AP European History - Realism

Mazzini

- the Risorgimento was transformed by Mazzini's writings into an intensely moral campaign for Italian national unity. - Mazzini had seen his hopes for a unified republican Italy elevated for a brief moment and then blasted in the general debacle of 1848. - In the stormy events of 1848 the papacy vehemently rejected the radical romantic republicanism of Mazzini, Garibaldi, and other firebrands - the pope could no longer be expected to support the cause of Italian nationalism.

What is meant by the statement, "Italy was 'made'"

- Italy had been made by the high minded cultural nationalism of Mazzini, the audacity of Garibaldi, and the cold policy of Cavour. - In the end, however, the Italians also achieved national unification through insurrections, armed violence, and the endorsement of popula votes.

The Ems Telegram

- The French government instructed Benedetti to approach the king again at Ems and demand that no time in the future would any Hohenzollern ever become a candidate for the Spanish throne. - The king politely declined any such commitment and telegraphed a full report of the conversation to Bismark at Berlin. - Bismarck saw an opportunity as he put it to wave a red flag before the Gallic Bull. - He condensed the ems telegram for publication, so reducing and abridging it so that it appeared as if the curt exchange had occurred at Ems in which the Prussians believed their king had been insulted, and the French believed their ambassador had been snubbed.

How was the creation of the German Empire significant?

- The German Empire in effect served as a mechanism to magnify the role of Prussia, the Prussian army, and the East Elbian Prussian aristocracy in world affairs. - (More of this answer found in the German Empire ID)

The Compromise of 1867

- A compromise was worked out between the Germans of Austria-Bohemia and the Magyars of Hungary. - It worked to the common disadvantage of the Slavs who were viewed as backward, less civilized people by both the Germans and the Magyars. - The compromise created a Dual Monarchy, a kind unparalleled in Europe.

Bach

- Alexander Bach. - Of whom the Bach system was named after. - He was the minister of the interior in the Austrian Empire.

the emancipation of the serfs (1861)

- Alexander's father Nicholas I had taken serious measures to alleviate serfdom and Alexander II created a branch of government to study the issue. - The government did not wish to throw the whole labor system and economy of the country into chaos, nor to run the gentry class without which it could not govern at all. - After many discussions, proposals, and memoranda, an imperial ukase of 1861 declared serfdom abolished and the peasants free. - The peasants therefore became subjects of the government, not subjects of their owners. - It was hoped that they would have a new sense of human dignity. - The gentry lost their old quasi-manorial jurisdiction over the villages. - They could no longer exact forced and unpaid labor or receive fees arising from servitude.

The German Empire

- At the palace of Versailles, Bismarck on January 18, 1871 arranged for the German Empire to be proclaimed. - The king of Prussia received the hereditary title of German emperor. - The other German rulers (except the ruler of Austria and those whom Bismarck had dethroned) accepted his imperial authority. - Ten days later, France gave up and opened their gates to Prussia. - With no government in France in which Bismarck could maker peace, it was not clear what kind of government the country wanted. - Bismarck insisted on the election of a Constituent Assembly by universal suffrage. - He demanded that France pay the German Empire a war indemnity of five billion gold francs. - The consolidation of Germany transformed the face of Europe. - The German Empire was the strongest state on the continent of Europe. - Rapidly industrialized after 1870, it became more potent still. - The united all-German state that issued from the nationalist movement was a Germany conquered by Prussia. - With the new empire, Prussia directly controlled about two-thirds of the whole imperial territory. - The Prussians liberals capitulated during this time and liberalism withered away before nationalism. - The Empire received substantially the constitution of the North German Confederation. - It was a federation of monarchies, each based in theory on divine or hereditary right. - It also rested on mass appeal and was in a sense democratic. - Yet the country's ministers were responsible to the emperor not to the elected chamber. - The emperor, who was also the king of Prussia, had legal control over the foreign and military policy of the empire.

What did emancipation do and not do?

