AP European History Exam Review

The Scientific Revolution Time period

1500-1800; the early modern period

Pugachev's Revolt, 1773-1775

1773-75 was the principal revolt in a series of popular rebellions that took place in Russia after Catherine II seized power in 1762. It began as an organized of a disaffected ex-lieutenant of the Russian Imperial army, against a background of profound peasant unrest and war with the Ottoman Empire. After the initial success, Pugachev assumed leadership of an alternative government in the name of the assassinated Tsar Peter III and proclaimed an end to serfdom. This organized leadership presented a challenge to the imperial administration of Catherine II.

Rural life in early modern Europe (1500-1650)

90% of Europeans lived an agricultural lifestyle; small towns and villages

How and why does the U.S. enter the war?

Anger over civilian losses on ships, like Lusitania; Zimmerman Note-sent to Mexico, claiming in exchange for their alliance, Germany would help Mexico reclaim land lost to the U.S.

Revolt in the Netherlands

As rebellion to Phillip's inquisition in the Low Countries, Calvinists revolted, breaking class and statues in the churches. This leads to a military invasion by the Spanish. This led to war that lasted over 80 years. After a 12 year truce, the state of Holland was given its independence, and eventually would economically rival Spain and Portugal.

The Spark

Assassination of Arch Duke Franz Ferdinand (June 28, 1914)

How did technology change exploration?

Astronomical findings aided navigation; materials used to make and maintain ships improved with the importation of pitch and tar from the East, and iron and copper from Scandinavia. They also are credited with inventing fly-boats, which were cheap to build and could be manned by a small crew.

What were the causes of the boom and bust cycles?

Booms were caused by growing cities due to industrialization; busts were caused by falling prices, downturns in productivity and declining profits. • How did they plan to fix this uncertainty? The Regulation of markets • Cartels: a formal, explicit agreement among competing firms. It is a formal organization of producers and manufacturers that agree to fix prices, marketing, and production.

What factors led to the formation of states 16th century?

Geography, population, and natural resources; structures that human activity is channeled; familial organization, wealth transmitted through the generations, social group formations and the beliefs of ordinary people.

Joseph II (1780-90)

Holy Roman Emperor from 1765 to 1790 and ruler of the Habsburg lands from 1780 to 1790. He was the eldest son of Empress Maria Theresa and her husband, Francis I, and was the brother of Marie Antoinette. He was thus the first ruler in the Austrian dominions of the House of Lorraine. Joseph was a proponent of enlightened absolutism; however, his commitment to modernizing reforms subsequently engendered significant opposition, which eventually culminated in an ultimate failure to fully implement his programs.

The 16th Century Household

Homes were inadequate shelter against cold and damp; most were built of wood and roofed in thatch. Inside walls were patched with dried mud and sometimes covered with bark or animal skins. Windows were few and narrow. People had relatively few household possessions. Essential piece of furniture was a chest-all the family's belongings could fit in the chest. Most other belongings were related to food production: spoons, boards, bowls, knives, spits and pots.

Anabaptists

Christians of the Radical Reformation of 16th century Europe. Although some consider the Anabaptist movement to be an offshoot of Protestantism, others see it as a distinct movement. "one who baptizes over again." This name was given them by their enemies in reference to the practice of "re-baptizing" converts who "already had been baptized" as infants.

Indulgences

Could be purchased for one's own use or th assist the souls of family members already in purgatory Papa 'pardoners' working on commission used high pressure sales pitches to sell indulgences across Europe.

Town Life (Early Modern Europe)

In the country, men and women worked with the natural rhythm of the day; in towns, the bell tolled every hour; wages were paid for hours of work, which there were more of in summer hours .Exchange was the medium that transformed labor and skill into food and shelter. Most town dwellers were unskilled laborers.

What was the impact of vernacular literature, such as the work of Dante and Chaucer, on society?

It allowed people to begin exploring the place of the individual within an increasingly complex society. Authors viewed the traditional values of society with a critical eye, reworking and transforming traditional literary genres into statements both personal and profound.

Life of the Nobles

Nobility was a legal status that conferred certain privileges; rank and title gave way to privileges, and nobles identified by their coat of arms. Elevation in rank was bestowed by the ruler. There were also economic privileges, such as exemption from taxation.

Germany (The Industrial Revolution)

Political Divisions Make Revolution Local • Most of Germany was agricultural land suited to a diversity of uses

Explain how and where the slave trade began

Portuguese explorers came into contact with Muslim traders along the African coast. They bartered for gold, ivory, and exotic spices, exchanging colorful cloth, metalwork and also slaves.

Role of the church

Religious appeal concerned fertility of land, animals and women; protection from climate and warrior elite, supernatural cures for ailments and disabilities of harsh life.

Life and religions under Mary Tudor, "Bloody Mary"

She renounced the Henrician and Edwardian changes, first by repealing her brother's reforms then by re-establishing unity with Rome. The Marian Persecutions of Protestants and dissenters took place at this time. The queen's image after the persecutions turned into that of an almost legendary tyrant called Bloody Mary. This view of Bloody Mary was mainly due to the widespread publication of Foxe's Book of Martyrs during her successor Elizabeth I's reign.

"God, Glory, and Gold"

Spanish motivation for exploration: Spread of Catholicism, the glory and honor of fighting for the nation, and the reward of treasures like gold from the pillaging and conquest of the natives.

What commodities did Europeans want from Asia?

Spices, Silk, coffee, jewels, jade, porcelain, dyes and a wide variety of exotic goods.

Crusades

Who are they fighting?' Muslims in the Holy Lands Outcome: Short-term victories-no major territorial or financial gains

Prussia (The Industrial Revolution)

The Zollverein •Creation of a unified trading zone between Prussia and smaller states; not free trade, but more liberal trade customs. Every state was paid based on its population, so all but Prussia increased their revenue.

Napoleon (1769-1821)

a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the latter stages of the French Revolution and its associated wars in Europe. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1814. He implemented a wide array of liberal reforms across Europe, including the abolition of feudalism and the spread of religious toleration.[2] His legal code in France, the Napoleonic Code, influenced numerous civil law jurisdictions worldwide. Napoleon is remembered for his role in leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars. He won the majority of his battles and seized control of most of continental Europe in a quest for personal power and to spread the ideals of the French Revolution. Widely regarded as one of the greatest commanders in history, his campaigns are studied at military academies worldwide. He remains one of the most studied political and military leaders in all of history • Continental System: the foreign policy of Napoleon I of France in his struggle against Great Britain during the Napoleonic Wars. As a response to the naval blockade of the French coasts enacted by the British government on 16 May 1806, Napoleon issued the Berlin Decree on 21 November 1806, which brought into effect a large-scale embargo against British trade. • Crowning by the Pope? 1804- Napoleon mimicked the rituals of kingship, and staged a coronation of himself and his wife, Josephine, at the Cathedral de Notre Dame in Paris. He took the crown from the hands of the Pope Pius VII and placed it upon his own head.-this symbolizes his implied power over the church. • Napoleonic Code: the French civil code established under Napoléon I in 1804. The code forbade privileges based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, and specified that government jobs should go to the most qualified. • Failure in Russia, defeat at Waterloo: The Russian army withdrew and retreated past Moscow. Napoleon entered the city, assuming its fall would end the war and Alexander would negotiate peace. However, on orders of the city's governor, rather than capitulation, Moscow was burned. After a month, concerned about loss of control back in France, Napoleon and his army left. The French suffered greatly in the course of a ruinous retreat, including from the harshness of the Russian Winter. The army had begun as over 400,000 frontline troops, but in the end fewer than 40,000 crossed the Berezina River in November 1812. The Russians had lost 150,000 in battle and hundreds of thousands of civilians. Defeat at Waterloo: fought on Sunday, 18 June 1815, near Waterloo in present-day Belgium, then part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. A French army under the command of Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated by the armies of the Seventh Coalition, comprising an Anglo-allied army under the command of the Duke of Wellington combined with a Prussian army under the command of Gebhard von Blücher.

Montesquieu

a French social commentator and political thinker who lived during the Age of Enlightenment. He is famous for his articulation of the theory of separation of powers, which is implemented in many constitutions throughout the world.

Adam Smith (1723-1790) & "Laissez-Faire"

a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economy. One of the key writings of the time, The Wealth of Nations, is considered the first modern work of economics. Smith is cited as the "father of modern economics" and is still among the most influential thinkers in the field of economics today. The phrase laissez-faire is French and literally means "let [them] do," but it broadly implies "let it be," "let them do as they will," or "leave it alone."

Hernando Cortez (1485-1547)

a Spanish Conquistador who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large portions of mainland Mexico under the rule of the King of Castile in the early 16th century. Cortés was part of the generation of Spanish colonizers that began the first phase of the Spanish colonization of the Americas. o Tenochtitlan: an Aztec city-state located on an island in Lake Texcoco, in the Valley of Mexico. Founded in 1325, it became the capital of the expanding Mexican Empire in the 15th century,until captured by the Spanish in 1521.

Francisco Pizarro (1475-1531)

a Spanish conquistador who conquered the Incan Empire. o Inca Capital: Cusco

The Franks

a confederation of Germanic tribes occupying land in 'France' in the 3rd century.

Carnival

a festive season which occurs immediately before Lent; the main events are usually during February. Carnival typically involves a public celebration or parade combining some elements of a circus, mask and public street party. People often dress up or masquerade during the celebrations, which mark an overturning of the norms of daily life

Salons

a gathering of people under the roof of an inspiring host, held partly to amuse one another and partly to refine the taste and increase the knowledge of the participants through conversation. Salons, commonly associated with French literary and philosophical movements of the 17th and 18th centuries, were carried on until quite recently in urban settings.

"I am the state" - Louis XIV

a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a major country in European history.

Absolutism

a monarchical form of government in which the monarch has absolute power among his or her people. An absolute monarch wields unrestricted political power over the sovereign state and its people. Absolute monarchies are often hereditary but other means of transmission of power are attested.

Reconquista

a period of approximately 781 years in the history of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain & Portugal), after the Islamic conquest in 711-718 to the fall of Granada, the last Islamic state on the peninsula, in 1492. It comes before the discovery of the New World, and the period of the Portuguese and Spanish colonial empires which followed.

Carolingian Renaissance

a period of cultural activity in the Carolingian Empire occurring from the late eighth century to the ninth century, as the first of three medieval renaissances. It occurred mostly during the reigns of the Carolingian rulers Charlemagne and Louis the Pious. An increase of literature, writing, the arts, architecture, liturgical reforms, and scriptural studies

Christian Humanism

emphasizes the humanity of Jesus, his social teachings and his propensity to synthesize human spirituality and materialism. It regards humanist principles like universal human dignity and individual freedom and the primacy of human happiness as essential and principal components of, or at least compatible with, the teachings of Jesus.

New Piety

a virtue that can mean religious devotion, spirituality, or a combination of both. A common element in most conceptions of piety is humility.

Sir Thomas More's Utopia

a work of fiction and political philosophy published in 1516 in Latin. The book is a frame narrative primarily depicting a fictional island society and its religious, social and political customs

Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

an English physicist and mathematician who is widely recognized as one of the most influential scientists of all time and as a key figure in the scientific revolution. Newton's Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, which dominated scientists' view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. It also demonstrated that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies could be described by the same principles. By deriving Kepler's laws of planetary motion from his mathematical description of gravity, and then using the same principles to account for the trajectories of comets and other phenomena, Newton removed the last doubts about the validity of the heliocentric model of the cosmos.

Galileo Galileo (1564-1642)

an Italian physicist, mathematician, engineer, astronomer, and philosopher who played a major role in the scientific revolution. His achievements include improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations and support for Copernicanism. Galileo has been called the "father of modern observational astronomy", the "father of modern physics", the "father of science",and "the Father of Modern Science".

The Spice Islands

an archipelago within Indonesia; the islands were also historically known as the "Spice Islands" by the Chinese and Europeans.

Guilds

an association of artisans or merchants who control the practice of their craft in a particular town. They were organized in a manner something between a professional association, trade union, a cartel, and a secret society.

Bartolomeu Dias (1450-1500)

nobleman of the Portuguese royal household, was a Portuguese explorer. He sailed around the southernmost tip of Africa in 1488, the first European known to have done so.

Tories

members of two political parties which existed, sequentially, in the Kingdom of England, the Kingdom of Great Britain and later the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from the 17th to the early 19th centuries. The first Tories emerged in 1678 in England, when they opposed the Whig-supported Exclusion Bill which set out to disinherit the heir presumptive James, Duke of York (who eventually became James II and VII).

Progress

movement forward; developed by Marquis de Condorcet in The Progress of the Human Mind , which he developed an almost evolutionary view of human development from a savage state of nature to a future of harmony and peace

Linear Perspective

technique applying principles of geometry to create the illusion of depth and dimension on a flat surface.

Rump Parliament

the English Parliament after Colonel Pride purged the Long Parliament on 6 December 1648 of those members hostile to the Grandees' intention to try King Charles I for high treason.

Frederick William I (1713-40)

the King in Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg from 1713 until his death. He concerned himself with every aspect of his relatively small country, planning to satisfy all that was needed for Prussia to defend itself. His rule was absolutist and he was a firm autocrat. He practiced rigid economy, never started a war, and at his death there was a large surplus in the royal treasury (which was kept in the cellar of the royal palace). He intervened briefly in the Great Northern War but gained little territory. More significantly, the 'Soldier-King' had made considerable reforms to the Prussian army's training, tactics and conscription program- leaving his son Friedrich with a formidable weapon to build Prussia's power.

Luther appears at the Diet of Worms, 1521

o Excommunicated by Pope Leo X o Ordered to condemn ideas by Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor, Catholic), Luther's Response? He refused to recant

Henry IV (Henry of Navarre)

o Famous Quote: "Paris is worth a mass" o Edict of Nantes, 1598: Issued on 13 April 1598, by Henry IV of France, granted the Calvinist Protestants of substantial rights in a nation still considered essentially Catholic

Governing of Europe (early middle ages)

the aristocracy and kind had to share an uneasy partnership

Life in Europe at the turn of the century!

o How did having disposable income change the lives of Europeans? People could spend money on leisure o What were the leisure activities at the end of the 18th and start of the 19th centuries? Shopping, vacations, organized sports, Scouting, Cycling

Magna Carta

the first document forced onto a King of England by a group of his subjects in an attempt to limit his powers by law and protect their rights. The charter is widely known as an important part of the protracted historical process that led to the rule of constitutional law in England and beyond.

House of Commons

the lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which, like the House of Lords (the upper house), meets in the Palace of Westminster. The Commons is an elected body consisting of 650 members known as members of parliament (MPs). Members are elected to represent constituencies by first-past-the-post and hold their seats until Parliament is dissolved.

