religious cermonies that occurred throughout the year. They were times of revery and celbration for most of the lower class that had various activities. The event usually involved heavy drinking as well as some cities being able to afford acrobats. Eventually the carnival grew less popular among the upper clss, but was still important among the lower class.

Cold War

The cold war was an era in which a "war" was fought between the ideals of democracy and the ideals of communism. The main conflict could be devised between the US and the soviet union, the conflict lasted decades but never reached full scale war between the superpowers as they never fought eachother directly. In the end the two sides would fight in other nations and enforce their idealogies on those countries,and eventiually the US "won" as the soviet union collasped in 1997.

Combination Acts

The combination acts were highly unpopular acts that stated that all unions were banned as well as strikes. This act also repealed an act in 1563 that regulated the wages of artisans and the conditions of apprenticeships, and the repealment resulted in many artisans becoming angry as capitalists ignored many traditional workplace rules. The acts were mostly disregarded by workers, and eventually the acts were repealed in 1824 by Parliament.

Commitee of Public Safety

The committee was formed by the National Convention to deal with problems inside and outside of France. However it truly became the dictorial power headed by Robespierre and the mountain group. They at first were controlled by Danton who was also a mountainist, but he was a modernist and fell to Robespierres power.The committee itself set up a planned economy to support the war effort, as well as a fixed bread price to try and improve the sans coulattes life.

Just Price

The concept of just price orignates in the medieval era where it was essential to teh peasants The idea is that prices should be fair for both the consumer and merchant, however these views were in danger as nobles hated this idea. The unregulated trade infuriated the merchants and nobles, which resulted in te nobles trying to enforce fixed prices.

Morocco crisis and Algeciras

The conference was meant to settle the dispute between France and Germany over the territroy of Morroco and whether or not it should be colonized. Germany were the ones originally calling for the meeting, but it actually proved to be worse than what they expected. The meeting prompted France and England to form tighter bonds, and unite more against the Germans.

Physics/atoms

The dicovery in physics at this time were very importatn for later events, but at that time it was not considered very imortant. The new physics did shatter many old beliefs of Newton such as the fact that atoms are not stable, and that atoms can be split. THese revelations were important for the atomic bomb and the later devellopment of other sciences.

Industrial Revolution on the Continents

The continents Industrial Revolution occured 25 years after Britains Inudstiral Revolution as they had to deal with the Napoleonic Wars. As a result they were severly behind in terms of technology and overall prgression. One advantage the continents had was the fact that they could copy everything that Britain did due to the fact Britain already discovered it. THey were playing the catchup game with only a few ever reaching the same level of undustry as ENgland by the end, and those countries included Prussia and Belgium both of whom became a major power.

Crushing the Cossacks

The cossacks during the "Time of Troubles" grew in number and started the slaughtering of nobles and officials. These cossack bands were led by Ivan Bolotnikov and cused the nobles to realize the greater threat emerging from the lower classes. The result was the nobles of whatever size decided to unite in order to stop the huge mobs of cossacks.

Proletariots

The cost of enclosure was most seen in the peasant class, as more and more nobles decided to buy territory to close it off. As a result, the consequence was the transformation known as proletarianization, which turned a large number of small peasant farmers into landless rural wage earners. The group became known as proletariots who were essential in driving the cottage industry, aw well as the industrial revolution.

The Revolt of the Netherlands

The effect of Lutherannism was minimal in the Netherlands, but the idea of Calvinism was very effective in the area. as such there were a lot of Calvinist militants that arose. Philip II then appointed his sister Margaret to rule the area, and she started the inquisition and increased taxes. The netherlands then fell into civil war with the duke of Parma leading Catholic forces, while William the "Silent" led the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands. In the end ten of the provinces were forced into catholicism, while the other seven were Protestant.

End of the war

The end of the war, the overall war of World War II came with Japan's surrender after the devastating use of nuclear bombs. OF course the use of nuclear bombs was encouraged by the fact that the Japanses had such a strong mentality of never surrendering that the president thought the only way to spare lives was to use the atomic bombs. Of course there were political reasons especially the Russians, who at the time terrified the US.

Hinge of Fate

The events that saw the turning of the tide in Europe as the Allies scored more victories against the xis powerr. The major battle that started this change on fate was known as the Second Battle of El Alamein, which saw the end of ITaly's advance into Africa, and the Allies slowly climbing into Italy. The Germans in fear seized the northern section of Italy and rescued Mussolini who at that point was overthrown by the people of Italy in a coup de tat.

The War of the Spanish Succession

The final war of Louis XIV that started off due to two factors of which included territory disputes, and the matter of who would inherit the Spanish throne. It was no secret that the current king of Spain was actually an idiot due to inbreeding, so the question was who was to inherit Spain. The nations agreed to divide it evenly, but the king of Spain then actually gave it all to France, which Louis XIV graciously accepted. This sparked a war between the European powers that resulted in the end of expansion in France at the time.

First and Second Balkan war

The first Balkan wa was fought over the territory of Sebia as the people wanted independence. For the SErbaina s they wanted independence from teh Ottomans, and recieved support from Greece and Bulgaria. They were the victors in the end, but had issues over the territory of Albany, resulting in the second Balkan war. This war was decisviely ended by the Austrians who defeated both sides and laid claim to other territories.