- Emancipation allocated about half the land to the gentry and have to the former serfs. - The serfs had to pay redemption money for the land they received and for the fees which the gentry had lost. - The Russian aristocracy was far from weakened; in place of a kind of human property largely mortgaged anyway, they now had clear possession of some half of the land, they received the redemption money, and they were rid of obligations to the peasants. - The peasants now owned some half of the land which was a considerable amount by the standards of almost any European country. - They did not however possess it according to the principles of private property or independent farming like in Europe. - The peasant land became the collective property of the ancient peasant village assembly called the mir. - The village was responsible to the government for payment of redemption and for collection of the necessary sums from its members. - The village assembly, in default of collection, might require forced labor from the defaulter or a member of his family; and it could prevent peasants from moving away from the village, lest those remaining bear the whole burden of payment. - It could assign and reassign certain lands to its members for tillage. - To keep the village intact, the government did not allow the selling of land to people outside the village. - This tended to keep the peasant society intact but also discouraged in the investment of outside capital, with which equipment might be purchased, and so to retard agricultural improvement and the growth of wealth. - Also, not all peasants within the village unit were equal. - Some had the right to work more land than others, and some were only day laborers. - Others had rights of inheritance in the soil or rented additional parcels of land belonging to the gentry. - None of the Russian peasants after the emancipation possessed full individual freedom of action. - In their movements and obligations, as in their thoughts, they were restricted by their villages as they had once been restricted by their lords.

inner zone

- the inner zone was called by a Frenchman the "Europe of steam." - It included Glasgow, Stockholm, Danzig, Trieste, Florence, Barcelona, Great Britain, Belgium, Germany, France, northern Italy, and the western portions of the Austrian Empire. - Virtually all heavy European industry was in this zone. - Here the railway network was the thickest, and the wealth of Europe was concentrated, in the form of high living standard and of accumulations of capital. - Here lay the strength of constitutional and parliamentary government and of liberal, humanitarian, socialist, and reformist movements of many kinds. - In this zone, the death rate was low, life expectancy was high, conditions of health and sanitation were at their best, literacy was almost universal, and productivity of labor was impressive.

What are the evidence and indices on the advancement of Europe in the late 19th century?

- Evidence of the advancement of Europe is seen in the higher standard of living. - They ahd ocean liners, railroads, streetcars, telephones, and electric lights. - Knowledge is also an example of the civilized nature of Europe. - Scientific knowledge of nature was put in place of superstition. - People were aware of the earth as a whole with its general contours and diverse inhabitants. - There are certain indices worked out by sociologists to show the level of advancement of a given society. - One of these is the death rate, or number of persons per thousand of population who die each year. - In England, France, and Sweden, the "true" death rate (not including deaths of infants or the elderly) fell from about 25 before 1850 to 19 in 1914 and 18 in the 1930s. - Death rates in countries that are not "modern" usually run over 40. - Another index is infant mortality, which fell rapidly after 1870 in all countries affected by medical science. - Therefore, a women under more modern conditions had to go through pregnancy and childbirth less often to produce the same number of surviving children. - Another index is life expectancy. - In England, life expectancy rose from 40 years in the 1840s to 59 in 1933 and to 78 in the beginning of the 21st century. - In India in 1931, it was less than 27 years. - It had risen to about 62 in 2001. - Another index is literacy rate. - In northwestern Europe by 1900 it had approached 100, whereas in some countries of the world it had not risen very far above zero. - Another index is productivity of labor. - In the 1930s, the productivity of a farmer in Denmark was over ten times that of a farmer in Albania - All northwestern Europe was above the European average with the exception of Ireland, whereas Ireland, Spain, Portugal, Italy, and all eastern countries were below it. - From these indices, Europe can be considered the center of modern civilization that was expanding rapidly around the world.

Charles Darwin

- Evolutionary philosophies, holding that the way to understand anything was to understand its development, was not new. - What Darwin did was to stamp evolution with the seal of science, marshaling the evidence for it and offering an explanation for how it worked. - In 1871 with The Descent of Man he applied the same hypothesis to human beings. - By evolution, Darwin meant that species are mutable, that no species is created to remain unchanged once and for all, and that all species of living organisms have developed by successive small changes from other species that went before them. - An important corollary was that all life was interrelated and subject to the same laws. - Another corollary was that the whole history of living things on earth was a unified history unfolding continuously in a single complex process of evolution. - Darwin thought that species changed not by any intelligent or purposeful activity in the organism but essentially by a kind of chance. - Individual organisms, through the play of heredity, inherited slightly different characteristics, some more useful than others in food getting, fighting, or mating - the organisms that had the most useful characteristics tended to survive, so that their characteristics were passed on to offspring, until the whole species gradually changed.

What was the "characteristic tone" of German philosophy

- German philosophy tended to criticize modern individualism and to skip lightly over liberal conceptions of individual liberty - it also tended to glorify group loyalties, the nation, and the state - It emphasized the progressive evolution of history, which in the thought of Hegel, and after him Marx, became a vast impersonal force almost independent of human beings. - History was said to ordain, require, condemn, justify, or excuse. - What one did not like could be dismissed as a mere historical phase, opening into a quite different and more attractive future. - What one wanted, in the present or future, could be described as historically necessary and bound to come.