Absolutism in France

o Raison d'état: 'reason of state' placing the needs of the nation above the privileges of its most important people. o Intendants: used in several countries through history. Traditionally, it refers to the holder of a public administrative office. o Louis XIV, tutored by Mazarin- Describe how they develop an absolute state in France. Mazarin was an excellent administrator who learned well from the lessons of raison d'état. Louis set the tone himself for French absolutism. o Jean-Baptiste Colbert: Louis XIV's finance minister. He developed a plan to bolster the French economy by protecting it against European imports. He also used tariffs to make imported goods unattractive to France. o Describe the Court at Versailles: Everything about Versailles was majestic. Nobles were required to attend court, and the palace itself was built on a scale never seen before. Louis established a court etiquette that nobles were constantly studying in order to avoid humiliation. The French language replaced Latin as the universal tongue. France was the richest and most populous nation.

Luther's Faith

o Sola Fida: "by faith alone" asserts God's pardon for guilty sinners is granted to and received through faith o Sola Scriptura: the doctrine that the Bible contains all knowledge necessary for salvation and holiness

Penance & Confession

punishment that could take the form of fasting, prayer or performance of a good deed. Failing to do penance on Earth could force sinners to endure a period in purgatory before being admitted to heaven.

"It will be over by Christmas!"

the war was thought to be quick and decisive

Columbian Exchange

the widespread exchange of animals, plants, culture, human populations, communicable diseases, technology and ideas between the American and Afro-Eurasian hemispheres following the voyage to the Americas by Christopher Columbus in 1492, colonization and trade by Europeans in the Americas, and institution of the slave trade in Africa and the Americas.

Appeasement

the willingness to concede to demands in order to preserve peace • Munich, 1938: Sudetenland is given to Germany • But Hitler wanted Poland, and appeasement was not going to work!

Politiques

those in a position of power who put the success and well-being of their state above all else. During the Wars of Religion, this included moderates of both religious faiths (Huguenots and Catholics) who held that only the restoration of a strong monarchy could save France from total collapse, as rulers would often overlook religious differences in order to have a strong country

Conquistadores

were soldiers, explorers, and adventurers at the service of the Portuguese Empire and the Spanish Empire. They sailed beyond Europe, conquering territory and opening trade routes. They colonized much of the world for Portugal and Spain in the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries.

On the Brink of War

• Axis Powers: Germany, Italy, Japan • Allied Powers: British Empire, France (for a short time), Soviet Union, United States

Post War Decisions

• Big Three: Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin • Potsdam (August 1945): Disarm Germany, divide & occupy by the allied nations. • League of Nations • Stalin planned to keep land in Eastern Europe; he was already there with troops and had no intentions of leaving.

Soviet Policies

• Brezhnev Doctrine (1966-82): policy whereby the Soviet Union claimed the right to interfere in the internal affairs of Eastern Bloc nations in order to prevent counter-revolution. • Détente: 1970s, period of cooperation between the U.S. and USSR o Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT 1): limited defensive antiballistic missile systems • 1980s increased nuclear tension between the superpowers; U.S. Strategic Defense Initiative i.e. "Star Wars" • Growing Soviet Dissent: o Samizdat: dissent communication materials written in the USSR

Japan & Southeast Asia

• Briefly explain the impact of colonization on the region and the people. France, Great Britain and the US established a center of power throughout southeast Asia and sought a balance of strength there to complement their global efforts to keep one of them from getting ahead of the others. Many countries introduced new forms of government and oversaw economic growth.

The Soviet Union under Gorbachev

• Perestroika: program which included the restructuring of the economy and political system (1986) • Glasnost: opened up the Soviet economy and daily lives of the people (1988) o Major change: Greater freedom of speech and press were introduced • Economic Problems: o Citizens were better taken care of then previous generations, but economic growth had nearly stopped. o Old System of Production: Quantity over Quality o Other Problems: Lacked new technology, shortages of foodstuffs and raw materials, outdated industries, heavy pollution, unproductive industries • Boris Yeltsin- fellow communist o Believed Gorbachev did not go far or fast enough with his economic reforms • Changes under Gorbachev: o Limited open market free of state controls for manufacturing o Loosened restrictions on foreign trade o Encouraged development in the private sector o Decentralized economic decision making for agriculture and service sector

Ethnic Conflict

• Problem w/Nationalities: o Claim of self-determination by Soviet minorities further weakened the USSR o 1979 census: 102 nationalities! o 22 had populations of 1 million or more • Three Major Areas of Conflict: Central Asia, Armenia, Baltic States

"Un roi, une foi, une loi!"

"One King, One Faith, One Law" The Edict of Saint-Germain was a decree of tolerance promulgated by the regent ,Catherine de' Medici, in January 1562. It provided limited tolerance of Protestantism in her Roman Catholic realms, especially in relation to the French Huguenots. Declared that two religions could not exist in France

The English Civil War

"The James Sandwich" --> 17th Century (The issue, religion!)

Mundus Novus

"The New World"; one of the names used for the Western Hemisphere, specifically the Americas

Aristotle's Cosmology

Aristotle's understanding of the universe heavens were unchangeable; sun, moon and planets were al faultless spheres. Their motion was circular , and the earth was at the center of the universe because it was the heaviest planet, and it was the center of the Great Chain of Being. It also easily incorporated Christian beliefs. o Why did people question his ideas during the scientific revolution? There was not a reasonable explanation as to why the seasons were not perfectly equal, and there were times that the planets and moon looked further away than at other times.

Italian City-States

They differed in size, shape and form. Some were large seaports, others were small inland villages. The absence of a unifying central authority allowed self-governing societies to rule.

How and why were people living longer and better lives by the 18th century?

Fertility was increasing, decreasing mortality due to less warfare. This trickled down to less damage caused by war, less pillage of crops and less shortages of food. Disease epidemics lessened as well; the practice of quarantining helped to eradicate many diseases. Urban sanitation, the use of trained doctors and nurses, along with agricultural improvements allowed a rise in fertility and a decrease in mortality.

Battle on the Ocean

Only major battle on water was the Battle of Jutland in 1916. o U-Boats (Unterseebooten): military submarines operated by Germany, particularly in World War I and World War II. Although at times they were efficient fleet weapons against enemy naval warships, they were most effectively used in an economic warfare role (commerce raiding), enforcing a naval blockade against enemy shipping.

Deists

People that believe that reason and observation of the natural world are sufficient to determine the existence of a Creator, accompanied with the rejection of revelation and authority as a source of religious knowledge. Deism gained prominence in the 17th and 18th centuries during the Age of Enlightenment—especially in Britain, France, Germany, and the United States—among intellectuals raised as Christians who believed in one god, but found fault with organized religion and did not believe in supernatural events such as miracles.

Materialism

The realization that the universe is composed of matter in motion; this revelation meant that that stars and planets were not some perfect ethereal substance but of the same matter found on earth. Subject to the same rules of motion as the earthly objects were.

Charles I

monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. After his succession, Charles quarreled with the Parliament of England, which sought to curb his royal prerogative. Charles believed in the divine right of kings and thought he could govern according to his own conscience. Many of his subjects opposed his policies, in particular the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent, and perceived his actions as those of a tyrannical absolute monarch. His religious policies, coupled with his marriage to a Roman Catholic, generated the antipathy and mistrust of reformed groups such as the Puritans and Calvinists, who thought his views too Catholic. From 1642, Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War. After his defeat in 1645, he surrendered to a Scottish force that eventually handed him over to the English Parliament. Charles refused to accept his captors' demands for a constitutional monarchy, and temporarily escaped captivity in November 1647. Re-imprisoned on the Isle of Wight, Charles forged an alliance with Scotland, but by the end of 1648 Oliver Cromwell's New Model Army had consolidated its control over England. Charles was tried, convicted, and executed for high treason in January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and a republic called the Commonwealth of England was declared. In 1660, the English Interregnum ended when the monarchy was restored to Charles's son, Charles II. o Puritans: members of a group of English Protestants seeking "purity", further reforms or even separation from the established church, during the Reformation. The group is also extended to include some early colonial American ministers and important lay-leaders.

Russian Revolution

• Describe the state of Russia in 1914. Why were the people of Russia so angry and ready to revolt? They were considered backward compared to the standards of Western Europe; There was still peasant 'hunger' for land, and unrest among the factory workers • Soviets: a name used for several Russian political organizations. Examples include the Czar's Council of Ministers, which was called the "Soviet of Ministers"; a workers' local council in late Imperial Russia; and the Supreme Soviet, the bicameral parliament of the Soviet Union. • Mensheviks: a faction of the Russian socialist movement that emerged in 1904 after a dispute in the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party between Vladimir Lenin and Julius Martov, leading to the party splitting into two factions, one being the Mensheviks and the other being the Bolsheviks. • Bolsheviks: (Led by Lenin) a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labor Party(RSDLP) which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903.The Bolsheviks were the majority faction in a crucial vote, hence their name. They ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917, and founded the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic which would later become the chief constituent of the Soviet Union in 1922. • April Theses: a series of directives issued by the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin upon his return to Petrograd (Saint Petersburg), Russia from his exile in Switzerland. The Theses were mostly aimed at fellow Bolsheviks in Russia and returning to Russia from exile. He called for soviets (workers' councils) to take power (as seen in the slogan "all power to the soviets"), denounced liberals and social democrats in the Provisional Government, called for Bolsheviks not to cooperate with the government, and called for new communist policies. The April Theses influenced the July Days and October Revolution in the next months and are identified with Leninism. • The October Revolution: a seizure of state power instrumental in the larger Russian Revolution of 1917. It took place with an armed insurrection in Petrograd traditionally dated to 25 October 1917. The revolution was led by the Bolsheviks, who used their influence in the Petrograd Soviet to organize the armed forces. Bolshevik Red Guards forces under the Military Revolutionary Committee began the takeover of government buildings on 24 October 1917The following day, the Winter Palace (the seat of the Provisional government located in Petrograd, then capital of Russia), was captured. • Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: a peace treaty signed on March 3, 1918, between the new Bolshevik government of Russia(the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic) and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey), that ended Russia's participation in World War I. The treaty was signed at Brest-Litovsk (now Brest, Belarus) after two months of negotiations. The treaty was forced on the Soviet government by the threat of further advances by German and Austrian forces. By the treaty, Soviet Russia defaulted on Imperial Russia's commitments to the Triple Entente alliance.

The Golden Bull

(1356) was a decree issued at Nuremberg headed by Emperor Charles IV which fixed, for a period of more than four hundred years, important aspects of the constitutional structure of the Holy Roman Empire. It was named the Golden Bull for the golden seal it carried.

Big Five Powers in 1871

, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia • Three Emperors' League (1873): an alliance between Germany, Russia and Austria-Hungary, from 1873 to 1887. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck took full charge of German foreign policy from 1870 to his dismissal in 1890. His goal was a peaceful Europe, based on the balance of power. Bismarck feared that a hostile combination of Austria, France and Russia would crush Germany. Together they would control Eastern Europe, making sure that restive ethnic groups such as the Poles were kept in control. The Balkans posed a more serious issue, and Bismarck's solution was to give Austria predominance in the western areas, and Russia in the eastern areas.

Two stages of the French Revolution

1. 1789-1792 based on liberty to compete, succeed , and own 2. 1792-171794 equality as a rallying cry, turned to violence (very different tone)

Stages of the Revolution

1. Calling of the Estates General, May 1789: the first meeting since 1614 of the French Estates-General, a general assembly representing the French estates of the realm: the clergy (First Estate), the nobles (Second Estate), and the common people (Third Estate). Summoned by King Louis XVI to propose solutions to his government's financial problems, the EstatesGeneral sat for several weeks in May and June 1789 but came to an impasse over the first item on the agenda, whether they should vote by estate, giving the first two estates an advantage, which was the king's choice, or vote all together, giving the Third Estate the advantage. It was brought to an end when the Third Estate formed into a National Assembly, inviting the other two to join, against the wishes of the king, signaling the outbreak of the French Revolution. 2. National Assembly: existed from June 13, 1789 to July 9, 1789, was a revolutionary assembly formed by the representatives of the Third Estate of the Estates-General; thereafter (until replaced by the Legislative Assembly on Sept. 30, 1791). 3. July 14, 1789: Storming of the Bastille; occurred in Paris, France on the morning of 14 July 1789. The medieval fortress and prison in Paris known as the Bastille represented royal authority in the center of Paris. The prison only contained seven inmates at the time of its storming but was a symbol of the abuses of the monarchy: its fall was the flashpoint of the French Revolution. 4. The Great Fear: occurred between 17 July - 3 August 1789 in France at the start of the French Revolution. These peasant rebellions helped cause a subsequent general panic known as the "Great Fear". Rural unrest had been present in France since the worsening grain shortage of the spring, and fueled by the rumors of an aristocrat "famine plot" to starve or burn out the population, peasant and town people mobilized in many regions. In response to rumors, fearful peasants armed themselves in self-defense and, in some areas, attacked manor houses. The content of the rumors differed from region to region -- in some areas it was believed that a foreign force were burning the crops in the fields while in other areas it was believed that bandits were burning buildings. Fear of the peasant revolt was a deciding factor in the decision to abolish feudalism. 5. Women March to Versailles: one of the earliest and most significant events of the French Revolution. The march began among women in the marketplaces of Paris who, on the morning of 5 October 1789, were near rioting over the high price and scarcity of bread. Their demonstrations quickly became intertwined with the activities of revolutionaries who were seeking liberal political reforms and a constitutional monarchy for France. The market women and their various allies grew into a mob of thousands and, encouraged by revolutionary agitators, they ransacked the city armory for weapons and marched to the Palace of Versailles. The crowd besieged the palace and in a dramatic and violent confrontation they successfully pressed their demands upon King Louis XVI. The next day, the crowd compelled the king, his family, and most of the French Assembly to return with them to Paris. 6. Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen: a fundamental document of the French Revolution and in the history of human rights. It defines the individual and collective rights of all the estates of the realm as universal. Influenced by the doctrine of "natural right", the rights of man are held to be universal: valid at all times and in every place, pertaining to human nature itself. It became the basis for a nation of free individuals protected equally by law. 7. King & Queen Captured: Late June, 1791 Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette took their children and disguised themselves as commoners. They crept out of the royal apartments at the Tuilerie palace, and fled Paris. They got as far as Varennes, near the border, but were captured by soldiers and brought back to Paris. 8. Sans-Culottes & Culottes: were the radical left-wing partisans of the lower classes; typically urban laborers, which dominated France. Though ill-clad and ill-equipped, they made up the bulk of the Revolutionary army during the early years of the French Revolutionary Wars. The appellation refers to the fashionable culottes (silk knee-breeches) of the moderate bourgeois revolutionaries, as distinguished from the working class sans-culottes, who traditionally wore pantaloons (trousers). 9. Jacobins & Girodins: A Jacobin is someone who supports a centralized Republic, with power made at the national level in contemporary usage. At its inception during the French Revolution, the term was popularly applied to all supporters of revolutionary opinions. Specifically, it was used to describe members of the Jacobin Club, a revolutionary political movement that had been the most famous political club of the French Revolution. The Girodins were a political faction in France in 1792-93 within the Legislative Assembly and the National Convention during the French Revolution. They campaigned for the end of the monarchy but then resisted the spiraling momentum of the Revolution. 10. Robespierre & the Reign of Terror: Robespierre was a French lawyer and politician, and one of the best-known and most influential figures of the French Revolution. The Reign of Terror was a period of violence that occurred after the onset of the French Revolution, incited by conflict between rival political factions, the Girondins and the Jacobins, and marked by mass executions of "enemies of the revolution". The death toll ranged in the tens of thousands, with 16,594 executed by guillotine (2,639 in Paris), and another 25,000 in summary executions across France. 11. Thermidorian Reaction: a revolt in the French Revolution against the excesses of the Reign of Terror. It was triggered by a vote of the National Convention to execute Maximilien Robespierre and several other leading members of the Terror. This ended the most radical phase of the French Revolution. 12. The Directory: the government of France during the second to last stage of the French Revolution. It was a body of five directors that held power following the National Convention and preceding the Consulate. It lasted 2 November 1795 until 10 November 1799, a period commonly known as the "Directory era." It was overthrown by Napoleon.