Th War of Devolution

The first of Louis XIV's wars involved his rapid invasion of the Spanish Netherlands. Luis XIV dreamed of being the model king , as well as Colbert thinking that imperialism was the only way to improve the economy invaded the Netherlands. With the sudden threat of the French the powers of Europe united which included the Dutch, Holy Roman Empire, and Spain to defeat France. The aftermath of this war was the betrayal of the Dutch in the eye of the FRench, and with FRance gaining little territory.

Five Year Plan

The five year plans were designed by Stalin of the Soviet Union. These plans were meant to rapidly increase food production in Russia and included teh force moving of Russian peasants to government areas. There peasants would work together to produce more food. The plans proved sucessful, but not in the sense that it resulted in the deaths of millions of peasants.

Haitian Revoolution

The island of Haiti before the revolution was being controlled by the French. Essentially the slaves of the isalnds were the inhabitants that were treated terribly at this time. Eventually a leader arose in the form of Toussaint L'Overtture who fought with France to eventually gain independence from the French. However it must be noted that he still allowed slavery as a form of economy boosting.

Grand Alliance

The grand alliance was the military pact between Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union. This union came about only after the attack on pearl Habror, and was very tenuous as both Franklin D Roosevelt and Churhchill were against teh communist policies of Stalin. However with the growing issue of Hitler, the alliance was necessary for the allies as only thorugh their combined efforts did they succeed. This alliance however collasped almost immediately after the war as the Soviet Union became the United States biggest enemy.

Assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand

The group known as the Black Hand were a suernationalistic serbian group that supported the assassins that killed the heir to the throne Archduke Francis Ferdinand in Austria. This event marks the beginning of the war as the Serbian government proceeded to house the assassins and prevent the Austrians from obtaining them. The Austrians in response give an ulitmatum, and Serbia, being backed by Russia, say no starting the Thrid Balkan WAr.

The Society of Jesus

The group was founded by a fromer soldier by the name of Ignacious Loyola who wanted to spread Catholicism and help poor souls. The group helped strengthen the Catholic Churches hold in more areas such as some asian countries. Also the organization became a school for many priests if they wanted a better education.

Labor aristocracy

The highest class within the working class were known as the labor aristocracy, that made up approximately 15% of the wealth within the working class. Their jobs were usually unable to be industrialized t this point such as jewelers, printers, and bainetmakers. Their jobs were always in danger as the industrial revolution would occasionly replace them.

common lands

The idea of common land comes directly from the open field system, as the lands themselves are the ones that went fallow. These lands left over to recover a previous years harvest, were instead used as pastures. The lands and all of its animals or natural crops were available to the public, and were essential for many peasnats in retaining their lives.

Mercantalism

The idea of mercantalism is that a nation should export more items rather than importing objects. One of the key aspects is that country should have multiple colonies to draw raw rsources that would later be sold back as a refined product. In addition mercantalism was based on gold as a show of a nations power and wealth.

Zollverein

The idea of the Zollverin was thought by Freidrich List who desired the government's intervention into economics. The Zollverin itself was the idea of the independent German states to form an agreement to form a union. The union would allow free trade between state without the use of tariffs.

Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

The idea orginated in the Japanese empire, and was mostly an excuse for the Japanese to obtain more territory. The idea was that the asian people should force out the Europeans and establish an "Asia for all Asians." The Japanese were supposedly ending old imperialism, but was really the Japanese abusing the areas they conquered, proving that the GReater East Asia was a facade.

Industrial Revolution

The industrial revolution is a time when a country of multiple countries saw a tremendous increase in production. Another key factor about an industrial revolution s the fact that it requires machines to be involved as it creates more jobs for commoners. The first country that experience it would be Britain, and the sociial as wellas political effect industrial revolutions have is quite varying. For some it caused bitter rivalries among governments, as well as make some nations the strongest in the world.

Invasion on Belgium

The invasion of Belgium occurred when the Germans wanted to cross the neutral state of Belgium to invade FRance. The Belgiums essentially say no, and Germany is forced to delcare war and conquers belgium. This event was a major piece of propaganda for the alliance as they used it to show the Germn "raping" the Belgians.

Illegitamcy Explosion

The last half of the eighteenth saw the incredible explosion of illlegitimate children. There are multiple reasons for tis explosion, but one of them is the idea of proletariots. With peasants not having to be tied down to a piece of land to make a living, many men would have sex with a girl and simply leave. Another factor encouraging illegitimate children was the fact that courtship among younger people was not looked down upon in the severity as before, resulting in a freer form of courtship. Many peasants, soldiers, and workers would simply promise to marry, but with their lives in a constant state of turmoil could not keep such promises.

The Supremacy Act

The last major act concerning the church that proclaimed the king to be surpreme head of the Church of England. This act and the Restraint of Appeals caused a lot anger among the people of Engand. Thomas More and John Fisher who both apposed the act were beheaded for their disapproval.

Literature 20th century

The literature of this time was very sad and depressing which makes sense sense since they jsut came out of the first world war and entered the great depression. The books would deal with the stream of consciousness as well as memories, isolation, and looking into more dystopian society. A famous piece woould be George Orwells who wrote of a distant time 1984 wiredly enough and believed that society would be pretty terrible.

Women movement

The main movement was the fight for women's rights or the feminist movement in other words. It was a very slow movement that took years to actually gain any support, and occurred differently depending on the country. For women in Britain there was a major suffrage movement that actually occurred around World War I that actually gained them the right t vote in 1919. For women in Germany there was tremendous pressure to get the right to admit as fully fledged students in universities, which eventually succeeded.