Commodore Perry

- In 1853, he forced his way into Yedo Bay with a fleet of naval vessels, insisted upon landing, and demanded of the Japanese that it engage in commercial relations with the US and other Western powers. - Perry had many potential allies within Japan. - There were nobles, heavily in debt, unable to draw more income from agriculture, willing to embark upon foreign trade and to exploit their property by introducing new enterprises. - There were penurious samurai with no future in the old system ready and willing to enter upon new careers as army officers or civil officials. - There were merchants hoping to add to their business by dealing in Western goods. - There were scholars eager to learn more of Western science and medicine. - There were patriots fearful that Japan was becoming defenseless against Western guns. - Spiritually, the country was already adrift. - Under such pressure, the shogun Iesada in 1854 signed a commercial treaty with the US, and similar treaties were soon signed with the Europeans.

What was Napoleon III's "solution" to the problem of mass democracy?

- In all other great Continental states and in Great Britain, in 1852, universal suffrage was thought to be incompatible with intelligent government and economic prosperity. - Napoleon claimed to put them together. - Like Marx and other realists after 1848, he held that elected parliamentary bodies, far from representing an abstract "people," only accentuated class divisions within a country. - He declared that the regime of the restored Bourbons and the July Monarchy had been dominated by special interests; that the Republic of 1848 had first been violent and then had fallen into the hands of a distrustful assembly that robbed the laboring man of his vote; and that France would find in the empire the permanent, popular, and modern system for which it had been vainly searching since 1789. - He affirmed that he stood above classes and would govern equally in the interests of all. - In any case, like many other political leaders after 1848, he held that forms of government were less important than economic and social realities.

materialism

- In basic philosophy, the new intellectual themes appeared as materialism, holding that everything mental, spiritual, or ideal was an outgrowth of physical or physiological forces. - In literature and the arts, it was called realism.

Realpolitik

- In politics, the new emphasis on realism came to be known by the German term Realpolitik, meaning "politics of reality.' - In domestic affairs, it meant that people should give up utopian dreams, such as had caused the debacle of 1848. and content themselves with the blessings of an orderly, honest, hard-working government. - For radicals it meant that people should stop imagining that the new society would result from goodness or the love of justice and that social reforms must resort to the methods of politics --- power and calculation. - In international affairs, realpolitik meant that governments should not be guided by ideology or by any system of "natural" enemies or "natural" allies or by any desire to defend or support any particular view of the world. - They should instead follow their own practical or strategic interests, meet facts and situations as they arose, make any alliances that seemed useful, disregard ethical theories and scruples, and use any practical means to achieve their ends. - Pacifism and cosmopolitan hopes were dismissed as soft hearted. - War, which had been attempted to avoid since Napoleon, was accepted in the 1850s as a strategic option that was sometimes needed to achieve a political purpose. - It was not glorious or an end in itself but simply one of the tools of realistic statesmanship. - It was by no means confined to Germany even though the German chancellor Bismarck became its most famous practitioner.

Napoleon III

- Louis Napoleon Bonaparte. - Elected president of the French Republic in 1848. - Became chief of state and then Emperor in 1852 on a wave of popular criticism. - Like Napoleon I, he came to power because of the fear of radicalism in a discredited republic. - He had no other resemblance to Napoleon in that he was not a soldier or great organizer. - He felt for the plight of the working class. - Where Napoleon I had a disdainful opinion of the public, Napoleon III saw opportunity in it. - He understood and appealed to his people. - He also gloried in modern progress, and he embodied the sovereignty of the people. - Believed in freedom of international trade, including a free trade treaty with the newly anti-Corn Laws Great Britain. - Through this policy, however, Napoleon made certain industrialist enemies. - ALso faced opposition from Catholics with his intervention in Italy, where he briefly joined an Anti-Austrian military campaign in 1859. - In 1860, more opposition mounted. - He granted more leeway to the Legislative Body. - The 1860s are called the decade of the Liberal Empire. - He ruined himself by war. - His empire evaporated on the battlefield in 1870, but he was at war long before that.

What saved Marxism?

- Marx's ideas probably would have been domesticated into the general body of European thought - much less would have been said about them in later years in Europe or elsewhere had the old Europe not gone to pieces in the twentieth century wars and and had Marxism not been revied by Lenin and transplanted to Russia.

realism

- Materialism in arts and literature. - Writers and painters broke away from romanticism, which they said colored things out of all relation to the real facts. - They attempted to describe and reproduce life as they found it without intimation of a better or nobler world.