New Problems Emerge After the War

1. Victorious nations tried to create peace and stability, yet they failed to realize the following issues: a. The instability of new states due to national self-determination, idea that nationalities had the right to rule themselves b. Struggle for economic prosperity. c. Common border tensions; peace settlements made no one happy. 2. Weimar Republic Created in Germany in 1919 a. Liberal and democratic, constitution was unusually progressive b. Very little damage was done to Germany infrastructure because the war was fought in France c. Treaty of Versailles: loss of territory (Saar, Alsace & Lorraine, Rhineland demilitarized), reparations payments, and disarmament left German leaders feeling as though they could not restore the greatness of Germany. 3. Hopes for Peace a. Locarno Treaties- Germany, France, Belgium, and Italy all made promises for no future wars b. Maginot Line- defensive fortifications built between Germany & France c. League of Nations- hoped to stop future aggression in Europe. d. Kellogg-Briand Pact- Renounced war! 4. The Collapse of the World Economy a. Germany Reparations Payments $32 Billion b. Dawes Plan- realistic schedule for payments developed by the U.S. c. Young Plan- transferred $100 million to Germany, but payments were still humiliating to Germany d. The Great Depression Dependence on the American Economy world wide 5. The Soviet Union: Poverty & the need to Industrialize a. New Economic Policy, 1921-28 i. Foreign Investment was needed ii. Agricultural production was moved toward a more capitalist system iii. Not moving toward collective farming... iv. Lenin got sick & the farmers could not keep up with the demands of the people, & then the depression began b. Joseph Stalin, ruled from 1928-1953 i. First Five Year Plan, 1929-32 1. Rapid Industrialization 2. Collectivization of Farms, Poor treatment of the Kulaks ii. The Comintern & Second Five Year Plan (1933-37) 1. Revolution across Europe was not imminent 2. Industrialization continued, large urban centers developed iii. The Great Purge, 1934-38 1. All enemies/opponents were destroyed 2. Got rid of old Bolsheviks party members 3. About 300,000 were killed by Stalin's purges iv. Soviet Life 1. Women: Expected to work at home and in the factory 2. Hard, difficult life consisted of long working days 6. Fascist Italy a. Fascism: totalitarian political system that glorifies the state and totally subordinates the individual to the state's needs b. Why following this idea? Because it promised a way out of economic and political chaos of the 1930s i. March on Rome (1922): marked the end of parliamentary government ii. Il Duce (the leader), Benito Mussolini fascist dictator of Italy c. Mussolini's Plans for Italy i. Conquered Libya & Ethiopia League of Nations did NOTHING ii. October 1936: Rome-Berlin Axis w/ Germany iii. Life in Fascist Italy: Citizens lived their lives for the state! 7. Hitler & Nazi Germany a. Nazism: National Socialism- glorification of the state, emphasized anti-liberal values, perused politics of violence i. Beer Hall Putsch, 1923 ii. President Paul von Hindenburg puts Hitler into power iii. Third Reich- 1st was the Holy Roman Empire, 2nd was created by Bismarck iv. SA (Sturmabteilung)- Under Ernest Röhm, eliminated enemies of the party b. Propaganda of the State: i. Joseph Goebbels- mastermind of the propaganda used by the party ii. Education of children iii. Expectations of Women: Take care of the family, have children, run the household iv. Expectations of Men: Work and fight for the state c. Treatment of the Jews & Others: i. 1930s: Mentally ill and mentally disabled targeted by the party ii. Concentration Camps Built enemies of the state iii. Nuremberg Laws (1935): Jews identified, took away their citizenship, etc. iv. Kristallnacht (Nov. 9, 1938): "Night of Broken Class" v. Nazi Ideology: The Aryan Race, others needed to be eliminated 8. Democracies in Crisis: a. France: A Nation Divided i. Popular Front, led by Léon Blum - Socialist Party ii. Germany began to rearm, causing France to do the same iii. War began with France divided politically b. Great Britain i. British Union of Fascists (BUF) 1. Shared similar ideas of other fascists parties in France, even persecution of the Jews 2. BUF was outlawed in 1936- Anti-Hitler feelings were spreading in Great Britain c. Spain i. Popular Front of Spain, much more radical then the party in France ii. Supported the Republicans and the Spanish Republic and a social revolution in Spain 1. This started the Civil War iii. Spanish Civil War, 1936-39 1. General Francisco Franco- conservative nationalist allied with the Falange, the fascist party 2. Hitler & Mussolini sent troops and weapons to the Nationalists (Franco) a. War became a testing ground for new weapons, The Scream from Guernica 3. Soviet Union assisted the Republic/Popular Front 4. Britain & France were too divided internally to get involved. 5. U.S. volunteered to assist the Republicans/Popular Front 6. Outcome: Nationalists/Franco Victorious

The Glorious Revolution

1688, William of Orange & Mary Stuart proclaimed king & queen of England • 1689: Declaration of the Rights, signed before William & Mary could take power • Creates a constitutional monarchy in England!

War of Spanish Succession

1702-1714- French & Spanish, over territorial claims & inheritance of the throne people didn't want to see the thrones of Spain & France united o Treaty of Utrecht, 1713-1714: ¼ century of peace in Europe!--> Great Britain gained the most, Spain was too weak, but France became Britain's commercial/colonial rival.

Pragmatic Sanction

: an edict issued by Charles VI on 19 April 1713, to ensure that the Habsburg hereditary possessions could be inherited by a daughter. The Head of the House of Habsburg bore ruled the Archduchy of Austria, the Kingdom of Hungary, the Kingdom of Bohemia, Italian territories (Milan, Parma and Tuscany), and the Austrian Netherlands. The Pragmatic Sanction did not affect the office of Holy Roman Emperor; even though successive Habsburg rulers had headed the Holy Roman Empire continuously for centuries, the Imperial crown remained elective, not hereditary.

Great Chain of Being

A concept that details a strict, religious hierarchical structure of all matter and life, believed to have been decreed by God. The chain starts from God and progresses downward to angels, demons (fallen/renegade angels), stars, moon, kings, princes, nobles, men, wild animals, domesticated animals, trees, other plants, precious stones, precious metals, and other minerals

Describe the role of the community to the lives of 16th century Europeans

Bound together by the authorities that who ruled them and by their common activities: the annual perambulation, ceremonial processions, weddings and festivals, like Carnival and the rights of May. These helped to maintain the sense of community that might be weakened during the long, cold months of winter.

The family

Center of Life in the 16th Century o In what ways was the family an economic unit? Taxation was based on the households; it was the basic unit for production accumulation and transmission of wealth. Every member had a function that was essential to the families' succcess o Describe the social makeup of the family unit. Life is centered on the family; it was a crucial organizing principle for social rank. Children were educated and the social values of hierarchy and discipline were taught. Children owed obedience to their parents. Single men were seen as potential criminals, and single women were potential prostitutes. o Describe a typical family and the roles of men & women. Families were not large; typical families were made of two adults and three to four children. Women took care of the children, the household, animals, the education of the children the manufacturing and cleaning of clothes and sold goods. Men were more public: working in fields, markets or performing labor.

1917

U.S enters the war and the Russians pull out --> change the course of the war

The Great Schism - Impact on Western Christendom?

Divided Western Christiandom; a split within the Catholic Church from 1378 to 1418. Several men simultaneously claimed to be the true pope. Driven by politics rather than any theological disagreement, the schism was ended by the Council of Constance (1414-1418). The rival claims to the papal chair hurt the reputation of the office.

New Monarchies

During the first stages of 'nation building', political leaders consolidated territories were divided culturally, linguistically and historically.

Physiocrat

Economists that developed and believed in an economic theory that the wealth of nations was derived solely from the value of "land agriculture" or "land development" and that agricultural products should be highly priced. Their theories originated in France and were most popular during the second half of the 18th century. Physiocracy is perhaps the first welldeveloped theory of economics.

Elizabethan England

Elizabeth became a determined opponent of papal control and re-introduced separatist ideas. In 1559, Parliament recognized Elizabeth as the Church's supreme governor, with a new Act of Supremacy that also repealed the remaining anti-Protestant legislation. A new Book of Common Prayer appeared in the same year. Elizabeth presided over the "Elizabethan Settlement", an attempt to satisfy the Puritan and Catholic forces in England within a single national Church. Elizabeth was eventually excommunicated on 25 February 1570 by Pope Pius V, finally breaking communion between Rome and the Anglican Church.

Explain the ways in which the state and private groups began to help the poor at this time.

Foundling hospitals for unwed or poor mothers to leave their children at; hospitals, workhouses and prisons were built to deal with those in society who were poor.

Provincialism (France)

France was made up of nobles who were semi-independent princes with constant rivals for the throne and consistent opponents of the extension of royal power. The French were suspicious of the pretensions of the monarchy. People have fierce pride of and loyalty toward local customs and institutions that had deep roots within communities. There were profound regional differences divided by language and culture.

Josheph II & the Patent of Toleration, 1781

Holy Roman Emperor from 1765 to 1790 and ruler of the Habsburg lands from 1780 to 1790. He was the eldest son of Empress Maria Theresa and her husband, Francis I, and was the brother of Marie Antoinette. He was thus the first ruler in the Austrian dominions of the House of Lorraine. Joseph was a proponent of enlightened absolutism; however, his commitment to modernizing reforms subsequently engendered significant opposition, which eventually culminated in an ultimate failure to fully implement his programs. In 1781 he issued the Patent of Toleration, which granted freedom of worship to Protestants and members of the Eastern Orthodox Church

Enclosure

In English social and economic history, it is the process which ends traditional rights such as mowing meadows for hay, or grazing livestock on common land formerly held in the open field system. Once enclosed, these uses of the land become restricted to the owner, and it ceases to be land for commons.

How is the Northern Renaissance different from the Italian?

Italian Renaissance came first and focused on humanism, which is glorifying man and focuses on human values, The Italian Renaissance, referred back to the classical styles of the Greeks, making ideal images. The Northern Renaissance however approached at a much slower rate and can also be classified as Late Gothic. Unlike the secular styles that the southern art sometimes portrayed, the Northern art stayed focused more on religion. These pieces used a lot of iconography to display symbolism in there works. Also different types of medians were used. The Italian's used a lot of Fresco which is actually mixing the dyes of the paint with the plaster in the wall as it dried to paint a mural, versus just painting on the exterior of the plaster itself. The northerners painted on a lot of wood.

Frederick II, "The Great" (1740-86)

King in Prussia (1740-1786) of the Hohenzollern dynasty.[1] He is best known for his military victories, his reorganization of Prussian armies, his innovative drills and tactics, and his final success against great odds in the Seven Years' War. Upon ascending to the Prussian throne, he attacked Austria and claimed Silesia during the Silesian Wars, winning military acclaim for himself and Prussia. Near the end of his life, Frederick physically connected most of his realm by conquering Polish territories in the First Partition of Poland. He was an influential military theorist whose analysis emerged from his extensive personal battlefield experience and covered issues of strategy, tactics, mobility and logistics. Frederick was a proponent of enlightened absolutism. He modernized the Prussian bureaucracy and civil service and pursued religious policies throughout his realm that ranged from tolerance to oppression.

James II

King of England and Ireland as James II and King of Scotland as James VII, from 6 February 1685 until he was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. He was the last Roman Catholic monarch to reign over the Kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland. The second son of Charles I, he ascended the throne upon the death of his brother, Charles II. Members of Britain's political and religious elite increasingly suspected him of being pro-French and pro-Catholic and of having designs on becoming an absolute monarch. When he produced a Catholic heir, the tension exploded, and leading nobles called on his Protestant son-in-law and nephew, William III of Orange, to land an invasion army from the Netherlands, which he did. James fled England (and thus was held to have abdicated) in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. He was replaced by his Protestant elder daughter, Mary II, and her husband, William III.

Charlemagne

King of the Franks from 768, the King of Italy from 774, and from 800 the first emperor in western Europe since the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. The expanded Frankish state he founded is called the Carolingian Empire.

Explain how concept of marriage and family had changed since the 16th and 17th centuries.

Love between husband and wife, and the bond between parents and children, grew.

What was the relationship between magical & Christian beliefs in Early Modern Europe?

Many beliefs seemed mere superstitions, which allowed people to have realistic explanations of the natural world. The beliefs did not oppose each other they existed on a continuum and were practiced simultaneously.

What were the "new staples" during the 18th century?

New crops that helped to nourish people: Indian corn (maize) and the potato; crops were sent to market faster, and there was a climate shift that increased the temperatures and, along new techniques, new crops and expanded cultivation, fed more people than ever before.

Importance of Agriculture

Peasant life centered on agriculture o Three-Field Rotation: a regime of crop rotation in use in medieval and early-modern Europe from around the time of Charlemagne. Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of dissimilar/different types of crops in the same area in sequential seasons. Under this system, the arable land of an estate or village was divided into three large fields: one was planted in the autumn with winter wheat or rye; the second field was planted with other crops such as peas, lentils, or beans; and the third was left fallow, in order to allow the soil of that field to regain its nutrients. o Two-Crop Rotation: Under a two-field rotation, half the land was planted in a year, while the other half lay fallow. Then, in the next year, the two fields were reversed. Favored in Mediterranean climates. o Animal Husbandry: the management and care of farm animals by humans for profit, in which genetic qualities and behavior, considered to be advantageous to humans, are further developed. The term can refer to the practice of selectively breeding and raising livestock to promote desirable traits in animals for utility, sport, pleasure, or research. o Seigneur: the name formerly given in France to someone who had been granted a fief by the crown, with all its associated rights over person and property. This form of lordship was called seigneurie, the rights that the seigneur was entitled to were called seigneuriage, and the seigneur himself was the seigneur justicier, because he exercised greater or lesser jurisdiction over his fief.

Impact of Exploration on the Native Populations

Populations were reduced due to exposure to European diseases like smallpox, typhoid and measles. The people were conquered, their cities taken and their resources, like gold, exploited.