Galileo's Dialogue on the Chief Systems of the World

The main point of the book was to establish the fact that the earth was not the center of the universe or the solar system itself. Galileo wrote it as a satire that drove to prove that those that didn't believe in the heliocetric model were fools. This book caused the church to respond and overall condemn Galileo as a heretic.

Mass unemployment

The mass unemployment was a direct result of the Great Depression and all that it entails. This of course effected coumntries very differently, the most severe would definitly be the United States and Germany. For the Us there was an increase from %5 to %33 of the overall workforce, and Germany already having issues just got worse. There was very little governments could do against thsi crisis as it needed more money to create these jobs. The US decided to create the Works Progress Adminstration, which was actually very effective in creating new jobs.

Mestizos

The mestizos made up a majority of the middle class in South America. They were the children of both a Eurpean and native american, but did not have the same rights as the creoles. A few achieved enough wealth to be considered in the creoles, but a majority were never in that area.

Middle class classes

The middle class can be split into three classes at this time, which included the upper middle class, miidlle class, and lower middle class or white collar. These classes varied greatly in terms of population and money as the uper middle class had more wealth than most of the other classes easily, an consited of usually older families. The middle middle class consited of the scientists, and engineers that were rapidly growing at point. The lower middle class consisted of managers who were really closer to that of the working class, but upheld high morals to show that they were different.

Middle class culture

The middle class culture began to form during the industrial era that was very distinct. One major factor is the fact with the new found wealth they indulged in lavish parties and foods. Hoever the middle class did retain a very high moral standard as well as establish further trends such as fashion choices. The children also became a very important part of the middle class culture as music and education were key to their status.

Mobilization for War

The mobilization for war did vary in every country, but there were many patterns in mobilizing. Some common patterns were the introduction of a planned economy as well as the use of rationing food. Another commonality was the fact that men were usually forced into the army such as Germany. Also the major commonality was the fact that women and children worked in factories and were becoming very important to the overall workforce in every country. Russia for instance had a workforce constisting of 45% women.

Faith Healers

The most common healers in the 18th century that were mostly popular among the poor. They viewed sickness as being caused by demons and evil spirits who resided in people during the time of a disease. They were effective aginst mental disorders like hysteria and depression as they comforted the people.

Open field System

The open field system was the original agricultural practice before the encosure system. The system was used throughout Europe and continued to be used even during the Agricultural revoltuion. The system consisted of using about two thirds of the lands for farming, while leaving the other third fallow(unused). It was a serious detrement to the population, because so much land had to be lefted useless. The sytem was slowly being replaced by the enclosure method and the crop rotaition system.

Polish underground Home Front

The most organized resistance force out of all of the other countries and of course Poland. This resitance force organized secret underground classes to educate people, and slipped secret information to the allies against th Germans. This group however met its end when the Russians were on their way to Poland,and they attempted to overthrow the Germans in the hope of attaining independence from Germany and Russia. The group however failed while the Russian simply waited for the group to be killed in a cold action.

Blitzkrieg

The new tactic of the Germans that were used during early World War II. The tactic involved the rapid conquering of land through the use of arial strikes being sent in, but immediatley followed up by tanks and infantry. These tactics were very sucessful in conquering eastern Europe as it only took one month for Poland to be conquered, and actually was effective against the French.

Red Shirts

The red shirts were guerilla troops led by GAribaldi during the time of Italian unification. They landed on Sicily in May 1860, and essentially beat the royal army against all odd.s Not oinly was it approximately a thousand men against 20000 royal men. The red shirts were met with rejoice as they became the ideaal of heroiism and freedom.

Opening of Japan

The opening in Japan was similar to that of China in that they were forced opne. Orginially Japan practiced the idea of isolationsims and tried to prevent foreigners from entering, but when the America wanted show its strength and gain territory ti be considered an imperialistic country they opened Japan up. Japan instead of recoiling actually embraced manny values of the western countries building themselves to be a powerful global player.

Kosovo Lbieration Army

The organization was founded by Albanian Muslim of Kosovo in the hope to establish self rule. The group obtained nothing in the Bosnian Agreement, aand continued to protest over the actions of the Serbains. Eventually the Serbians increased their repression of the Kosovars, until 1998 where they attacked KLA guerillas and unarmed villagers. Only after NATO intervened did the Kosovars actually gain independence from Serbia.

Mountains

The other half to the Jacobin club, that gained their name for literally sitting higher up in the National Convention. The key members of this group included the Georges Danton as well as Robespierre. The group was significant in their decisions in the Committee of Public Safety as well as the Reign of Terror. Tey essentially were the most radical among the radicals.

Great Fear

The peasants in France had reached their boiling point in the summer of 1789, resulting in what's known as the Great fear. The peasants slaughtered many nobles, as well as burning down many mannors. The fear of maurading vagabonds arose as landlords believed that other landlords would attack and destroy everything.

The Scientific Revolution

The period is characteristic for many of its scientific innovations and overall contribution to the development of sciences. It can originally be traced back to Copernicus questioning the center of theuniverse, while its end is traced to Newton combining multiple theories in the "principia." The scientific revolution qutioned many roginal beliefs held in Eurpe as well as establshing methods that are still used to this day in the science fields.

The Act for the Submission of the Clergy

The second act passed by Henry VIII of England that required the churchman to submit to the king. This allowed the king to obtain most of the territory of the churchman and their monasteries. Also the law required that all new ecclastical laws needed approval from the king.