Positivism

- More generally, however, positivism came to mean an insistence on verifiable facts, an avoidance of wishful thinking, a questioning of all assumptions, and a dislike of unprovable generalizations. - Positivism, in a broad sense, both in its demand for observation of facts and testing of ideas and its aspiration to be humanly useful, contributed to the growth of the social sciences as a branch of learning.

skepticism

- More people came to trust science not merely for an understanding of nature but for insights into the true meaning of human life and social relations. - In religion, the movement was toward skepticism, renewing skeptical trends of the eighteenth century, which had been somewhat interrupted by Romanticism. - It was variously held by many that religion was unscientific and hence not to be taken seriously or that it was a mere historical growth among peoples in certain stages of development and hence irrelevant to modern civilization - that one ought to go to church and lead a decent life without taking the clergy too seriously because religion was necessary to preserve the social order against radicalism and anarchy.

The Communist Manifesto

- Much of Marx's thoughts were seized upon and dramatized in The Communist Manifesto as a summons to revolution. - As a call to action, the Communist Manifesto was meant to be inflammatory. - It went beyond facts to denunciation and exhortation. - It said that workers were deprived of of the wealth they themselves had created. - It called the state a committee of the bourgeoisie for the exploitation of the people. - Religion was a drug to keep the worker quietly dreaming upon imaginary rewards. - To Marx and Engels, it seemed that the workers should be loyal to nothing except their class, and every country had become meaningless because the proletarian had no country. - Workers everywhere had the same problem and faced the same enemy.

The socialist emperor

- Napoleon III was called this by Saint-Simonians (wanted planned industrial cities). - The Saint-Simonians of the 1850s shared in a new sense of being realistic, and their biggest triumph was the invention of investment banking, by which they they hoped to guide economic growth through the concentration of financial resources. - France entered into a distinctive French version of the Industrial Revolution. - Railway mileage increased, and the emperor aspired to do something for the working class. - He wanted to organize the forces of workers in military fashion and set them to clear and develop uncultivated land. - This was not exactly the result, but much was accomplished in the humanitarian aspect of suffering. - Hospitals and asylums were established, and free medicine was given out. - The outlines of a social welfare state began to somewhat appear. - The workers made unions, and it soon became legal for workers to go on strike.

What were the strengths and weaknesses of Marxism?

- One of the strengths of Marxism was that it claimed to be scientific. - Marx classified earlier and rival forms of socialism as utopian: they rested on moral indignation, and their formula for reforming society was for human beings to become more just, or for the upper classes to be converted to sympathy for the lower. - Marx insisted his own doctrine had nothing to do with ethical ideas but was purely scientific, resting upon the study of actual facts and real processes, and it showed that socialism would not be a miraculous reversal but a historical continuation of what was already taking place. - He also considered it utopian and unscientific to describe the future in great detail. - It would be classless, with neither bourgeois or proletarian; but to lay any specific plans would be idle dreaming. - Let the revolution come, and socialism would take care of the rest. - Marxism was a strong compound of the scientific, the historical, the metaphysical, and the apocalyptic, but some elements of Marxism stood in the way of its natural propagation. - The working people of Europe were not really in the frame of mind of an army in battle. - They hesitated to subordinate all else to the distant prospect of class revolution. - They were not exclusively class-people, nor did they behave as such. - They still held to the religious beliefs or to a political faith in natural rights that could not portray morality as simply a class weapon or right and justice as trash. - Increasingly, they had national loyalties to a country. - Only with great difficulty could they associate themselves emotionally with a world proletariat in an unrelenting struggle against their own neighbors.