France (The Industrial Revolution)

Revolution is Slow & Steady! • Possessed a pool of highly skilled and highly productive labor, a manufacturing tradition oriented toward the creation of high0quality goods and consumers who valued taste and fashion over cost and function. • Moderate population growth; highly organized internal trade • Did not experience the problems that come with growth to big cities: poverty, squalor and homelessness.

What were the French and Russians doing in the years before the war?

Russia's military mobilized if war broke out with Austria Hungary; The French concentrated troops in one area, which ended up being their weakness when the war broke out.

Life of the Serfs under landowners (Early middle ages)

Serfs are tied to the land; the household is the basic unit of their economy

The Dreyfus Affair

Started with the conviction for treason of Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a young French artillery officer of Alsatian Jewish descent. Sentenced to life imprisonment for allegedly having communicated French military secrets to the German Embassy in Paris. The political scandal divided France from the affair's inception in 1894 until its resolution in 1906. The affair is often seen as a modern and universal symbol of injustice for reasons of state and remains one of the most striking examples of a complex miscarriage of justice where a major role was played by the press and public opinion. o Anti-Semitism: prejudice, hatred of, or discrimination against Jews as a national, ethnic, religious or racial group. o Pogroms: a violent riot aimed at massacre or persecution of an ethnic or religious group, particularly one aimed at Jews. The term originally entered the English language to describe 19th- and 20th-century; similar attacks against Jews at other times and places also became retrospectively known as pogroms. The word is now also sometimes used to describe publicly sanctioned purgative attacks against non-Jewish ethnic or religious groups. o Zionism: the national movement of Jews and Jewish culture that supports the creation of a Jewish homeland in the territory defined as the Land of Israel.

Great Britain in the mid-1800s

Strong economy & social harmony w/out revolution or civil war. • William Gladstone (1809-1898) classical liberal, believed in free enterprise & opposed state intervention • Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881) State should correct & protect; intervention was necessary

Rise of Sweden

Sweden had been a part of the Scandinavian confederation ruled by the Danes. The beginning of the Empire is usually taken as the reign of Gustavus Adolphus, who ascended the throne in 1611, and the end as the loss of territories in 1721 following the Great Northern War. As a result of acquiring territories seized from Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as well as its involvement in the Thirty Years' War, Sweden found itself transformed into the leader of Protestantism

Impact of Witchcraft

The Malleus Maleficarum is a treatise on the prosecution of witches, written in 1486 by Heinrich Kramer, a German Catholic clergyman. The main purpose of the Malleus was to systematically refute arguments claiming that witchcraft does not exist, to discredit those who expressed skepticism about its reality, to claim that those who practiced witchcraft were more often women than men, and to educate magistrates on the procedures that could find them out and convict them.

Describe the factors led to the rise of Muscovy in the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

The Muscovy established itself as the ancient heir to Russia through conquest, shrewd political alliances and the good fortune of leaders with long reigns. Many military successes that allowed expansion. Deterioration of the Mongol empire allowed Ivan III to be released from their control; the fall of Constantinople made Muscovy the heir to eastern Christianity. Ivan's marriage to Sophia, the niece of the last emperor of Byzantium, brought connections to Italian artisans and Byzantine customs.

Kings and Diets in Poland

The Polish Diet was a parliamentary body that represented the Polish landed elite. They also controlled religious policy. Catholicism was the principal religion, but protestant and eastern creeds were tolerated.

"Miracle of the Marne"

The allies gained a strategic victory in the First Battle of the Marne by resisting German advance.

Giro Banking

The basic concept is that of a banking system not based on checks, but rather by direct transfer between accounts. If the accounting office is centralized, then transfers between accounts can happen simultaneously. Money could be paid in or withdrawn from the system at any post office, and later connections to the commercial banking systems were established, often simply by the local bank opening its own postgiro account. o Amsterdam- Banking Center in Europe

Why did Italy unrest and decline from 1450-1527?

The city-states started eye each other greedily and warily; many of them shared the dream of capturing Rome. Many city-states were invaded by or affected by the ottomans.

Why was Poland so easily divided by the absolute monarchs?

The power of the nobility remained strong; no monarchical dynasty had been established, and the army was inadequate to defend all of it's borders.

Why were women attracted to the religious reform of the times?

The status of women during the Protestant Reformation was the role of wife and mother, just as the men's role was that of husband, father, or son. However, with the promise of changes to religion, many women might gain more rights politically and socially.

What were the causes and results of the War of Austrian Succession?

The war began over the question of Maria Theresa's succession to the realms of the House of Habsburg. The war began under the pretext that Maria Theresa was ineligible to succeed to the Habsburg thrones of her father, Charles VI, because Salic law precluded royal inheritance by a woman—though in reality this was a convenient excuse put forward by Prussia and France to challenge Habsburg power. Austria was supported by Great Britain and the Dutch Republic, the traditional enemies of France, as well as the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Electorate of Saxony. France and Prussia were allied with the Electorate of Bavaria. Spain, which had been at war with Britain over colonies and trade ever since 1739, entered the war on the Continent to re-establish its influence in northern Italy, further reversing an Austrian dominance over the Italian peninsula that had been achieved at Spain's expense as a consequence of Spain's war of succession earlier in the 18th century. The war ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. The most enduring military historical interest and importance of the war lies in the struggle of Prussia and the Habsburg monarchs for the region of Silesia.

What was considered popular entertainment or leisure activities for the bourgeois (18th Century)

Theater (plays), music halls (operas, concerts), Salons for academic discussion, newspapers and magazine subscriptions

Role of the dutch in the 17th Century

They became the first commercial power; their achievements were based on innovative techniques, rational management and a social/cultural environment that supported mercantile activities.

Muscovy's Time of Troubles

Time when the crown (Ivan) was plunged into a crisis of legitimacy. Ivan had his heir murdered in a fit of anger and left his half-witted son to inherit the throne. This led to a vacuum of power at the center as well as a struggle for the spoils of government. This was Poland's moment of opportunity to regain territory they had lost during the previous century.

Treaty of Tordesillas, 1494

Treaty signed on June 7, 1494 which divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between Portugal and Spain west of the Cape Verde islands

How did the trenches and new weapons impact the length of the war and the experiences of the soldiers?

War got more complex; with more technology came heavy equipment that made it more difficult for soldiers to move around. o Chlorine Gas, Tanks, Airplanes, Barbed Wire, Flame Throwers, Mustard Gas

Why was World War One considered an "expected war" by Europeans?

Warfare was accepted as an instrument of policy; superiority in armed force became a priority the European states were seeking to protect the peace.

The Church of England

While Anglicans acknowledge that Henry VIII's repudiation of papal authority caused the Church of England to become a separate entity, they believe that it is in continuity with the pre-Reformation Church of England.

Peter the Great

Years in power: 1682-1725 o Westernization: He arranged marriages between his closest heirs to the thrones and German princes/dukes; He established 21 separate foreign embassies across Europe; the sons of Russian gentry and nobility were sent west to further their education and adapt a 'western' outlook. He recruited European to fill important skilled jobs, o Military: Everything done in the name of enhancing military efficiency; great victories over Sweden made other monarchs take note of him. Creation of a gigantic standing army, o Government: Creation of a senate, to oversee all military and civil government; creation of Procurator-General, who presided over sessions and could propose legislation; Table of Ranks: the official hierarchy of the state that established the social position or rank of individuals. Divided into 3 categories: military service, civil service and owners of landed estates. Each contained 14 rankings o Economic: Established factories for production of textiles, glass, leather, iron and copper o Geographic: Addition of Sweden's Baltic territories

Catherine the Great

Years in power: 1762-1796 o Westernization: influence of French ideas of social justice and the nobility of the human race; borrowed theory of law from French jurist Montesquieu and theory of punishment from Italian Beccaria. o Military: She acted as mediator in the War of the Bavarian Succession (1778-79) between the German states of Prussia and Austria. In 1780 she established a League of Armed Neutrality, designed to defend neutral shipping from the British Royal Navy during the American Revolution. o Government: restructured local government-to be governed by a central office and elected noblemen. Education reform to educate those who might take office. Charter of Nobility: a formal statement of the rights and privileges of the noble class. o Economic: The Manifesto on Freedom of the Nobility, issued during the short reign of Peter III and confirmed by Catherine, freed Russian nobles from compulsory military or state service. o Geographic: In 1764 Catherine placed Stanisław Poniatowski, her former lover, on the Polish throne. Although the idea of partitioning Poland came from the King Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine took a leading role in carrying it out in the 1790s. In 1768 she formally became protector of thePolish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which provoked an antiRussian uprising in Poland, the Confederation of Bar (1768-72).

Jan Hun (1373-1415)

a Czech priest, philosopher, reformer, and master. After John Wycliffe, the theorist of ecclesiastical Reformation, Hus is considered the first Church reformer.

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

a Danish nobleman known for his accurate and comprehensive astronomical and planetary observations. Tycho was well known in his lifetime as an astronomer and alchemist and has been described more recently as "the first competent mind in modern astronomy to feel ardently the passion for exact empirical facts."

Merovingian

a Frankish dynasty that came to rule the Franks in a region known as Francia for 300 years from the middle of the 5th century; Clovis I (481-511) united all of Gaul under Merovingian rule.

Voltaire (1694-1778)

a French Enlightenment writer, historian and philosopher famous for his wit, his attacks on the established Catholic Church, and his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of expression, and separation of church and state. Voltaire was a versatile writer, producing works in almost every literary form, including plays, poems, novels, essays, and historical and scientific works. He wrote more than 20,000 letters and more than 2,000 books and pamphlets. He was an outspoken advocate; despite the risk this placed him in under the strict censorship laws of the time. As a satirical polemicist, he frequently made use of his works to criticize intolerance, religious dogma, and the French institutions of his day.

Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642)

a French clergyman, noble and statesman. Consecrated as a bishop in 1608, he later entered politics, becoming a Secretary of State in 1616. Richelieu soon rose in both theCatholic Church and the French government, becoming a Cardinal in 1622, and King Louis XIII's chief minister in 1624. He remained in office until his death in 1642; he was succeeded by Cardinal Mazarin, whose career he had fostered. o Explain how taxing in France, the taille, was different than taxation in England. French taxation, the taille was the crown's basic commodity tax. It remained constant. The crown was forced to search for new revenues, which was the paulette a tax on officeholding. The English taxed on trade.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of the 18th century. His political philosophy influenced the French Revolution as well as the overall development of modern political, sociological, and educational thought.

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

a German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer. A key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution, he is best known for his laws of planetary motion. These works also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation.

Immanuel Kant (1738-1794)

a German philosopher who is widely considered to be a central figure of modern philosophy. He argued that human concepts and categories structure our view of the world and its laws, and that reason is the source of morality. His thought continues to have a major influence in contemporary thought, especially in fields such as metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political philosophy, and aesthetics.

Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521)

a Portuguese explorer who became known for having organized the expedition that resulted in the first circumnavigation of the Earth. He served King Charles I of Spain in search of a westward route to the "Spice Islands".

Vasco de Gama (1460-1524)

a Portuguese explorer. He is one of the most famous and celebrated explorers from the Age of Discovery, being the first European to reach India by sea. This discovery was very significant and paved the way for the Portuguese to establish a long-lasting colonial empire in Asia. The route meant that the Portuguese would not need to cross the highly disputed Mediterranean nor the dangerous Arabian Peninsula, and that the whole voyage would be made by sea.

Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543)

a Renaissance mathematician and astronomer who formulated a heliocentric model of the universe which placed the Sun, rather than the Earth, at the center.

Hume (1711-1776) & Skepticism

a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist known especially for his philosophical empiricism and skepticism. He was one of the most important figures in the history of Western philosophy and the Scottish Enlightenment. Beginning with his A Treatise of Human Nature (1739), Hume strove to create a total naturalistic "science of man" that examined the psychological basis of human nature. In stark opposition to the rationalists who preceded him, most notably Descartes, he concluded that desire rather than reason governed human behaviour, saying: "Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions". Skepticism is both a philosophical school of thought and a method that crosses disciplines and cultures. Many skeptics critically examine the meaning systems of their times, and this examination often results in a position of ambiguity or doubt.

Paracelsus (1493-1541)

a Swiss German Renaissance physician, botanist, alchemist, astrologer, and general occultist. He founded the discipline of toxicology.He is also known as a revolutionary for insisting upon using observations of nature, rather than looking to ancient texts. Modern psychology often also credits him for being the first to note that some diseases are rooted in psychological illness.

The Somme

a battle of the First World War fought by the armies of the British and French empires against the German Empire. It took place between 1 July and 18 November 1916 on either side of the River Somme in France. The battle was one of the largest of World War I, in which more than 1,000,000 men were wounded or killed, making it one of humanity's bloodiest battles. A Franco-British commitment to an offensive on the Somme had been made during Allied discussions at Chantilly, Oise in December 1915. The Allies agreed upon a strategy of combined offensives against the Central Powers in 1916, by the French, Russian, British and Italian armies, with the Somme offensive as the Franco-British contribution.

The Paris Commune

a revolutionary and socialist government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March until 28 May 1871.[3] The killing of two French army generals by soldiers of the Commune's National Guard and the refusal of the Commune to accept the authority of the French government led to its harsh suppression by the regular French Army. Debates over the policies and outcome of the Commune had significant influence on the ideas of Karl Marx.

The Congress of Vienna, 1814

a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, and held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815. The objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term peace for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries, but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other off and remain at peace.

Fodder Crops

a crop used to feed the livestock and add nutrients to the soil. Example-clover

The Enlightenment

a cultural movement of intellectuals beginning in late 17th-century Europe emphasizing reason and individualism rather than tradition. Its purpose was to reform society using reason, to challenge ideas grounded in tradition and faith, and to advance knowledge through the scientific method. It promoted scientific thought, skepticism, and intellectual interchange. The Enlightenment was a revolution in human thought. This new way of thinking was that rational thought begins with clearly stated principles, uses correct logic to arrive at conclusions, tests the conclusions against evidence, and then revises the principles in the light of the evidence.

Impact of Gutenbrerg's Printing Press (1450s)

a device for evenly printing ink onto a print medium (substrate) such as paper or cloth. The device applies pressure to a print medium that rests on an inked surface made of movable type, thereby transferring the ink. Typically used for texts, the invention and spread of the printing press are widely regarded as among the most influential events in human history, revolutionizing the way people conceive and describe the world they live in, and ushering in the period of modernity. Allowed books like the Bible to be printed for wide consumption, then printed in vernaculars.