Treaty of Aras 1482

The treaty settled some violence between the French king Louis XI and the Austrian family of the Habsburg. The treaty declared the French part of Burgundy to be the property of the French, but the Habsburg never renounced there claim leaving a lot of hostility between the families. The failure to retain the territory by the Habsburg also started to escalate the nobles hatred of the Austrian familly.

Van Eyck's "Arnofini Portrait"

The portrait shows two people getting married, with one being a wealthy merchant. The significance of the art is that it demonstrated how the Northern Renaissance was similar and different from the Italian Renaissance. The artist was just as skilled as Italian painters, but a key aspect is that a lot of Christian symbolism was shown throughout.

TRagedy in yugoslovakia

The president of the mulitethnicity nation of Yugoslovakia Slodoban Milosevic a former communist started a very violent conflict as he sought to mke the government mostly controlled by Serbians. AS such he limited the rights of the province of Kosovo where Albanian speaking Islamic people were the majority of the population. Overall he then wanted the notion of a greater Serbia which would include the provinces of Kosovo, Slovenia, and Croatia, but of course these areas were completely against it starting a civi war. HIs efforts fail as a war weary Serbia eventually forces him out of office as NATO and the UN overall continued bombing Serbia.

Ending of the Reconquista

The reconquista was a war over the Iberian peninsula that was between the arabs and chrsitians. The end of this war that spanned hundreds of years was the capture of Granada, the last Islamic area. This was done so during the rule of Ferdinand and Isabella with the result being the expulsion of muslims, and Granada being incorporated into the Spainish kingdom.

Italian Renaissance

The renaissance is an age where for the upper an middle class there was an explosion of wealth and new ideas. The three key ideals the Renaissance are humanism, individualism, and secularism, which influenced many of the artists in Italy. Individualism was the idea that humans were unique and that everyone of them had a specific talent, and secularism was the idea of focusing on other concepts than the Church. The time of the Renaissance resulted in the birth of some of the gratests artists, writers, and architects in history. Artists gained recognition during this era as well as developed more realistic styles such as vanishing point and perspective.

German reunification

The reunification of Germany started with the collaspe of the Eastern government, who in an attempt to modernize itself made socialism more democratic. Eventually the close ties between the two sides of Germany was so strong that the WEst simply engulfed the East. The Berlin wall was destroyed signifying the end of Cold WAr in a sense.

REvolution of 1905

The revoluition of 1905 Russian miltary before the revo.ltuion was in eastern side of Russia as they wantede to expand. This allowed oppostition and revolutionists ideals to grow in the WEstern half, until finally a group of protestors went to the Tsars home an d peacefully protested. This went awry as the military still stationed their begn the event known as the Bloody Sunbday with many protestors being killed. It resulted in the duma being founded and m,any people gaining rights.

Scandanavian response to the depression

The scandinavians actually had the best response out of all the countries as they recovered the most. One key factor was the fact that scandinavians had always been built upon the idea of community effort which in turn allowed for many programs to be applied without a lot of protest. Another factor was that Social Democrats had come to power which iin turn allowed more socialstic policies to be promoted such as a free brerakfast given to children.

Scramble for Africa

The scramble of Africa was the era in which the Europeans divided and conquered almost all of Africa. Before the era Europeans rarely went into Africa as they feared disease and were overall uninterested, but with the rise of nationalism and the European countries wanting more markets Africa was very appeling. Thus in order to show each nations strength, the Europeans attempted to colonize and control Africa in its entirety.

The Dutch War

The second of Louis XIV's wars that involved a treaty between the English and French to conquer the Dutch. The English would support the French through their naval orces, while France slowly progressed on land. The French managed to conquer three of the seven provincess, until the Dutch flooded the countryside and were led by the powerful leader of William III of Orange. In the end the Dutch were given back their lost territory, while France gained control of the Spanish Netherlands. The French only backed down due to their financial issues in supporting the war.

Union of Utrecht

The seven provinces of the Low Countries united in 1581 to declare their independence from Spain. By unifying the provinces resisted the forces of Spain and remained protestant. Also the Union gained support from England , which later on results in a conflict between Spain and England.

Signori

The signori were one man rulers that controlled the cities of Italy by 1300. The importance of these ruers is that they were key patrons to the arts that occured in the Renaissance. The rulers also were key in endorsing the idea of looking back to the classic, which inspires the artists of Italy.

Atlantic Slave trade

The slave trade at this time period was at an all time as the demand was extreme. The colonies in North and South America needed labor, and as a result many Africans were forcefuly taken from their homes and traded across the sea. The merchants at this time became very wealthy as well as the African kingdoms who dominated this trade. Another important factor of the slave trade is the fact that the British ultimately controlled the slave trade as they had the strongest navy.

Elector Frederick III the ostentatious

The son of Frederick Williams who was known to be obsessed with the fashion and style of Luois XIV. In addition his main contribution to Prussia was obtaining the royal title from th eHoly Roman Emperor. The reason he obtained this title was that he supported the Hapsburg when the WAr for Spanish Succession occurred.

Henry of Portugal

The son of a king he was known as "Henry the Navigator" as he was key in starting the exploration of the world. He never went on a journey himself, but he sponsored many early explorers. He started sugar plantations in the Atlantic and strove to increase the power of Portugual.

Space Race

The space race was the ultimate competition between the US and thse Soviets in terms of technology. The Soviets were originally winning as they were the first to shoot a satellite into space, as well as put a man into space. The US was terribly behind anbd as such they invested heavily into the space program, until the US unoffically won when they oput a man on the moon.