the unification of Italy

- Persuading Napoleon III to cooperate with Cavour's plan was not difficult. - The Bonapartes looked upon Italy as their ancestral country, and Napoleon III, in his adventurous youth, had traveled in conspiratorial Italian circles and even participated in an Italian insurrection in 1831. - Now, as emperor he entertained a "doctrine of nationalities," which held the consolidation of nations to be a forward step at the existing stage of history. - In April 1850, Cavour tricked Austria into a declaration of war, and a French army poured over the alps. - Both battles, Magenta and Solferino, were won by the French and Piedmontese, but Napoleon III was now in a quandary. - With the defeat of the Austrians, revolutionary agitation broke out, and the French emperor was no patron of popular revolution. - The revolutionaries overthrew or denounced the existing governments and clamored for annexation to Piedmont. - In France, the Catholics, fearful that the pope's temporal power would be lost, upbraided the emperor for his godlessness and unnecessary war. - The French position was odd in that while the bulk of the French army fought Austria in the North a detachment was still stationed in Rome to protect the pope from Italian republicanism. - Napoleon III stupefied Cavour by making a separate peace with the Austrians. - This agreement gave Lombardy to Piedmont but left Venetia with the Austrian Empire. - It offered a compromise to solution to the Italian question in the form of a federal union of the existing Italian governments to be presided over by the Pope. - This was not what Cavour or the Piedmontese, or the more fiery Italian patriots wanted. - Revolution continued to spread across the northern Italian states. - More states were annexed to Piedmont after plebiscites or general elections in these regions showed an overwhelming popular favor for this step. - Representatives of all north Italy except Venetia met at the Piedmontese capital of Turnin in 1860 in the first parliament of the enlarged kingdom. - After Garibaldi, plebiscites held in the two Sicilies showed an almost unanimous willingness to join with Piedmont. - In the remainder of the papal states except for Rome and its environs, plebiscites were held also with the same result. - A parliament representing all of Italy except Rome and Venetia met in 1861, and the Kingdom of Italy was formally proclaimed with Victor Emmanuel II as king. - Venetia was added in 1866 as a reward for Italian aid to Prussia in a war against Austria. - Rome was annexed in 1870 after the withdrawal of French troops in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870.

Sardinia/Piedmont

- Piedmont was ruled since 1848 as a constitutional monarchy and was now under King Victor Emmanuel. - The prime minister after 1852 was Cavour.

How did the pope, Pius IX, react to the Revolutions of 1848?

- Pius IX, the "liberal pope" of 1846, returned to the papal throne and rejected all of his earlier liberal ideas. - The breach between liberalism and Roman Catholicism, which had opened wide in the first French Revolution, was made a yawning chasm (gap) by the revolutionary violence of Mazzini's Roman Republic and by the measures taken to repress it. - Pius IX now reiterated the anathemas of his predecessors - He codified them in the Syllabus of Errors.

Auguste Comte

- Positivism originated with him. - He had begun to publish as long ago as 1830 and was still writing into the 1850s. - He saw human history as a series of three stages- the theological, the metaphysical, and the scientific. - In his opinion, the French revolutions of 1789 and 1848 suffered due to an excess of metaphysical abstraction, empty words, and unverifiable high-flying principles. - Those who worked for the improvement of society must adopt a strictly scientific outlook, and he produced an elaborate classification of the sciences of which the highest would be the science of society, for which he coined the world "sociology." - This new science would build upon of actual "positive" facts to develop broad scientific laws of social progress. - Comte himself and his closest disciples contemplated a final scientific Religion of Humanity in the future which would be stripped of archaic theological and metaphysical concerns and serve as a basis for a better world of the future.

Cavour

- Prime minister of Piedmont. - He was one of the shrewdest political tacticians of that or any age. - He was a liberal of Western type, tried to make the state a model of progress, efficiency, and fair government that other Italians would admire, worked hard to plant constitutional and parliamentary practices, favored the building of railroads and docks, the improvement if agriculture, and the emancipation of trade, and followed a strongly anti clerical policy, cutting down the number of religious holidays, limiting the right of church bodies to own real estate, abolishing church courts--- all with our negotiation with the Holy See. - A liberal and constitutional monarchist, a wealthy landowner in his own right, he had no sympathy for the revolutionary, romantic, and republican nationalism of Mazzini. - Cavour shared in the new realism and was willing to work with romantic republicans serendipitously eventhough he did not approve of them. - He did not idealize war but was willing to make war to unify Italy under the house of Savoy. - He took Piedmont into the Crimean War, sending troops to Russia with the hope of winning a place at the peace table and raising the Italian Question at the Congress of Paris. - It was evident to him that against one great power one must pit another and that the only way to get Austria out of Italy was to use the French army. - He therefore developed a master plan to provoke war with Austria, after having assured himself of French military support.

How did Russia differ from the rest of Europe?