Whigs

a faction and then a political party in the parliaments of England, Scotland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom. Between the 1680s and 1850s, they contested power with their rivals, the Tories. The Whigs' origin lay in constitutional monarchism and opposition to absolute rule. The Whigs played a central role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and were the standing enemies of the Stuart kings and pretenders, who were Roman Catholic. The Whigs took full control of the government in 1715, and remained totally dominant until King George III, coming to the throne in 1760, allowed Tories back in. The "Whig Supremacy" (1715-1760) was enabled by the Hanoverian succession of George I in 1714 and the failed Jacobite rising of 1715 by Tory rebels. The Whigs thoroughly purged the Tories from all major positions in government, the army, the Church of England, the legal profession and local officials. The leader of the Whigs was Robert Walpole, who maintained control of the government in the period 1721-1742; his protégé was Henry Pelham (1743- 1754).

Triangular Trade

a historical term indicating trade among three ports or regions; transatlantic slave trade, that operated from the late 16th to early 19th centuries, carrying slaves, cash crops, and manufactured goods between West Africa, Caribbean or American colonies and the European colonial powers, with the northern colonies of British North America, especially New England, sometimes taking over the role of Europe.

Huldrych Zwingli, 1484-1531

a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. Born during a time of emerging Swiss patriotism and increasing criticism of the Swiss mercenary system. In Zurich he began to preach ideas on reforming the Catholic Church. In his first public controversy in 1522, he attacked the custom of fasting during Lent. In his publications, he noted corruption in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, promoted clerical marriage, and attacked the use of images in places of worship

Balfour Declaration, 1917

a letter from the United Kingdom's Foreign Secretary Arthur James Balfour to Baron Rothschild a leader of the British Jewish community, for transmission to the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland.

Catholic League

a major player in the French Wars of Religion, was formed by Duke Henry of Guise in 1576. The League intended the eradication of Protestants—also known as Calvinists or Huguenots—out of Catholic France during the Protestant Reformation; as well as the replacement of King Henry III.

Optimism

a mental attitude or world view that interprets situations and events as being best (optimized), meaning that in some way for factors that may not be fully comprehended, the present moment is in an optimum state. The concept is typically extended to include the attitude of hope for future conditions unfolding as optimal as well.

Body Politic

a metaphor in which a nation is considered to be be likened to a human body. A body politic comprises all the people in a particular country considered as a single group. The analogy is typically continued by reference to the top of government as the head of state, but may be extended to other anatomical parts.

Placemen

a person appointed to a position, especially one in the government, as a reward for political support of an elected official.

Divine Right of Kings

a political and religious doctrine of royal and political legitimacy. It asserts that a monarch is subject to no earthly authority, deriving the right to rule directly from the will of God. The king is thus not subject to the will of his people, the aristocracy, or any other estate of the realm, including (in the view of some, especially in Protestant countries) the Church. According to this doctrine, only God can judge an unjust king.

Conciliarism

a reform movement in the 14th-, 15th- and 16th-century Catholic Church which held that supreme authority in the Church resided in a council of scholars, not the pope. The movement emerged in response to the Great Western Schism between rival popes in Rome and Avignon.

Charivaris (French) or Skimmingtons (English)

a rowdy parade with effigies of victims or people dressed up to represent them, to make a public demonstration of moral disapproval of the individual or individuals. The form of the demonstration, and the reasons for it, varied between different places, but the general intent was public humiliation of the victim(s). In some cases the individual(s) themselves were forced to participate. Skimmingtons were typically noisy affairs, with rough music made by the clattering of pots and pans.

Ludendorff Offensive, 1918

a series of German attacks along the Western Front during the First World War, beginning on 21 March 1918, which marked the deepest advances by either side since 1914.

The Fronde, 1648

a series of civil wars in France between 1648 and 1653, occurring in the midst of the Franco-Spanish War, which had begun in 1635. The word fronde means sling, which Parisian mobs used to smash the windows of supporters of Cardinal Mazarin. o How did this impact decisions made by Louis XIV (1643-1715)? He impressed as a young ruler with the experience of the Fronde, and came to reorganize French fighting forces under a stricter hierarchy whose leaders ultimately could be made or unmade by the King. o Cardinal Mazarin (1602-1661): an Italian Catholic cardinal, diplomat, and politician, who served as the chief minister of France from 1642 until his death. Mazarin succeeded his mentor, Cardinal Richelieu. He was a noted collector of art and jewels, particularly diamonds.

War of the Roses (1455-1485)

a series of dynastic wars for the throne of England. They were fought between supporters of two rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet, the houses of Lancaster and York. The final victory went to a Lancastrian claimant, Henry Tudor, who defeated the last Yorkist king, Richard III

War of the Roses, 1455-1485

a series of dynastic wars for the throne of England. They were fought between supporters of two rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet, the houses of Lancaster and York. The final victory went to a Lancastrian claimant, Henry Tudor, who defeated the last Yorkist king, Richard III

The Thirty Years' War, 1618-1648

a series of wars principally fought in Central Europe, involving most of the countries of Europe. o Major Players: Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Germany, France, Bohemia, Hungarians, Spanish o What started it all? Initially, religion was a motivation for war as Protestant and Catholic states battled it out even though they all were inside the Holy Roman Empire. Changing the relative balance of power within the Empire was at issue. Gradually, it developed into a more general conflict involving most of the great powers of Europe. In this general phase, the war became less specifically religious and more a continuation of the Bourbon-Habsburg rivalry for European political pre-eminence, leading in turn to further warfare between France and the Habsburg powers. o Role of Fredrick V: Frederick was asked to assume the crown of Bohemia. He accepted the offer and was crowned on 4 November 1619.The estates chose Frederick since he was the leader of the Protestant Union, a military alliance founded by his father, and hoped for the support of Frederick's father-in-law, James VI of Scotland and I of England. However, James opposed the takeover of Bohemia from the Habsburgs and Frederick's allies in the Protestant Union failed to support him militarily by signing the Treaty of Ulm (1620). His brief reign as King of Bohemia ended with his defeat at the Battle of White Mountain on 8 November 1620 - a year and four days after his coronation. o Impact of the War on European Nations: the devastation of entire regions, pillaged by the foraging armies. Famine and disease significantly decreased the population of the German states, Bohemia, the Low Countries, and Italy; most of the combatant powers were bankrupted. o Peace of Westphalia, 1648: a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648. These treaties ended the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) in the Holy Roman Empire, and the Eighty Years' War (1568-1648) between Spain and the Dutch Republic, with Spain formally recognizing the independence of the Dutch Republic.

Wilson's 14 Points

a statement given on the 8th of January, 1918 by United States President Woodrow Wilson declaring that World War I was being fought for a moral cause and calling for postwar peace in Europe.

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, 1572

a targeted group of assassinations, followed by a wave of Catholic mob violence, both directed against the Huguenots during the French Wars of Religion. Traditionally believed to have been instigated by Catherine de' Medici, the mother of King Charles IX, the massacre took place five days after the wedding of the king's sister Margaret the Protestant Henry III of Navarre (the future Henry IV of France). This marriage was an occasion for which many of the most wealthy and prominent Huguenots had gathered in largely Catholic Paris.

King-in-Parliament

a technical term of constitutional law in the Commonwealth realms that refers to the Crown in its legislative role, acting with the advice and consent of the lower house and upper house in the case of a bicameral parliament, or the legislature in the case of a unicameral parliament. Bills passed by the houses are sent to the sovereign, or governor general, lieutenant-governor, or governor as her representative, for Royal Assent, which, once granted, makes the bill into law; these primary acts of legislation are known as acts of parliament.

Entrepôt

a trading post where merchandise can be imported and exported without paying import duties, often at a profit

Peace of Augsburg

a treaty between Charles V and the forces of the Schmalkaldic League, an alliance of Lutheran princes, on September 25, 1555, at the imperial city of Augsburg, now in present-day Bavaria, Germany. It officially ended the religious struggle between the two groups and made the legal division of Christendom permanent within the Holy Roman Empire.

Total War

a war in which a belligerent engages in the complete mobilization of all available resources and population. o Explain the mass mobilization that occurred on the home front. Why was this different from previous wars? Businessmen, politicians, wives and children all worked toward helping the war efforts. Never before were countries at 'total war'

Bourgeoisie

a word from the French language, used in the fields of political economy, political philosophy, sociology, and history, which originally denoted the wealthy stratum of the middle class that originated during the latter part of the Middle Ages.

William Harvey (1578-1657)

an English physician. He was the first to describe completely and in detail the systemic circulation and properties of blood being pumped to the brain and body by the heart.

Robert Boyle (1627-1691)

an Irish 17th-century natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, and inventor. Boyle is largely regarded today as the first modern chemist, and therefore one of the founders of modern chemistry, and one of the pioneers of modern experimental scientific method.

John Wycliffe (1330-84)

an English Scholastic philosopher, reformer and university teacher at Oxford in England, who was known as an early dissident in the Roman Catholic Church during the 14th century.

Oliver Cromwell

an English military and political leader and later Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. was one of the signatories of King Charles I's death warrant in 1649, and, as a member of the Rump Parliament (1649-53), he dominated the short-lived Commonwealth of England. He was selected to take command of the English campaign in Ireland in 1649-50. Cromwell's forces defeated the Confederate and Royalist coalition in Ireland and occupied the country - bringing to an end the Irish Confederate Wars. As a ruler he executed an aggressive and effective foreign policy. After his death from natural causes in 1658 he was buried in Westminster Abbey, but after the Royalists returned to power in 1660 they had his corpse dug up, hung in chains, and beheaded.

John Locke (1632-1704) & Tabula Rasa

an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and known as the "Father of Classical Liberalism". Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Francis Bacon, he is equally important to social contract theory. His work greatly affected the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence. Locke was the first to define the self through a continuity of consciousness. He postulated that, at birth, the mind was a blank slate or tabula rasa.

Thomas Hobbes & Leviathan (1651)

an English philosopher, best known today for his work on political philosophy. His 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of social contract theory.

Baldassare Castiglione (1478-1529)

an Italian courtier, diplomat, soldier and a prominent Renaissance author; He wrote The Courtier, an etiquette book that prescribed every detail of the education necessary for the ideal state servant, from table manners to artistic attainments.

Amerigo Vespucco (1451-1512)

an Italian explorer, financier, navigator and cartographer who first demonstrated that Brazil and the West Indies did not represent Asia's eastern outskirts as initially conjectured from Columbus' voyages, but instead constituted an entirely separate landmass hitherto unknown to Afro-Eurasians.

Christopher Columbus (1446-1506)

an Italian explorer, navigator, and colonizer, born in the Republic of Genoa (Italy). Under the auspices of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain (Isabelle & Ferdinand), he completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean that led to general European awareness of the American continents. Those voyages, and his efforts to establish permanent settlements on the island of Hispaniola, initiated the Spanish colonization of the New World.

Machiavelli (1469-1527)

an Italian historian, politician, diplomat, philosopher, humanist, and writer based in Florence during the Renaissance. He was for many years an official in the Florentine Republic, with responsibilities in diplomatic and military affairs. He was a founder of modern political science, and more specifically political ethics. He also wrote comedies, carnival songs, and poetry. His personal correspondence is renowned in the Italian language. He was Secretary to the Second Chancery of the Republic of Florence from 1498 to 1512, when the Medici were out of power. He wrote his masterpiece, The Prince, after the Medici had recovered power and he no longer held a position of responsibility in Florence.

Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794)

an Italian jurist, philosopher and politician best known for his treatise On Crimes and Punishments (1764), which condemned torture and the death penalty, and was a founding work in the field of penology and the Classical School of criminology. He promoted criminal justice.

Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460)

an important figure in 15th-century Portuguese politics and in the early days of the Portuguese Empire and the Age of Discoveries. He was responsible for the early development of European exploration and maritime trade with other continents through the systematic exploration of Western Africa, the islands of the Atlantic Ocean, and the search for new routes, which began the Age of Discoveries.

John Calvin, 1509-1564

an influential French theologian and pastor during the Protestant Reformation. He was a principal figure in the development of the system of Christian theology later called Calvinism. o Predestination: the doctrine that all events have been willed by God. John Calvin interpreted biblical predestination to mean that God willed eternal damnation for some people and salvation for others.

Political Parties

an organization of people which seeks to achieve goals common to its members through the acquisition and exercise of political power.

Chivalry

code of conduct associated with the medieval institution of knighthood. Chivalry arose from an idealized German custom. It developed first in the north of France among horse soldiers who served in Charlemagne′s heavy cavalry.

Central Powers

composed of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire. This alignment originated in the alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary, and fought against the Allied Powers that had formed around the Triple Entente. The Central Powers regarded the assassination of Austro-Hungarian Archduke Francis Ferdinand by several militants as being an act supported by the Kingdom of Serbia, and given an unwillingness of Serbia to fully comply with Austro-Hungarian demands for a full investigation of Serbian complicity in the assassination, war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia was justified. This resulted in war with Russia, which opposed Austro-Hungarian intervention and supported Serbia, and ignited several alliance systems to bring the major European powers into a major war.

Fought between English & Dutch, 1652-1674

conflict over territorial expansion; nearly bankrupt both nations

Life as a Serf (high middle ages)

degraded status; dependency on their lords for land, supplies and basic needs

The Schlieffen Plan

the German General Staff's early-20th-century overall strategic plan for victory in a possible future war in which the German Empire might find itself fighting on two fronts: France to the west and Russia to the east. The First World War later became such a war, with both a Western and an Eastern Front.

Saint Ignatius Loyola, 1491-1556

founded the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) and, on 19 April 1541, became its first Superior General. Ignatius emerged as a religious leader during the Counter-Reformation. Loyola's devotion to the Catholic Church was characterized by absolute obedience to the Pope.

The Lands that Time Forgot (The Industrial Revolution)

idea that industrialization was regional rather than a national process • Where? Netherlands, Spain, Russia, Austria-Hungary • Why? Some under-endowed with resources; others faced difficulties with transportation and communication; social structures, agricultural organizations and commercial policies hindered new methods, machines and modes of production.

Charles II

monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Charles II's father, King Charles I, was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War. Although the Parliament of Scotland proclaimed Charles II King of Great Britain and Ireland in Edinburgh on 6 February 1649, the English Parliament instead passed a statute that made any such proclamation unlawful. England entered the period known as the English Interregnum or the English Commonwealth, and the country was a de facto republic, led by Oliver Cromwell. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, and Charles fled to mainland Europe. Cromwell became virtual dictator of England, Scotland and Ireland, and Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the United Provinces and the Spanish Netherlands. A political crisis that followed the death of Cromwell in 1658 resulted in the restoration of the monarchy, and Charles was invited to return to Britain. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim. After 1660, all legal documents were dated as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649. Charles's wife, Catherine of Braganza, bore no live children, but Charles acknowledged at least twelve illegitimate children by various mistresses. As his illegitimate children were excluded from the succession, he was succeeded by his brother James.