Spirit of Locarno

The spirt of Locarno is simply the idea of peace that occurred at Locarno in Switzerland. The agreements that occurred at this place essentially stated that Itlay and Britain would help whichever side that was attacked between France and Germany. It also stated boujndaries between each country, but this section was disputed by Stresemann on Germany's Eastern border. It lent so0me hope to the people of Europe, but it was simply delaying the enevitable.

Stream of consciousness

The stream of consciousness was a new technique deveolped by writers at this time that was meant to explore the human psyche. These stories would usually involve the narrators actual thoughts and feelings adn go into darker subjects. Some authors would actual refer back to older greek stories and use it to show more human mindsets and channges in time.

Suez Canal

The suez canal was a canal that would connec the Medditerranean ocean and the red ocean, allowing ships to pass through. The cana became invaluable as it promoted world trade and was essential trying to cut down the itme between Europe and Asia. The suez canal was built by the FRench, but eventually came under the control of the British as the Egyptians also lost their own rights.

Capture of Constantinople

The sultan Mohammed II conquered the city of Constantinople in the name of the Ottoman empire. The city was renamed to be Istanbul that gave the Ottomans great control over the spice trade and intimidate Europeans. It overall gave great power to the Ottomans as it became their capital as well.

The Directory

The system of government set up by the Thermodian reaction that essentially creaed a five man body. The directory during its reign still enforced the war effort as it kept eople emlyed, but as time went on the notion of war grew more and more unpopular. The directory was overall unpopular and did little except to try and help the middle class partially. They were eventually overthrown by Napoleon two years later in a coup de tat.

The Textile Industry

The textile industry was primarily consisting of rural workers that involved most of the family working on the same project. For instance the women and children prepared the raw material and spun the thread, while the man of the house would wove the cloth. Most of the time a spinster was needed in this industry, which put a large toll on the wife and husband's financial situation.

Treaty of Cateau Cambrteis

The treaty ended the Hapsburg-Valois war with Spain being the victor. France had to accept the fact that the Spanish had control over the Italian peninsukla with Spain controlling sicily, Naples, and Milan. The treaty marked the end of the last of the dynastic wars, which means it ended family wars.while the wars that followwed were mostly controolled by religious factors as well as political reasons.

Peace of Westphalia

The treaty ended the Thirty Year War and ended wars over religious faith. The treaty recognized the sovereign authority of more than three hundred German princes with each maintaining their land. The Hapsburg powers wetre severly weakened after this treaty, and the German area was destroyed.

Peace of Utrecht

The treaty ended the war for Spanish Succession and was necessary in settling many issues of Europe. The first major decision it decided that the grandson of Louis XIV, known as Philip II would control Spain and France, but never unite the two crowns. Another decision the treaty made was that the Spanish Netherlands would be given over to Austria, which meant that Louis XIV's attempts to expand failed. Lastly it gave tremendous power to the British as well as ending Spain's power as a serious threat.

Treaty of Paris

The treaty essentially marked the victory of Britain on all colonies. France in this treaty lost all of their possessions in North America, with all colonies east of the Mississipi river being claimed by the British while the rest of Lousiiana was ceded to Spain. In addition France lost most of its holdings in India due to this treaty.

TReaty of Versailles

The treaty of Versialle was one of the most important treaties that still makes impacts on todays circumstances and screwed Germany over. The treaty itself was the end of the first World WAr and was controlled by the Big Three, which included the FRench, British, and the United States. It set out to establish that the Germans were the one to take full blame for the war and pay for all of the war costs. In addition it limited their military and repossessed all of their colonies into different countries. It also saw the creation of the League of Nations, which would a collaboration among countries to control and maintain peace in the area. This league ultimately fails in many ways as the main advocat Woodrow Wilson couldn't convince America or Britain to join it.

Maastricht Treaty

The treaty was barely passed as it was officially the idea of a monetary union throughout Europe, and many people did not desire this unity. The treaty also entailed the standards of foreign adn teh military affairs worldwide for Europe. IT was a unifying force that was meant to allow Europe to act as one cohesive force that could compete economically and military wise with the world.

Treaty of Tordesillas

The treaty was necessary in dividing the New world as conflict could easily arise from it. The portuguese and spanish asked Pope Alexander VI to settle resulting in it being divided by an imaginary line in the Atlantic. The Portuguese got everything to the east of the line which included Brazil.

Triple Alliance

The triple Alliance was the defense military treaty between Austria, Germany, and Italy against any other country. Originally it consisted of Austria and Germany against Russia, but as tension developed in France Italy joined the alliace. This alliance was one of the most important in that it was a major cause for Austria's and GErmanies close relationships, but ITay in the endof World War I withdrew when the war emerged.

Truman Doctrine

The truman doctribne was America's stance on communism. It essentially stateed that the United States wanted to contain communism to the countries already ruled by it, and prevent it from spreading to other countries. President Trueman at this time believed that this was the only effective way to combat communism while preserving capitalism.

Thirty Years War

The war can be split into four phases known as the Bohemain, Danish, sewdish, and the French. The first phase occured in Bohemia with a civil war between the Catholic League led by Ferdinand II and the Protestant Union being led by Frederick. The result of the conflict ended with the Catholics winning. The second phase involved Charles VI of Denmark who led the protestant movement, but fails as he too is crushed by the Catholic forces. The third phase saqw ther strong ruler of Gustavus Adolphus who intervened in the war to help the Protestants. He actually defeated many of the Catholics forces in battle and gained territory for the Swedish, and destroyed the idea of a unified Germany under Hapsburg. The last phase iunvolves Gustaphus dying, which prompts the French led by Cardinal Richelieu to enter the war officially turning it into an international war.