- Russia was different in several institutions. - The leading one was the autocracy of the tsar, which was not the absolutism known in the West. - In Russia, certain very old European conceptions were missing, such as the idea that spiritual authority is independent of any prince or the old feudal idea of reciprocal duties between the king and subject. - The notion that people have certain rights or claims for justice at the hands of power, which no one in Europe had ever rejected, was in Russia somewhat doctrine imported from the West. - The tsardom did not rule by law; it ran the country by ukase, police action, and the army. - More than any state in Europe, the Russian empire was a machine superimposed upon its people without organic connection. - The ideas from the West such as liberty, fraternity, just and classless society, and moral freedom were feared by the Russian government and any idea of this kind was severely censored. - Another institution was serfdom, of which the bulk of the population was bound to. - Russian serfdom was more onerous than the kind in east-central Europe until 1848. - It resembled the slavery in America, in that the serfs were owned, could be brought and sold, and used other than agriculture labor. - Another distinctive feature was the intelligentsia. - In Russia, it was though so exciting to be educated that the intelligentsia felt themselves a class apart. - These people were students and graduates who could not necessarily think freely, had a characteristic feeling of opposition, especially towards tsardom and serfdom. -Some even became revolutionary and terrorist philosophies which only made the government more fearful and anxious.

Lombardy, Venetia, the Papal States, Naples

- The Franco-Austrian agreement gave Lombardy to Piedmont but left Venetia with the Austrian Empire. - After Garibaldi, plebiscites held in the two Sicilies (Naples) showed an almost unanimous willingness to join with Piedmont. - In the remainder of the papal states except for Rome and its environs, plebiscites were held also with the same result.

What were the results of the American Civil War?

- The North won the war and the Union was upheld. - The power and influence of the United States continued to grow, and people in the Americas reaffirmed their independence from the Old World. - The Mexicans rid themselves of their unwanted European emperor. - Tsar Alexander II sold Alaska to the US. - The war ended the idea of the Union as a confederation of member states from which members might withdraw at will. - In its place triumphed the idea that the United States was a national state, composed not of member states but of a unitary people irrevocably bound together. - This doctrine was written explicitly into the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which pronounced all Americans to be citizens of their several states but of the United States and forbade any state to deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law---due process to be determined by authority of the national government. - The new force of central authority was felt first of all in the South. - President Lincoln, using his war powers, issued the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, abolishing slavery in areas engaged in hostilities against the US. - The thirteenth amendment in 1865 abolished slavery everywhere in the country. - No compensation was paid to the slave owners who were therefore financially ruined. - The abolitionist campaign for human rights of black Americans prevailed over the historic American deference to the rights of property.

What is the chief significance of the Crimean War?

- The chief significance of the Crimean War for Europe is that it seriously weakened both Austria and Russia, the two powers most bent on preserving the peace settlement of 1815 and on preventing national changes. - It was also the first war covered by newspaper correspondents, and the first in which women, led by Florence Nightingale, established their position as army nurses.

Emperor Francis Jospeh

- The essential question in a nationalistic age was how the Hapsburg government, primarily Francis Joseph, would react to the problems raised by national self expression. - He was emperor from 1848 to 1916. - Like many others, he could never shake off his own tradition. - His thoughts turned on his house and on its rights. - Buffeted unmercifully by the waves of change and by central European nationalisms, he cordially disliked everything liberal, progressive, or modern. - Personally, Francis Joseph was incapable of enlarged views, ambitious projects, bold decisions, or preserving action. - And he lived in a pompous dream world, surrounded in the imperial court by great noblemen, high churchmen, and bespangled personages of the army.

What were the "ideal" and the "aim" of the Bach System?

- The ideal was to create a perfectly solid and unitary political system. - The aim of the system was to make people forget liberty in an overwhelming demonstration of administrative efficiency and material progress. - But some would not forget, such as a liberal that said the Bach system consisted of "a standing army of soldiers, a sitting army of officials, a kneeling army of priests, and a creeping army of informers."

"the labor theory of value"

- The labor theory of value holds that the capital of any human-made object depended ultimately on the amount of labor put into it--- capital being regarded as the stored up labor of former times. - Orthodox economists soon discarded the the theory that economic value is produced by the input of labor alone. - Marx developed his doctrine of surplus value from the labor theory of value.

What traits among the Prussian people allowed Bismarck to triumph over liberalism?

- The limitations of Prussian liberalism - the docility of the population, the respect of officialdom -the belief that the king and his ministers were wiser than the elected deputies - were all clear examples of the triumph of military policy over the theory of government by consent.

The Meiji Era

- The lords of Choshu and Satsuma now concluded that the only way to deal with the West was to adopt the military and technical equipment of the West itself. - They would save Japan for the Japanese by learning the secrets of modern Western power. - First they forced the resignation of the shogun whose prestige had long been undermined anyway and who now discredited himself first by signing undesirable treaties with the West and then failing to protect the country from outrage. - The last shogun abdicated in 1867. - The reformers declared the emperor restored to his full authority. - It was their intention to use the imperial throne to consolidate and fortify the throne; his name was Mutsuhito; according to Japanese custom, a name was given to his reign also, which was called Meji. The Meji Era was the first great era of modernization of Japan.