Hundred Years' War

o Dates:1337-1453 o Three Conflicts Within Europe: 1. Edwardian Era War (1337-60) 2. the Caroline War (1369-89) 3. the Lancastrian War (1415-53), o Role of Chivalry in the War: The elite of Europe were inspired by and trapped in the code of conduct that required them not only to maintain their honor by violence but also to cultivate violence to increase their honor. o Joan of Arc: a heroine of France and a Roman Catholic saint. Joan said she received visions of the Archangel Michael, Saint Margaret and Saint Catherine instructing her to support Charles VII and recover France from English domination late in the Hundred Years' War. The uncrowned King Charles VII sent Joan to the siege of Orléans as part of a relief mission. She gained prominence after the siege was lifted in only nine days. Several additional swift victories led to Charles VII's coronation at Reims. On 23 May 1430, she was captured at Compiègne by the English-allied Burgundian faction, was later handed over to the English,and then put on trial by the pro-English Bishop of Beauvais Pierre Cauchon on a variety of charges was convicted in May 1431 and burned at the stake when she was about 19 years old. o Outcome for France: The French army defeated the English and eventually ended the siege. The initial victory led to many more, and on July 16, 1429, Charles was crowned King at Reims.

Absolutism in the East

o Frederick William, the Great Elector, of Brandenburg Prussia: ruler of Brandenburg-Prussia - from 1640 until his death. A member of the House of Hohenzollern, he is popularly known as "The Great Elector" because of his military and political prowess. Frederick William was a staunch pillar of the Calvinist faith, associated with the rising commercial class. He saw the importance of trade and promoted it vigorously. His shrewd domestic reforms gave Prussia a strong position in the post-Westphalia political order of north-central Europe, setting Prussia up for elevation from duchy to kingdom, achieved under his son and successor. o Peter the Great- Westernization of Russia, travels to Western Europe in disguise: ruled the Tsardom of Russia and later the Russian Empire from 7 May [O.S. 27 April] 1682 until his death, jointly ruling before 1696 with his half-brother. In numerous successful wars he expanded the Tsardom into a huge empire that became a major European power. He led a cultural revolution that replaced some of the traditionalist and medieval social and political system with a modern, scientific, Europe-oriented, and rationalist system

Reform in Great Britain

o Great Reform Bill of 1832: an Act of Parliament that introduced wide-ranging changes to the electoral system of England and Wales. o The Chartist Movement/Chartism: a working-class movement for political reform in Britain which existed from 1838 to 1850 (although there was a slow fade-out in the movement after 1848) and which took its name from the People's Charter of 1838. It was a national protest movement. The People's Charter called for six reforms to make the political system more democratic: A vote for every man twenty-one years of age; The Secret Ballot; No Property Qualification for Members of Parliament; Payment of Members; Equal Constituencies; Annual Parliament Elections.

Civil War- 1562

o Henry Bourbon: King of Navarre (as Henry III) from 1572 to 1610 and King of France from 1589 to 1610. He was the first French monarch of the House of Bourbon. As a French "prince of the blood" by reason of his descent from King Louis IX, he ascended the throne of France upon the death of his childless brother-in--law Henry III in 1589. In accepting the throne, he found it prudent to avoid his Calvinist faith. Regardless, his coronation was followed by a four-year war against the Catholic League to establish his legitimacy. Considered as an usurper by Catholics and as a traitor by Protestants, Henry was hardly accepted by the population and escaped at least 12 assassination attempts. An unpopular king during his reign, Henry's popularity greatly improved posthumously. o Huguenots: members of the Protestant Reformed Church of France during the 16th and 17th centuries. French Protestants were inspired by the writings of John Calvin in the 1530s, and they were called Huguenots by the 16th century. By the end of the 17th century and into the 18th century, roughly 500,000 Huguenots had fled France during a series of religious persecutions.

The Black Death (1315-17, 1347-52)

o How was it spread? most likely carried by Oriental rat fleas living on the black rats that were regular passengers on merchant ship; then spread in urban areas o Impact on the people? Estimated to have killed 30-60% of Europe's total population. All in all, the plague reduced the world population from an estimated 450 million down to 350-375 million in the 14th century. Created a series of religious, social, and economic upheavals. o Peasant Revolts: a major uprising across large parts of England in 1381. The revolt had various causes, including the socio-economic and political tensions. A wide spectrum of rural society, including many local artisans and village officials, rose up and burned court records. The rebels sought a reduction in taxation, an end to the system of unfree labor (Serfdom) and the removal of the King's senior officials and law courts.

Feminism & the Right to Vote

o Hubertine Auclert- France: a leading French feminist and a campaigner for women's suffrage. Considered one of the central figures in the history of the French women's rights movement, Hubertine Auclert continued her activism until her death in 1914 at age 65. o Emmeline Pankhurst-Great Britain: a British political activist and leader of the British suffragette movement who helped women win the right to vote. She was widely criticized for her militant tactics, and historians disagree about their effectiveness, but her work is recognized as a crucial element in achieving women's suffrage in Britain. o Suffragettes: members of women's organization (right to vote) movements in the late 19th and early 20th century, particularly in the United Kingdom and United States. Suffragist is a more general term for members of suffrage movements, whether radical or conservative, male or female.

Renaissance ideals

o Humanism: a philosophical and ethical stance that emphasizes the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively, and generally prefers critical thinking and evidence (rationalism, empiricism) over established doctrine or faith o Philology: the study of language in written historical sources; it is a combination of literary criticism, history, and linguistics o Rhetoric: the art of expression, an art that aims to improve the capability of writers or speakers that attempt to inform, persuade, or motivate particular audiences in specific situations o Studying of the classics: Humanists preserved the heritage of the Greeks by reviving the study of the Greek language and by translating Greek authors into Latin. Italy became the center of Greek studies. o Civic Humanism: the modern term for the moral, social and political philosophy that in the course of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries began to be articulated in Italian city-states and most notably in Florence. o Humors (Science): Idea that Galen taught-the body was composed of yellow bile, black bile, phlegm and blood-which corresponded with the 4 elements of life: earth, air, water and fire.

Medieval Towns

o Italian-Important for commerce; with little industry of their own, trades of spices, salt, silk and ivory. o Northern-Northern Seaside cities; lacked aristocratic groups; top of society were the merchants and patricians

Major Artists & works

o Michelangelo-Pieta, Sistine Chapel's ceiling, David o Leonardo da Vinci-Last Supper, Mona Lisa o Donatello-Judith Slaying Holofernes o Masaccio-The Holy Trinity, The Expulsion of Adam and Eve

The Five Powers of Italy

o Naples o Papal States (including Rome) o Venice o Milan o Florence

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

o Ninety-Five Theses, 1517 written by Martin Luther in 1517 and are widely regarded as the initial catalyst for the Protestant Reformation. The disputation protests against clerical abuses, especially nepotism, simony, usury, pluralism, and the sale of indulgences.

The Avignon Papacy "Babylonian Captivity" (1305-77)

o Penance: punishment that could take the form of fasting, prayer or performance of a good deed. Failing to do penance on Earth could force sinners to endure a period in purgatory before being admitted to heaven. o Indulgences: Could be purchased for one's own use or th assist the souls of family members already in purgatory Papa 'pardoners' working on commission used high pressure sales pitches to sell indulgences across Europe.

Price Revolution

refers to the relatively high rate of inflation that characterized the period from the first half of the 16th century to the first half of the 17th, across Western Europe, with prices on average rising perhaps sixfold over 150 years. Generally it is thought that this high inflation was caused by the large influx of gold and silver from the Spanish treasure fleet from the New World, especially the silver of Bolivia and Mexico which began to be mined in large quantities from 1545 onward.

New Ways of Understanding the World

o Physical Sciences: scientific discoveries pushed out the frontiers of knowledge; examples: relationship between electricity and magnetism. Periodic table formulated; alpha & beta rays, dismantled classical physics. o Biology: Pasteur-methods of inoculation against an array of diseases; Mendel with crossbreeding o Applied Knowledge: Virchow- relationship between microbes, sewage and disease-led to creation of modern sewer system. Exploration, manufacturing of plastic, work in the field of astrophysics, new spatial reality of the nuclear structure of the atom, and the invention of dynamite. o Psychology: Pavlov started by studying a dogs digestive system, and discovered its conditioned reflexes & Einstein Freud: probed into the unconsciuous as explanations for the behaviors of humans, starting at birth o Eugenics: the belief and practice of improving the genetic quality of the human population. It is a social philosophy advocating the improvement of human genetic traits through the promotion of higher reproduction of people with desired traits (positive eugenics), and reduced reproduction of people with less-desired or undesired traits (negative eugenics). o Social Darwinism: a modern name given to various theories of society that emerged in England and the United States in the 1870s, and which allegedly sought to apply biological concepts of natural selection and survival of the fittest to sociology and politics.

Uniting of the Workers

o Proletariat: a term used to describe the class of wage-earners (especially industrial workers) in a capitalist society whose only possession of significant material value is their labor-power. o Luddism: 19th-century English textile artisans who protested against newly developed labor-saving machinery from 1811 to 1817. The stocking frames, spinning frames and power looms introduced during the Industrial Revolution threatened to replace the artisans with less-skilled, low-wage laborers, leaving them without work.

Spain and Philip II (1556-1598)

o Successes: As king of Spain, Phillip II's dominion spanned from the Atlantic to the Pacific; he also controlled the Netherlands in the north and Milan and Naples in Italy. He was also king of Portugal o Spanish Armada: a Spanish fleet of 130 ships that sailed with the purpose of escorting an army from Flanders to invade England. The strategic aim was to overthrow Queen Elizabeth I of England and the Tudor establishment of Protestantism in England o Burgundian Inheritance: Diverse territory that Phillip's father Charles had amassed in northwestern Europe. (The Low Countries). Phillip attempted to maintain the purity of the Spanish Catholic church here; a place where protestants had lived in harmony for years. He tried to strengthen the inquisition and spread it to the Low Countries.

The rulers of the states

o The Empire-Elections for magnates, then voted on emperor which was then consecrated by the pope o The Papacy-Emperors tended to interfere in papal elections

Life during the Renaissance

o Urban Life: Cities acted as central places around which a cluster of large and small villages were organized; this provided markets for the agricultural produce of the countryside and for the manufactured goods of the urban artisans. This allowed for the specialization that increased both productivity and wages. o Economic Life/Relationship of Supply & Demand: Economic life was bound in the relationship between resources and desires. Despite the development of international banking and long-distance trade, 70-90% of Europe's population was involved in subsistence farming. o Marriage & Family: Expectatiions for daughters centered on their changes of marriage; the dowry was everything! Daughters of poor families entered domestic service, Women married in late adolescence, usually around the age of 20. Among the wealthy, marriages were perceived as familial alliances and business transactions rather than love matches. Men married later-near 25 in rural areas, closer to 30 in the cities-because of the cost of setting up in trade or on the land.

Henry VIII and his six wives!

o Wants (and needs) a divorce from Catherine of Aragon, what does he do? When refused an annulment, he leaves the Catholic Church and creates the Church of England.

Council of Trent, 1545-1563

o What does the church decide to do about Protestant faiths? Council that issued condemnations on what it defined as Protestant heresies at the time of the Reformation and defined Church teachings in the areas of Scripture and Tradition, Original Sin, Justification, Sacraments, the Eucharist in Holy Mass and the veneration of saints. It issued numerous reform decrees.[3] By specifying Catholic doctrine on salvation, the sacraments, and the Biblical canon, the Council was answering Protestant disputes.[1] The Council entrusted to the Pope the implementation of its work.

Witch Craze

o Who was targeted? Usually women, most of them those unmarried or widowed. o How were they treated? They would be forced to confess under condtions of torture. From 1550-1650, 30,000 women were tried in Germany alone! o Why women? No definite reason, but many think it is tied to the special powers a women's body had, for example the ability to give birth. Some stories suggest these women were fathered themselves by the devil.

Treaty of Versailles

one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers.

Erasmus of Rotterdam, In the Praise of Folly

sometimes translated as In Praise of More, is an essay written in Latin in 1509 by Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam and first printed in 1511. In Praise of Folly is considered one of the most notable works of the Renaissance and played an important role in the beginnings of the Protestant Reformation.

Ivan the Terrible

the Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 to 1547 and Tsar of All the Russias from 1547 until his death. His long reign saw the conquest of the Khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia, transforming Russia into a multiethnic state spanning almost one billion acres. Ivan managed countless changes in the progression from a medieval state to an empire and emerging regional power, and became the first ruler to be crowned as Tsar of All the Russians.

The Siege of Paris, 1870

the consequent capture of the city of Paris by Prussian forces which led to French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War and the establishment of the German Empire as well as the Paris Commune.

Allies

the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. The members of the Triple Entente were the French Republic, the British Empire and the Russian Empire; Italy ended its alliance with the Central Powers and entered the war on the side of the Entente in 1915. Japan, Belgium, Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, Romania and the Czechoslovak legions were secondary members of the Entente.

Changes made under Edward VI (Henry's son)

the first major changes in parish activity take place, including translation and thorough revision of the liturgy along more Protestant lines. The resulting Book of Common Prayer, issued in 1549 and revised in 1552, came into use by the authority of the Parliament of England.

Balance of Power

the idea that national security is enhanced when military capabilities are distributed so that no one state is strong enough to dominate all others. If one state gains inordinate power, the theory predicts that it will take advantage of its strength and attack weaker neighbors thereby providing an incentive for those threatened to unite in a defensive coalition.

Philosophes

the intellectuals of the 18th century Enlightenment. Few were primarily philosophers; rather, philosophes were public intellectuals who applied reason to the study of many areas of learning, including philosophy, history, science, politics, economics and social issues. They had a critical eye and looked for weaknesses and failures that needed improvement. They promoted a "republic of letters" that crossed national boundaries and allowed intellectuals to freely exchange books and ideas. Most philosophes were men, but some were women.

Maria Theresa (1740-80)

the only female ruler of the Habsburg dominions and the last of the House of Habsburg. She was the sovereign of Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Bohemia, Mantua, Milan, Lodomeria and Galicia, the Austrian Netherlands and Parma. By marriage, she was Duchess of Lorraine, Grand Duchess of Tuscany and Holy Roman Empress. She started her 40-year reign when her father, Emperor Charles VI, died in October 1740. Charles VI paved the way for her accession with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 and spent his entire reign securing it. Maria Theresa and her husband, Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, had sixteen children, including Queen Marie Antoinette of France, Queen Maria Carolina of Naples, Duchess Maria Amalia of Parma and two Holy Roman Emperors, Joseph II and Leopold II. Though she was expected to cede power to Francis and Joseph, both of whom were officially her co-rulers in Austria and Bohemia, Maria Theresa was the absolute sovereign who ruled by the counsel of her advisers.

House of Lords

the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster. Bills can be introduced into either the House of Lords or the House of Commons and members of the Lords may also take on roles as Government Ministers.

"All quiet on the Western Front"

used in military communications to describe those periods of silence between massive shellings and infantry attacks; Stalemate: a situation in which two opposing forces find that further action is impossible or futile; deadlock

James I

was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until his death. The kingdoms of Scotland and England were individual sovereign states, with their own parliaments, judiciary, and laws, though both were ruled by James in personal union.