Seven Years War

The war had two fronts, which involved one in Europe while the other revolved around the colonies. The one in Europe involved Maria Theresa of Austria trying to take back Silesia from Prussia, but Prussia remained. However unlike the inconclusive war in Europe, the war occuring in the colonies was a decisive victory for the British over the French.

Spread of elementary schools

The wealthy led the way in education in the 16th century by establishing colleges run by Jesuits. Eventually after the Protestant movement there was a larger demand of education, which in Prussia was embraced. Thus in 1717 they made it mandatory for children of both sexes to attend elementary schools although this only occurred in areas where schools were already built. The idea of mandatory eduction spread as in France there was a school that held over thirty five tousand students, and Maria Theresa of the Austrian Empire set up a required five hour school life.

White Man's Burden

The white mans burden was a idealogy by Rudyard Kipling who asserted the idea of the Europeans beign superior. He beleievd that with imperialism that the Europeans were helping the native populations by showing them the proper customs and overall civilizing them. THis view was maintained througout the age of imperialism and was very popualr for social dwarinistss, as it followed the idea of superority.

Working Class culture

The working class like the middle class developed a very distinct culture. They also retained a very high moral standard, but that was more concerned with wealth and education. They cared less about sex in the working class, and thought little of premarital sex in regards to men. Another key part of the working class culture was their investment into new sports such as horseracing and soccer.

working class classes

The working class much like the middle was highly diversified and had multiple groups within. The highest of the working class were the skilled workers who recieved a higher amount of pay than the other workers and traditionally were educated. The next class were the semiskilled which generally were more skillful than the average worker, but didn't have an apprenticeship or as much education. The largest group were the unskilled wiorkers who grew with the rise of industrializatiion that generally had ok pay but were easily replacable.

Invasion of Poland

This event marked the beginning of World War II as the German army in a bliztkrieg attack, surrounded Poland on three sides. The Germans then conquered the territory in one month and caused the French and the British to declare war on Germany. Hitler actually didn't expect world war II as he thought the British would still not intervene if he invaded Poland.

Freudian psychology

This idea of psychology was designed by the man known as Sigmund Freud. It was a new form of pschology that believed that people were influenced by the very primitive emotions of the human mind, and was in direct contrast to the other beliefs of men beign civilized. There is the unconscious thought, id, teh rationalism, ego, and the moral valure knwon as superego, that all regulate the human mind.

Revolution of 1848 in France

This revolution can be summarized as a failure as it was mostly a revolution for the working class. The king Louis Philippe did little in his regime, so socialists and the common people took to arms and demanded an end to monarchial rule. As a result there fromed a Constituent Assembly that actually allowed for everyone (men) to vote for their canidates. Oddly enough the peasants were upset by these new radical developments in Paris, and there grew more tension between socialists and liberal capitalism. In the ned the working class were deprived of their right to vote and revolted and in three days of june were utterly crushed by the French government who had a lot support.

Thomas Malthus

Thomas Malthus was a friend of David RIcardo's and was most famous for his work on the Essay on the Principle of Populatiion. In this book he outlines the fact that population would eventually outgtrow the food that was left on Earth. He was a pessimist who also developedd the idea of a depression but never truly concluded on it , in addition he was very unpopular among the peoople of England.

Catholic kings of Spain

Through a diplomatic deal with Spanish Pope Alexander VI, both Isabella and Ferdinand were granted the titles of "Catholic Kings of Spain." The title gave them the power to appoint bishops in Spain and the new world, which increased their control over the church. Lastly it meant that Spain was made into a Catholic country.

Royal Family is arrested on leaving the cuntry

Under pressure from peasants and the third assembly, the king in fear for his and his family's life he fled Paris. However he was caught in the act by officials fairly briefly and dragged back to Paris. It's significance is the fact that the king was arrested which instigated foreign monarchs to panic as they realized that the ideals of the revolution could dethrone them.

Frederick II

Unlike his father, Frederick was a very cultured man who hated the barracks life of Prussi. That is not to say he didn't follow his father in war as he took over the area of Silesia from Austria. His significance however was that he accepted and endorsed the Enlightenment as he allowed his people to believe anything they wanted as well as reformed some laws in Prussia. SOme examples of his reforms were his simplification of Prussia's laws and the abolishment of many forms of torture. He also wanted an honest society and succeede in doing so as many judges were less corrupt abd Prussians themselves gained a reputation to be hard working.

Algerian revolution

Unlike most decolonization acts the Algerian decolonization was a very violent time. The issue revolved around the 1.2 million Europeans who li9ved in the area permamently and were known as the Pieds-Noirs which literally meant black feet. This group had been using a system that put them above the ihabitants of Algeria. When Algerain rebels were iunspired by the ideals of communism they formed the National Liberation Front and revolted against French colonialism. The pied NJoirs in repsonse pressured the French government to send support and recieved 400000 soldiers. The war had attrocities on both sides and eventually grew very unpopular with the French people. When a new leader Charle de Gaulle arose to power he stopped the war and gave Algeria independence.