How did the failure of 1848 affect Italians?

- The nationalists in Italy were disillusioned with the firecracker methods of romantic republicans and were inclined to now conclude that Italy would be liberated from the Austrian influence only by an old-fashioned war between established powers.

What was the "novel and upsetting" effect of Darwin's theory?

- The novel and upsetting effect was to change the conception of nature. - Nature was no longer a harmony; it was a scene of struggle. - Elimination of the weak was natural, and it might even be considered good so far as it contributed to evolutionary development. - Such conceptions of what was good or beneficial for evolutionary progress profoundly challenged traditional religious ideas about morality and virtue. - There were no fixed species or perfected forms, but only an unending flux. - Change was everlasting; and everything seemed relative to time, place, and environment. - There were no norms of good and bad - a good organism was one that survived where other perished - adaptation replaced virtue - outside it there was nothing "right." - The test was, in short, success - the "fit" were the successful.

Describe Comte's philosophy of Positivism.

- Those who worked for the improvement of society must adopt a strictly scientific outlook, and Comte produced an elaborate classification of the sciences of which the highest would be the science of society, for which Comte coined the world "sociology." - This new science would build upon of actual "positive" facts to develop broad scientific laws of social progress. - Comte himself and his closest disciples contemplated a final scientific Religion of Humanity in the future which would be stripped of archaic theological and metaphysical concerns and serve as a basis for a better world of the future. - More generally, however, positivism came to mean an insistence on verifiable facts, an avoidance of wishful thinking, a questioning of all assumptions, and a dislike of unprovable generalizations. - Positivism, in a broad sense, both in its demand for observation of facts and testing of ideas and its aspiration to be humanly useful, contributed to the growth of the social sciences as a branch of learning.

The North German Confederation

- The old governments simply disappeared in Hanover, the dutchies of Nassau and Hesse-Cassel, and the free city of Frankfurt. - The German federal union disappeared likewise. - In its place, 1867, Bismark organized a North German Confederation, in which the newly enlarged Prussia joined with 21 other states, all of which combined it greatly outweighed. - The German states south of the river Main--- Austria, Bavaria, Baden, Wurttemberg, and Hesse-Darmstadt--- remained outside the new organization with no kind of union among themselves. - Meanwhile, the kingdom of Italy annexed Venetia. For the North German Confederation, Bismark produced a constitution. - The new structure, though a federal one, was much stronger than the now defunct Confederation of 1815. - The king of Prussia became its hereditary head. *Ministers were responsible to him. *There was a parliament with two chambers. - The upper chamber, as in the United States, represented the states as such, though not equally. - The lower chamber, or Reichstag, was deemed to represent the people and was elected by universal male suffrage. - Such flirting with democracy seemed madness to both conservative Junker and liberal bourgeoisie, which was indeed a bold step. - The German socialists reached an understanding with Bismark. *In return for a democratic suffrage they agreed to accept the North German Confederation.

mir

- The peasant land became the collective property of the ancient peasant village assembly. *See #18.

The Crimean War

- The pressure of Russia upon Turkey was an old story. \ - Every generation saw its Russo-Turkish war. - In the last Russo-Turkish war in 1828-1829, Tsar Nicholas I protected the independence of newly won by Greece and annexed the left bank of the mouth of the Danube. - Now, in 1853, Nicholas again made demands upon the still large but decaying Ottoman Empire, moving in on the two Danubian principalities Wallachia and Moldavia with military forces. - The dispute this time ostensibly involved the protection of Christians in the Ottoman Empire, including the foreign Christians at Jerusalem and Palestine. - Over these Christians the French also claimed a certain protective jurisdiction. - The French had for centuries been the principal Western people in the Middle East. - Napoleon III now had his own aspirations in the Middle East and encouraged the Turkish government to resist Russian claims to protect Christianity within Turkey. - War between Russia and Turkey broke out late in 1853. - In 1854 France joined the side of the Turks, as did Great Britain, whose settled policy was to uphold Turkey and the Middle East against penetration by Russia. - The two Western powers were soon joined by a small ally, the kingdom of Sardinia, better known as Piedmont,which entered as a means to influence the Italian question. - The British fleet successfully blockaded Russia in both its Baltic and Black Sea outlets. - French and British armies invaded Russia itself, landing in the Crimean peninsula, to which all important fighting was confined. - The Austrian Empire had its own reasons not to want Russia to conquer the Balkans and Constantinople or to see Britain and France master the situation alone; Austria, therefore, mobilized its armed forces at a great effort to itself and occupied Wallachia and Moldavia, which the Russians evacuated under this threat of attack by a new enemy. - Tsar Nicholas died and his successor Alexander II sued for peace. - A congress of all the great powers made peace in Paris in 1856. - By the treaty, the powers pledged themselves jointly to maintain the integrity of the Ottoman Empire. - The Russian tide ebbed a little. - Russia ceded the left bank of the Danube to Moldavia and gave up its claim to the special protection of Christians in the Turkish Empire. - Moldavia and Wallachia, together with Serbia, were recognized as self-governing principalities under protection of the European powers.