Spanish Inquisition

was established in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. It was intended to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms and to replace the Medieval Inquisition, which was under Papal control. The Inquisition was originally intended in large part to ensure the orthodoxy of those who converted from Judaism and Islam. This regulation of the faith of the newly converted was intensified after the royal decrees issued in 1492 and 1501 ordering Jews and Muslims to convert or leave.

The Long Parliament, 13 years (1640-53)

was established on 3 November 1640 to pass financial bills, following the Bishops' Wars. It received its name from the fact that through an Act of Parliament, it could be dissolved only with the agreement of the members, and those members did not agree to its dissolution until after the English Civil War and close to the end of Interregnum on 16 March 1660.

Allied Victory in Europe

• 1941: Decision is made by Roosevelt & Churchill that they must first win the war in Europe, then deal with Japan • Nov. 1943: Allies meet at Teheran- Stalin is not happy, he wants allied help; distrust begins to emerge... • D-Day Invasion- June 6, 1944 • Battle of the Bulge (March 1945)- last offensive of the Germans, only slows the allies for a short time • Victory in Europe!- May 8, 1945 (V-E Day)

Social Structure of Estates General

• 1st Estate: The Clergy • 2nd Estate: The Nobility • 3rd Estate: The Commoners (Bourgeoisie was at the top) 98% of France's people

India under British rule

• 90 Years of British control known as the Raj • What did the Europeans get out of India? Protected sea routes and access to the Indian markets • What was their impact on the people of the nation? Britain invested considerable overseas capital in India, and in turn India absorbed 1/5 of the total British exports.

Agricultural Revolution

• Agricultural Revolution: The unprecedented increase in agricultural production in England due to increases in labor and land productivity that took place between 1750 and 1850. Agricultural output grew faster than population and the increase in food supply allowed the population of England to exceed 5.5 million for the first time. Because the agricultural revolution freed up labor, it is often cited as one of the causes of the Industrial Revolution. • Putting-Out System: a means of subcontracting work. Historically it was also known as the workshop system and the domestic system. In putting-out, work is contracted by a central agent to subcontractors who complete the work in off-site facilities, either in their own homes or in workshops with multiple craftsmen. • Enclosures (How did they impact commercial farming?): Enclosure is considered one of the causes of the British Agricultural Revolution. Enclosed land was under control of the farmer who was free to adopt better farming practices. There was widespread agreement in contemporary accounts that profit making opportunities were better with enclosed land. Following enclosure, crop yields and livestock output increased while at the same time labor productivity increased enough to create a surplus of labor. The increased labor supply is considered one of the causes of the Industrial Revolution. • Innovations: (List some and explain the impact.) o crop rotation: Fodder crops, particularly turnips and clover, replaced fallow. o The Dutch (improved Chinese) plow o Higher output of livestock due to more intensive farming with higher labor inputs o Development of a national market based on minimal government regulation o Transportation infrastructures o The rise of capitalist farmers o Land conversion, land drains and reclamation o Increase in farm size o Selective breeding

Revolutions of 1830s

• Anger in France; Charles X (1824-30) would not accept the constitutional monarchy of France o "Three Glorious Days": the people of France protested the cost of living, hoarding by grain merchants, tax collection and wage cuts. In 3 days, the restored Bourbon regime was pulled down and Charles X fled to England. o New "King of the French": Louis-Philippe-cousin to Charles X-filled the void and came to the 'throne' as the savior to France with a new constitutional monarchy. The charter he brought with him allowed more men to vote, but still restricted suffrage to a small fraction of the population • 1830s Revolutions are called the "forgotten revolutions," but why are they important? They showed that the European states were closely tied together, a test of the Great Powers' commitment to stability and balance, as well as compromise on settlements.

Revolutions of the 1800s

• Causes of Unrest: Demands for political participation and increased political awareness. Workers, the middle class and women's political organizations demanded the right through the vote, to govern themselves. • The "Social Question": How to treat poverty; the underlying topic many protests and reforms the two decades before the 1850s, and fueled the revolutionary movements of 1848.

1848 Revoutions

• Causes: Severe famine; the middle and lower classes had intensified their agitation for democracy; growing demands for national autonomy based on linguistic and cultural claims. • Events in France & Outcome: The "February Revolution" in France was sparked by the suppression of the campagne des banquets. This revolution was driven by nationalist and republican ideals among the French general public, who believed the people should rule themselves. It ended the constitutional monarchy of Louis-Philippe, and led to the creation of the French Second Republic. This government was headed by Louis-Napoleon, who, after only four years, established the Second French Empire in 1852. • Events in Central & Eastern Europe: The "March Revolution" in the German states took place in the south and the west of Germany, with large popular assemblies and mass demonstrations. Led by well-educated students and intellectuals, they demanded German national unity, freedom of the press, and freedom of assembly. The uprisings were not well coordinated, but had in common a rejection of traditional, autocratic political structures in the 39 independent states of the German Confederation. The middle-class and working-class components of the Revolution split, and in the end, the conservative aristocracy defeated it, forcing many liberals into exile. The Hungarian revolution of 1848 started on 15 March 1848, when Hungarian patriots organized mass demonstrations in Pest and Buda(today Budapest) which forced the imperial governor to accept their 12 points of demands. This resulted in Klemens von Metternich, the Austrian prince and foreign minister, resigning. From March 1848 through July 1849, the Habsburg Austrian Empire was threatened by revolutionary movements, which often had a nationalist character. The empire, ruled from Vienna, included Austrians, Hungarians, Slovenes, Poles, Czechs, Croats, Slovaks, Ukrainians/Ruthenians, Romanians, Serbs and Italians, all of whom attempted in the course of the revolution to either achieve autonomy, independence, or even hegemony over other nationalities. The nationalist picture was further complicated by the simultaneous events in the German states, which moved toward greater German national unity. • Italy: Movement towards unification begins, Mazzini & Pius IX not able to do so at this time. • Europe in 1850: o End to peace in Europe o France: Working-class revolution failed, property prevailed. Second Republic ruled by Louis Napoleon

Economic Recovery in the East

• Comecon: Stalin's response to the Marshall Plan o Money was not sent in to eastern states of the USSR, rather Stalin took raw materials, etc. from them! • De-Stalinization: Nikita Khrushchev, people were angry about collectivization and low wages in the USSR • Standard of Living: Relatively low, growing population but they could not keep up with the needs of the citizens

The "Isms" of European History

• Conservatism: a political and social philosophy promotes retaining traditional social institutions. A person who follows the philosophies of conservatism is referred to as a traditionalist or conservative. o Edmund Burke: an Irish statesman, author, orator, political theorist and philosopher, who, after moving to England, served for many years in the House of Commons of Great Britain as a member of the Whig party. He is mainly remembered for his support of the cause of the American Revolutionaries, and for his later opposition to the French Revolution. The latter led to his becoming the leading figure within the conservative faction of the Whig party, which he dubbed the "Old Whigs", in opposition to the pro-French Revolution "New Whigs". Burke was praised by both conservatives and liberals in the 19th century.] Since the 20th century, he has generally been viewed as the philosophical founder of modern conservatism. • Liberalism: a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of liberty and equality. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but generally they support ideas such as free and fair elections, civil rights, freedom of the press, freedom of religion, free trade, and private property. • Utilitarianism: a theory in normative ethics holding that the proper course of action is the one that maximizes utility, usually defined as maximizing total benefit and reducing suffering or the negatives. o Jeremy Bentham: a British philosopher, jurist, and social reformer. He is regarded as the founder of modern utilitarianism. o John Stuart Mill: a British philosopher, political economist and civil servant. He was an influential contributor to social theory, political theory and political economy. He has been called "the most influential English-speaking philosopher of the nineteenth century" • Romanticism: an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to 1850. Partly a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, it was also a revolt against the aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment and a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature. placing new emphasis on such emotions as apprehension, horror and terror, and awe— especially that which is experienced in confronting the sublimity of untamed nature and its picturesque qualities: both new aesthetic categories. • Nationalism: a belief, creed or political ideology that involves an individual identifying with, or becoming attached to, one's nation. Nationalism involves national identity, by contrast with the related construct of patriotism, which involves the social conditioning and personal behaviors that support a state's decisions and actions. • Socialism: a social and economic system characterized by social ownership of the means of production and co-operative management of the economy, as well as a political theory and movement that aims at the establishment of such a system • The Communist Manifesto, 1848: contains Marx and Engels' theories about the nature of society and politics, that in their own words, "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles". It also briefly features their ideas for how the capitalist society of the time would eventually be replaced by socialism, and then eventually communism. o Karl Marx: a German philosopher,economist, sociologist, historian, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. Marx's work in economics laid the basis for the current understanding of labor and its relation to capital, and has influenced much of subsequent economic thought & Friedrich Engels: a German social scientist, author, political theorist, philosopher, and father of Marxist theory, alongside Karl Marx. In 1845 he published The Condition of the Working Class in England, based on personal observations and research. After Marx's death, Engels edited the second and third volumes of Marx's Das Capital. Additionally, Engels organized Marx's notes on the "Theories of Surplus Value" and this was later published as the "fourth volume" of Capital. He has also made important contributions to family economics.

The Renaissance

• Dates: 1350-1550 • Contributions from Classical Civilizations: poetry, rhetoric, painting, sculpting architecture and music; Latin and Greek history and literature

Motivation to Expand

• Economics: want for business interests, market considerations, and the pursuit of individual and national fortunes. • Geopolitics: (the politics of geography) some territory was considered important because of its proximity to acquired colonies or to territory targeted for takeover. • Nationalism: the creation of and spread of the empire enhances national prestige. o Jingoism: Patriotism in the form of aggressive foreign policy. Jingoism also refers to a country's advocation of the use of threats or actual force against peaceful relations, either economic or political, with other countries in order to safeguard what it perceives as its national interests.

Origins of the Cold War

• Western Democracy & Capitalism vs. Eastern Bloc Communism • Iron Curtain: divide between East and West Europe described by Churchill in 1946 • Germany: o Divided East (Communism) and West (Democracy) o Berlin: Divided into 4 zones, located in East Germany o Berlin Airlift and Berlin Wall • Containment: U.S. effort to stop the spread of communism outside of the Soviet Bloc • North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): U.S., Belgium, Britain, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Greece, Turkey • Warsaw Pact: Soviet Bloc alliance against NATO • Nuclear Club: U.S. and USSR, then various other nations developed and tested nuclear weapons • Decolonization: former colonies gained their independence following WWII • Third World: former colonies with weak government and economies were used by the U.S. and USSR during Cold War

New Imperialism

• Explain how technology made imperialism possible in the late 1800s. • Suez Canal: an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction, it allows ships to travel between Europe and eastern Asia without navigating around Africa & Panama Canal: France began work on the canal in 1881, but had to stop because of engineering problems and high mortality due to disease. The United States took over the project in 1904, and took a decade to complete the canal, which was officially opened on August 15, 1914. One of the largest and most difficult engineering projects ever undertaken, the Panama Canal shortcut greatly reduced the amount of time taken for ships to travel between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, enabling them to avoid the lengthy, hazardous Cape Horn route around the southernmost tip of South America via the Drake Passage or Strait of Magellan. The shorter, faster, and safer route to the U.S. West Coast and to nations in and around the Pacific Ocean allowed those places to become more integrated with the world economy. • Why did medical advances make it easier for Europeans to conquer? It allowed men and women to penetrate disease-ridden places. Quinine Pills were an effective treatment for malaria.

Control of China

• Explain how the British were able to open up China to world trade. The British discovered the Indian opium could be used to balance the trade deficit created by tea. The British prospered as opium was pumped into China at rates faster than tea was flowing out. • Sphere of Influence: a spatial region or concept division over which a state or organization has a level of cultural, economic, military, or political exclusivity, accommodating to the interests of powers outside the sphere of the state that controls it.

Progress for the Worker

• Factory Act (1833): an attempt to establish a regular working day in the textile industry. The act had the following provisions: Children (ages 14-18) must not work more than 12 hours a day with an hour lunch break. Note that this enabled employers to run two 'shifts' of child labor each working day in order to employ their adult male workers for longer. Children (ages 9-13) must not work more than 8 hours with an hour lunch break. Children (ages 9-13) must have two hours of education per day. Outlawed the employment of children under 9 in the textile industry. Children under 18 must not work at night. Provided for routine inspections of factories. • Robert Owens: Welsh social reformer and one of the founders of utopian socialism and the cooperative movement. • Child Labor: During the Industrial Revolution, children as young as four were employed in production factories with dangerous, and often fatal, working conditions. • Other reforms?

Reform in Russia during the 1800s

• Form of Government: Total control by the Czar • Alexander II (1855-81): Ends serfdom; makes important reforms to Russian society. • Important Reforms for the Russian People: o Railroads: Thanks to this new form of transportation, Russia became a world grain supplier, with exports growing threefold. o Zemstvos: a form of local government that was instituted during the great liberal reforms performed in Imperial Russia by Alexander II of Russia. After the October Revolution of 1917, the zemstvo system was shut down and replaced by a system of workers' councils. o Military: required all men age 20 or more, were eligible for conscription in defense of the fatherland.

Popular Culture of the mid to late 1800s

• Great Exhibition of 1851: sometimes referred to as the Crystal Palace Exhibition in reference to the temporary structure in which it was held, was an international exhibition that took place inHyde Park, London, from 1 May to 11 October 1851. It was the first in a series of World's Fair exhibitions of culture and industry that were to become a popular 19th-century feature. • Mrs. Beeton's Book of Household Management (1861): a guide to all aspects of running a household in Victorian Britain, edited by Isabella Beeton. It was originally entitled Beeton's Book of Household Management, in line with the other guide-books published by Beeton. • Realism: the attempt to represent subject matter truthfully, without artificiality and avoiding artistic conventions, implausible, exotic and supernatural elements. The term originated in the 19th century, and was used to describe the work of Gustave Courbet and a group of painters who rejected idealization, focusing instead on everyday life. • Charles Darwin: an English naturalist and geologist,[1] best known for his contributions to evolutionary theory.[I] He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors,[2] and in a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved inselective breeding & Natural Selection the gradual process by which biological traits become either more or less common in a population as a function of the effect of inherited traits on the differential reproductive success of organisms interacting with their environment. • Malthus's Essay on Population: first published in 1798 under the alias Joseph Johnson.,[1] but the author was soon identified as Thomas Robert Malthus. While it was not the first book on population, it has been acknowledged as the most influential work of its era. Its 6th edition was independently cited as a key influence by both Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in developing the theory of natural selection.