Population growth in the eighteenth century

Unlike previous centuries in Europe there was an unprecedented amount of growth during this century. One key factor is the fact the usual elimnators of population were slowly being eliminated. The usual eliminators of population include war, famine, and disease all of which still remained but to a lesser extent. For instance famine was being eliminated as the agricultural revolution, and another example would include how the bubonic plague was disappearing. All of these factors allowed for the population to grow significantly, however the issues of previous centuries population growths were still prevalent as the pressure from growth made the gap between social classes increased.

Second Serfdom

Unlike western Europe which during the time of the Black Death had given peasants more rights, Eastern Europe on the other hand took away the rights of the peasants. The peasants were treated more harshly so that the nobles could retain them, as well as thir right to move was completely restricted. The land of the peasants were taken away slowly over time by both the nobles and the kings themselves. The peasants attempted to rebel , but unlike the western peasants, they failed to gain any rights.

United States in Vietnam

Vietnam was already terrible with the FRench essentially having to surrender, to the communists, but to make matters worse the US got involved. The main issue of this was the fact that the war just got worse and the US was losing. The northern part of Vietnam had a much more popular leader while the southern sector was led by essentially an Americna backed dictator. Eventually the war grew severly unpopular among the American people and after the pyscholigical effects of the Tet offensive (showed the war was not gonna stop) America essentially withdrew soldiers every year. Nixon was the president at the time, and overall Ho Chi Min won in the end.

Vietnam

Vietnam was orignally under French rulke but after World War II the peopole led by Ho Chi Minh fought for independence while embracing communism. This of course was a threat to democracy and the USA stepped in and divided Vietnam in two. The southern section was democratic while the nothern section was communistic.

WAr communism

War communism was the policy of Lenin and the Bolsheviks to maintian order in Russia, as well as help Russia recover from its devastating lost in World War I. The policy itself saw the use of capitalistic ideals to restore the Russian economy and industry. Some ideas it implemented was the idea of everyone working, a distribution of food, and overall maintaining power through the army.

Wet nursing and killing nurses

Wet nursing is the idea of rather than having a baby breast feed off of the mother, a nurse would be brought in to breast feed the child. The business of wet nursing was flourishing during this time espcially in the noble class as they viewed breast feeding as crude and undignified. However wet nursing had some negative views as it was commonly held that a nurse would spread her bad traits to the child. In addition many viewed child nurses as greedy and some believed that there were killing nurses. These nurses obviously were believed to let a child die so that she could take another child and collect her fee.

Elizabeth of England's Impact on the Church

When Elizabeth took control of England she stepped into a crisis as the nation was torn between the Catholic Church and more Protestant views. As a result Elizabeth chose a middle path that left the people to decide on their own religious path through her title of "Surpreme Gvernor of the Church of England , Etc." In addition in what's known as the Elizabethan settlements, Elizabeth passed laws that required conformity to the Church of England as well as uniformity in ceremonies. She also pushed the Church in a more moderate Protestant direction such as the elimination of monasteries.

Appeasement

When Hitler began his transgressions against other European powers and seized territory such as Austria and the Sutenland, the response by Britain in particualry was neutrality. Instaed of stopping Hitler Britain's leader decided to just give land to Hitler in the hopes of satisfying his hunger for territory, so that no war would breka out. This policy was also used because at the time Russia seemed like the biggest threat as Communism was directly against the other major powers capitalism. FRance complied with these demnds as they were consideravly weaker than other nations.

Creoles rise in power

When Spain rose back into power, there was a key reason to its rise in power which resides in the new world. In South America there was a great increase in silver mining that was owned by the creoles. The creoles are the children of Europeans of Spain born in Soth America. They were essentially the upper class of the South America and held most of the territory in the new world.

Diaspora

When conflicts and overall violence was occuring in the older Eastern bloc and the Middle East, many people were permanently displaced. These people were called diasporas and migrated to other sections of the continent overall spreading their culture to the rest of Europe. These groups could be generally divided into two sections one rich or at least highly educated, versus the poorer people who lived in terrible conditions.

Greece in the euro crisis

When the GLoba recession hit Europe, the country most impacted by this recession would be Greece who was already on hard times. In this case they were already in high deficit and had to call on the aid of the supernational organizations to provide money to support the government. The issue was the fact that these organizations required neoliberal austerity plans to be put into place such as raising taxes, privatizing state owned businesses, and drastically reducing state spending. All of these measurements had to implemented to actaully recieve help from the IMF, the European Union, or the Common Bank. In 2012 the Greeks were still in trouble and there was specualtion that Greece might leave the EUrozone along with Spain, ITaly, and Portugal.

Baroque Art

When the Protestant movement occurreed their was an emergence of new art at the ttime that was mainly supported by the Catholic church. The art was known for it dramatic fashion that was meant to inspire and effect many peoples emotions. Unlike the Renaissance it was much more graphic and passionate then the subtle art of the Renaissance.

Council of Blood

When the revolts in the Netherlands reached a vilotile state, Philip II sent in twenty thousand Spanish troops and the duke of Alva. The duke proved to be one of the most violent people as he interpreted "pacification" as the extermination of religious and political divisions. He set up a tribunal known as the Council of Blood that executed in one day fifthteen hundred men, and was so violent till the point where the women who ordered the Inquisition left.

William Blake and the Opposition to the Factory Jobs

William Blake was one of the first romantic poets who criticized factories. He called them satanic mills that worked the poor and made their lives worse than ever. His views were shared by mulitple groups including the group known as the Ludites.