The Holocaust

• Groups Targeted: Jews, homosexuals, those seen as "asocial," those with hereditary illnesses, and anyone who spoke out against the party • "Final Solution": the total extermination of European Jews o Executions of Jews in Eastern Europe carried out by the SS Mobile Killing Squads (Ordinary Men) o Concentration and Extermination Camps • France's Vichy Government indentified and deported over 75,000 Jews to their death

War in the Pacific

• Japan- Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity, 1940-45 o Believed they were morally superior, urged people to purify, hatred of the western • Island Hopping: Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands, Battle of Midway, Iwo Jima • Dropping of atomic bombs, Japan surrenders August 14, 1945 (V-J Day)

Economic Recovery in the West and Japan

• Marshall Plan provided aid to Western Europe in order to rebuilt and move forward. o $23 Billion between 1947-52 • John Keynes- "Priming the Pump," government regulation was necessary • European Community- beginnings of a common market in Europe • Japan: Aid flowed in, U.S. wanted to keep its Sphere of Influence in the region.

The Industrial Revolution

• When did it begin? the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. • Where did the Industrial Revolution begin? Manchester, England o Why? Water, coal, shipping, infrastructure, money from farming, etc.

Crimean War, 1853-54

• Who was involved? a conflict in which Russia lost to an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia. While neutral, the Austrian Empire also played a role in defeating the Russians. • Outcome/Peace of Paris of 1856: The treaty, signed on 30 March 1856 at the Congress of Paris, made the Black Sea neutral territory, closing it to all warships, and prohibiting fortifications and the presence of armaments on its shores. The treaty marked a severe setback to Russian influence in the region.

Movements toward the fall of the USSR

• Meeting w/ the West: o Met with President Ronald Reagan in Geneva Showed willingness to find peace between the superpowers • Economic Changes: o Change would only occur by "a democratization of our society at all levels." o End of excessive military spending; consumer goods needed to replace weapons on the production lines. • Arms/Military Changes: o Reagan & Gorbachev agreed to arms reduction o 1988: Withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan o 1989: Reversal of Brezhnev Doctrine, Soviet state would NOT interfere w/ upheavals o First free elections occurred since 1917 • "Freedom of choice is a universal principle."- Gorbachev, 1988 at the United Nations o While many eastern and central European nations created independent states, the communist party had to figure out their future. • Coup of 1991: o Struggle for power between Gorbachev & Yeltsin o Gov't decisions were not making anyone happy, Gorbachev was walking a fine line o Power struggle only lasted 2 days, but Yeltsin became the leader of the nation o 89% of popular vote! • Poland: o Solidarity under Lech Walesa Non-communist labor party Angry over growing prices, low wages, and massive debt of the nation. Solidarity Members easily beat communists in elections; no longer communist Economic challenges throughout the 1990s

The Second Empire in France, 1852-70

• Napoleon III: Louis-Napoléon was the first President of the French Second Republic and, as Napoleon III, the Emperor of the Second French Empire. He was the nephew and heir of Napoleon I. He was the first President of France to be elected by a direct popular vote. However, when he was blocked by the Constitution and Parliament from running for a second term, he organized a coup d'état in 1851, and then took the throne as Napoleon III on 2 December 1852, the forty-eighth anniversary of Napoleon I's coronation. • Sir Edwin Chadwick: an English social reformer, noted for his work to reform the Poor Laws and improve sanitary conditions and public health. • Baron Georges Haussmann: the Prefect of the Seine Department in France, who was chosen by the Emperor Napoleon III to carry out a massive program of new boulevards, parks and public works in Paris, commonly called Haussmann's renovation of Paris. Critics forced his resignation for extravagance, but his vision of the city still dominates Central Paris. "Haussmannization": a vast public works program commissioned by Emperor Napoléon III; The street plan and distinctive appearance of the center of Paris today is largely the result of Haussmann's renovation.

Unifying Germany

• Otto von Bismarck: a conservative Prussian statesman who dominated German and European affairs from the 1860s until 1890. In the 1860s he engineered a series of wars that unified the German states (excluding Austria) into a powerful German Empire under Prussian leadership. With that accomplished by 1871 he skillfully used balance of power diplomacy to preserve German hegemony in a Europe which, despite many disputes and war scares, remained at peace. • Realpolitik: a system of politics based on a country's situation and its needs rather than on ideas about what is morally right and wrong • Steps to Germany Unification: o Defeat of Austria during the Seven Weeks' War w/ Austria, defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War o Proclamation of the German Empire in January 1871 o Reichstag: the Parliament of the North German Confederation founded after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. It functioned until the establishment of the German Empire in 1871. The same location is now the home of the German Federal Bundesrat.

War Begins in Europe

• Pact of Steel, 1939: Military alliance with Italy • Non-Aggression Pact of 1939: mutual neutrality between Italy and Germany o Invasion of Poland, September 1, 1939 • "The Phony War": over the winter of 1939, nothing happened between Hitler and the Allies- morale dropped, difficult period • Blitzkrieg: "Lightening War," used to attack the French; only took a few weeks to take over France o Charles de Gaulle and his Free French government fled to London for the remainder of the war o Vichy Government in France was allied with Hitler during the war. • Battle of Britain, 1940: Despite having aerial bombing, the British held out- Churchill, Britain's "finest hour."

French Wars of Religion

• Protestantism (Calvinism) spread across France, but then Henry II tragically died... • Catherine de Médici's (widow) eldest son Francis II married Mary, Queen of Scots, allowed the Guises to control France o Life under the Guises: They controlled the two most powerful institutions in the state: the army and the church. Their enemies were the Bourbons, powerful Protestants with a direct line to the throne. o Bourbon duc de Condé: The Guises sentenced him to death; five days before his execution, King Francis II died, and the Guises power evaporated. The new king Charles IX was only 10, and under the total control of his mother, Catherine de Medici. She declared herself regent of France. o Charles IX (1560-1574): a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1560 until his death. He ascended the throne of France upon the death of his brother Francis II. After decades of tension, war broke out between Protestants and Catholics after the massacre of Vassy in 1562. In 1572, after several unsuccessful peace attempts, Charles ordered the marriage of his sister Margaret of Valois to Henry of Navarre, a major Protestant leader and the future King Henry IV of France, in a last desperate bid to reconcile his people. Facing popular hostility against this policy of appeasement, Charles allowed the massacre of all Huguenot leaders who gathered in Paris for the royal wedding at the instigation of his mother Catherine de' Medici. This event, known as the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, crippled the Huguenot movement.

What political struggles did the Germans face at the turn of the century?

• Religion- relationship with the Catholic Church • Kulturkampf: literally "culture struggle", refers to German policies in relation to secularity and reducing the role and power of the Roman Catholic Church in Prussia, enacted from 1871 to 1878 by the Prime Minister of Prussia, Otto von Bismarck. • Social Democratic Party: committed to Marxist critiques of capitalism and to international cooperation with other socialist parties. o Bismarck's Response- Outlawed the party!

Alliances led to tension

• Why was there tension between France and Germany? France lost their dominance in 1870-71. They had lost territory to Germany, and felt isolated against the Atlantic ocean and the smaller surrounding nations. • Triple Alliance: the military alliance among Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy,, that lasted from 1882 until World War I in 1914. Each member promised mutual support in the event of an attack by any other great power, or for Germany and Italy, an attack by France alone. • Triple Entente: the alliance linking Russian Empire, French Third Republic, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland after the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente on August 31, 1907. The alliance of the three powers, supplemented by agreements with Portugal and Japan, constituted a powerful counterweight to the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.

Unifying Italy, 1850s-1870s

• Risorgimento: also known as Italian Revolution was the political and social movement that agglomerated different states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of the Kingdom of Italy in the 19th century. • Camillo Benso Cavour: generally known as Cavour was an Italian statesman and a leading figure in the movement toward Italian unification. After the declaration of a united Kingdom of Italy, Cavour took office as Italy's first Prime Minister; he died after only three months in office, and thus did not live to see Venetia or Rome as part of the new Italian nation. • Giuseppe Garibaldi: a central figure in the Italian Risorgimento, since he personally commanded and fought in many military campaigns that led eventually to the formation of a unified Italy. He was appointed general by the provisional government of Milan in 1848, General of the Roman Republic in 1849 by the Minister of War, and led the Expedition of the Thousand on behalf and with the consent of Victor Emmanuel II. • King Victor Emmanuel, 1861-78 king of a unified Italy! king of Sardinia from 1849 until, on 17 March 1861, he assumed the title King of Italy to become the first king of a united Italy since the 6th century, a title he held until his death in 1878. The Italians gave him the epithet Father of the Homeland

Allied Forces in Europe

• Soviet Union- totally unprepared for the war, needed the help of the Allies • How did the Soviets stop Hitler? o Nazis were not prepared for Russian winters o Scorched-Earth Policy outside of Moscow o Defeat of the Germans at Leningrad and Stalingrad o Soviet Patriotism- "the Great Patriotic War" • U.S. Involvement: o Lend-Lease Act, 1941 o Japan attacks in 1941 (Joined forces with Italy & Germany in the Tripartite Pact of 1940) o U.S. declares war; will change the course of the war

Innovations

• Steam-Driven Pump: The device consisted of a boiling chamber that routed steam into a second container where a pipe with a non-return valve descended into the water that needed to be removed. Cold water was poured over the container of steam and as the water vapor inside cooled to a liquid state; the resulting vacuum drew up water from below. The suckedup water was unable to flow back past the non-return valve and was then drained through another pipe. • Steam Engine: Newcomen's engine was relatively inefficient, and in most cases was used for pumping water. It worked by creating a partial vacuum by condensing steam under a piston within a cylinder. It was employed for draining mine workings at depths hitherto impossible, and also for providing a reusable water supply for driving waterwheels at factories sited away from a suitable "head". Water that had passed over the wheel was pumped back up into a storage reservoir above the wheel. • Spinning Jenny: At the time, cotton production could not keep up with demand, and Hargreaves spent some time considering how to improve the process. The flying shuttle (John Kay 1733) had increased yarn demand by the weavers by doubling their productivity, and now the spinning jenny could supply that demand by increasing the spinners' productivity even more. The machine produced coarse thread. • Spinning Mule: a machine used to spin cotton and other fibres in the mills of Lancashire and elsewhere. They were used extensively from the late eighteenth to the early twentieth century. Mules were worked in pairs by a minder, with the help of two boys: the little piecer and the big or side piecer. The carriage carried up to 1320 spindles and could be 150 feet (46 m) long, and would move forward and back a distance of 5 feet (1.5 m) four times a minute. • First Factories: Shift in economic life: factories built in mill towns. Location determined on population and resources (water and later coal). The operation of heavy machinery reserved the traditional gender-based tasks. o Luddites: 19th-century English textile artisans who protested against newly developed labor-saving machinery from 1811 to 1817. The stocking frames, spinning frames and power looms introduced during the Industrial Revolution threatened to replace the artisans with less-skilled, low-wage laborers, leaving them without work. • Railroads: (Impact on society?) Designed to move coal and bulk goods, but it would eventually move people. Changed the economy, but most of all changed the nature of people's lives. New concepts of time, space and speed governed daily activities.

Causes of the French Revolution

• The "Old Regime": the monarchic, aristocratic, social and political system established in the Kingdom of France from approximately the 15th century until the later 18th century • Growing Debt: defeat in the Seven Years War under Louis XV, then increased debt from backing Colonists in American Civil War. • Increased resentment by the Third Estates-some started to equal or exceed the wealth of nobles, but did not have access to the same privileges.

The quest for colonies

• The Scramble for Africa: the invasion, occupation, colonization, and annexation of African territory by European powers during the period of New Imperialism between 1881 and 1914. • Models of Colonialism • Formal Military Empires Africa • Formal, but indirect rule over hierarchical societies India • United States Model hegemonic (leadership) influence & outright control • Berlin Conference, 1884: regulated European colonisation and trade in Africa during the New Imperialism period, and coincided with Germany's sudden emergence as an imperial power. Called for by Portugal and organized by Otto von Bismarck, first Chancellor of Germany, its outcome, the General Act of the Berlin Conference, can be seen as the formalization of the Scramble for Africa. The conference ushered in a period of heightened colonial activity by European powers, which eliminated or overrode most existing forms of African autonomy and self-governance. • Cecil Rhodes/Justification for Taking Control: a British businessman, mining magnate, and politician inSouth Africa. Rhodes was named the chairman of De Beers at the company's founding in 1888. • Impact on the Native Populations: A large percentage of the population died to due disease and ill treatment; all regions except Ethiopia were conquered, so the Africans struggled to gain their independence back.

How did Great Britain deal with the social concerns of the working class?

• Trade Unions: an organization of workers who have united together to achieve common goals such as protecting the integrity of its trade, achieving higher pay and benefits such as health care and retirement, increasing the number of employees an employer assigns to complete the work, safety standards, and better working conditions. The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members. • Labour Party: The Labour Party's origins lie in the late 19th century, around which time it became apparent that there was a need for a new political party to represent the interests and needs of the urban proletariat, a demographic which had increased in number and had recently been given franchise. Some members of the trades union movement became interested in moving into the political field, and after further extensions of the voting franchise in 1867 and 1885, the Liberal Party endorsed some trade-union sponsored candidates. The first Lib-Lab candidate to stand was George Odger in the Southwark by-election of 1870. In addition, several small socialist groups had formed around this time, with the intention of linking the movement to political policies. • Reform in Parliament: successful propagandists were able to keep issues of social reform in the public eye; intellectuals now joined with trade unionists in demanding public housing, better public sanitation, municipal reforms and improved pay/benefits for working people. • Fabians: Originally, the Fabian society was committed to the establishment of a socialist economy, alongside a commitment to British imperialism as a progressive and modernizing force.

The Estates General

• Voting Problem: The third estate demanded 'vote by head', so that their 600 representatives could equal or even outvote the 300 representatives of the nobility and the 300 representatives of the clergy. Instead, voting took place where each estate was given one vote, thus the nobility and clergy nearly always outvoted the third estate, 2-1. • Cahiers de Dolénces: the list of grievances the people of France drew up then carried to Versailles by the deputies elected to the Estates General.

Modern Europe

• War in the Balkans • Kosovo • The European Union- the euro, created a more connected Europe • Foreign Workers • Terrorism: o Al Queada o Taliban o Jihad o Osama bin Laden o Counter-Terrorism Efforts

The Welfare State & Post WWII Culture

• Welfare State: aimed to protect citizens through the establishment of a decent standard of living available for everyone • New Consumption Goods: Consumer Goods; People wanted new products and economies had to produce them (in the west). • Cultural Changes: o "Baby Boom" after WWII o Family Life- education about childcare o Women's Protest Groups emerge- "Ban the Boom" o The Feminine Mystique o The "Generation Gap": the look at adolescent culture as a foreign group! o Anti-War Movements and Social Protests

After the Soviet Union

• Worked to create a capitalist economy o After August 1991, pushed for privatization of industry & lifted price controls set up by Soviet Government o But inflation increased despite efforts to control it • Black Market- o Tied to the Mafia, became the new business leaders of Russia o Used dollars & neither banks nor police could stop them o Restaurants, taxis, businesses all took dollars despite this being illegal! • Russian Ruble: Inflation & power of Russian Mafia weakened the value o Crashed in Oct. 1994 o After 2000, increased due to oil revenues o Poverty began to decline after 1994