William Cockerill

William Cockerill was a Lancahire carpenter who along with his sons constructed cotton spinning equipment in French occupied Belgium in 1799. His son John Cockerill went on to build a large industrial enterpris, which produced machinery for all of continental Europe. The site became the industrial center of Europe as the family also hired many illegal workers from Britain.

Inquiry in to the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations

Widely considered to be Adam's smith greatest achievement s his book on the "Wealth of Nations," which as the name suggests it talks about the economy. Throughout his book he discusses the issues with mercantalsim, while also establishing a better form of economy. For instance he and his French friend established the idea of "laissez fair" which calls for governments leaving the market alone. Another one of his ideas summarized in his book is that the market is fueled by self interest and competetion and that the market would stabilize itself due to these factors. For a complete summarization of his ideas just read chapter 3 of the Wordly philosphers.

William I of Prussia

William I was essentially only known for him hiring Otto Von Bismarck as his chancellor. The man himself was very weak ruler as he gained his title from brithright. He wasw the figure head for the German Empire, but was eeasily manipulated by Bismarck

William Tyndale promotes reform

William Tyndale was an English humanist who visited Luther at Wittenburg and a year later visited him at Antwerp. The importance of these visits is that it allowed him to print and English translation of the Bible that was taken by merchants back to England. The result was the growth of Protestants in England that would later on be prevalent when Henry VIII split from the church.

Luddites

William Wordsworth along with William bake both inspired groups of people to utterly hate factories. The most vilatile of these groups were known as the Luddites. They attacked factories in Northern England in 1812 and after smashed the new machines as they thought machines took away peoples jobs.

Willy Brandt

Willy Brandt was the first Social Democratic leader of West Germany and was key to the idea of the detenet which was the overall "thawing of the Cold war." One of his first major steps was going to Poland to lay honor a Polish soldiers rgave as well as a jewish memorial. HIm going to the Warsaw Ghetto and overall making a treaty with Polanda was all apart of his idea of Ostopolitik which was his idea of establishing peaceful relations in the EAst.

Immigation and Muslims

With mass immigration coming from the Middle East and North Africa, many europeans were worried about the Muslim population. They had grown to be the largest minority religion in Europe, and was showing no break in growing. Another issue was the fact that after 9/11 the worries over Islamic people were reaching greater heights as people feared terrorist attacks. Eeropeans also knew very little about Islam and its people most likely due to the fact that they were always separated, for instance France thought that banning the hijab was a smart idea.

Class Consciousness

With the construction of factories and overall new technology allowing people to communicate faster there arose a new concept. The concept was the idea of social classes and people identifying with them, in particular the working class. Thus the idea of class conflicts also arose with class consciousness, and would define many class strggles later on.

REichstag

With the formation of the German empire, a new parliamentary system was needed. Chancellor Bismarck usually didn''t listen or at didn't want to listen to the Reichstag, but was still important as he tried to control the poltiical allighnment of the tables. The two main powers in the Reichstag were the Catholic center, and the national liberals. Both parties needed to work together in order to improve Germanies economy.

The GReat Migration

With the growing industrialization and population many poorer families in Europe decided to move to the new territories captured under imperialism. THe result was poorer families flooded into America, South America, and areas in Africa. This event was a great blending of cultures which would lead to new ideas, and ehtnicities within regions.

World trade/market

With the industrial revolution nas well as the emrging new stlye of imperialism the world was more connected than ever. As such larger products were traded, and again the trade went around the globe. It could also be considered apart of dominating foreign countires economically, as the British could produce goods at cheaper rates as well as the fact that the Europeans usually invested money in foegin countries efffectively keeping them on a leash. The trade itself ivolved so many people, and countires that it was the dawn of a new era.

crop rotation

With the introduciton of new crops from all around the world, there was more room to experiment on what to plant in a section of land. Farmers as a result developed more complicated ways to organize which food was to be planted in a year. Theredore farmers started to rotate their crops, which actually llowed the soil to revoer many of its nutrients. WIth this sysem of crop rotation , there was a surplus of food that in turn allowed the animals a farmer had to grow each year.

Big Science

With the mulitple scientific discoveries of the war there arrived a new method to science. This method wsa known as big science in which a country in particular its government would basically give scientists free range to conduct research while being paid by the government. The process was very expensive, but for the time of the cold war seemed necessary as war seemed imminent. A major contribution to the development of science was the atomic bomb which saw again a great arms race to develop the greatest bomb.

GLobal Warming

With the use of fossil fuels, there has been a major amount of CO2 being brought into the atmosphere. Scientists are now realizing that these greenhouse gasses are warming the planet each year, and the temperature will continue to increse as long as fossil fuels are used at this rte Some European countries have already taken actions to try and prevent further emission by implementing new forms of energy. Some countries would include Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands.

Women in the Industrial Revolution

Women in the industrial revolution saw great changes in their role in life. At first they were involved in the new factories being evolved, but this lasted briefly. As time progessed they were forced to leave the new industries resulting in most women becoming house wives. Another result of the revolution included the fact that most women actually cared for their children more often than not.

World War II

World War II a direct result of the Great Depression and the Treaty of Versailles, and saw the rise of the dictators. The war started off with aggression from German who was headed by the Adolf Hitler who had the support of Japan and Benito Mussolini of Italy. The axis powers were dominating the world at the beginning of the war, but after the Americans came involved and Germany made mistakes the allies started to push back, The major allied powers were America and Britain as well as FRance, but they were already conquered at the beginning of the war. The war was one of the most vilent and costly wars in history, and in the en the allies beat back the Axis powers, but introduced an age of the cold war.