Friedrich Engels

- The son of a well-to-do German textile manufacturer who was sent as a young man to Manchester where his father owned a factory in order to learn the business and then manage it. - Marx and Engels met in Paris in 1844 where they began a collaboration in thinking and writing that lasted 40 years. - In 1847, they joined the Communist League, a tiny, secret group of revolutionaries, mainly Germans in exile in the more liberal cities of Western Europe. -The word communist had only a vague and uncertain meaning, and Engels said that the League was not more than a German branch of the French secret societies. - It was for this league that Marx and Engels wrote their Communist Manifesto in 1848. - With the failure of the revolutions, Engels returned to the his factory at Manchester. - Engaged in the Manchester cotton Industry, Engles possessed a personal knowledge of the new industrial and factory system in England. - He was in touch with some of the most radical Chartists though he had no confidence in Chartism as a constructive movement. - He drew from his observations much the same conclusions that Marx drew from philosophical analysis and historical study.

What three "national streams" merged to form Marxism?

- The three national streams that merged to form Marxism were German philosophy, French revolutionism, and the British Industrial Revolution.

Garibaldi

- There was now a north Italy kingdom, the papal states in the middle, and the kingdom of the Two Sicilies in the south in Naples ruled by a Bourbon king. - The latter was being undermined by revolutionary agitation. - A Piedmontese republican, Garibaldi, brought matters to a head. - He had fought for the independence of Uruguay, lived in the US, and been one of the Triumvirs in the short lived Roman Republic of 1849. - He now organized a group of about 1,150 followers-- Garibaldi's thousand or the red shirts-- for an armed expedition to the south. - Cavour, unable to openly favor such action against a neighboring state, connived at Garibaldi's preparation and departure. - Garibaldi landed and crossed to the mainland, and revolutionaries hasted to join him. - The government of the Two Sicilies, backward and corrupt, commanding little loyalty from its population, collapsed before this picture-esque intrusion. - He now prepared to push from Naples up to Rome where he would of course meet the pope and a French army, and the international scandal would reverberate through the globe. - Cavour decided that such an extreme step must be averted, but Garibaldi's success must at the same time be used. - Garibaldi was not willing to accept a monarchy as the best solution to the problem of Italian unification and rode through the streets with Victor Emmanuel.

The Risorgimento

- There was widespread disgust in Italy with the existing authorities, and a growing desire for a liberal national state in which all Italy might be embodied and which might resurrect the the Italian grandeur of ancient times and of the Renaissance. - The sentiment, the dream of an Italian Risorgimento or resurgence, had become very heated at the time of the French Revolution and Napoleon and had been then transformed by the writings of Mazzini into an intensely moral campaign for Italian national unity.

"the doctrine of surplus value"

- To simplify, the doctrine of surplus value meant, in effect, that the workers were being robbed. - They received in wages only a fraction of the value of the products which their labor produced. - The difference was expropriated by the Bourgeoisie capitalists--- the private owners of the machines and factories. - And because the workers never received in wages the equivalent of what they produced, capitalism was constantly menaced by overproduction, the accumulation of goods that people could not afford to buy. - Hence it ran repeatedly into crises and depressions and was obliged to be constantly expanding in search of new markets.

The Dual Monarchy

- West of the river Leith was the Empire of Austria; east of it was the kingdom of Hungary. - The two were now judged exactly equal. - Each had its own constitution and parliament, to which in each country the governing ministry was henceforth to be responsible. - The administrative language of Austria would be German; of Hungary, Magyar. - Neither state might interfere in the other's affairs. - The two were joined by the fact that the same Hapsburg ruler should always be emperor in Austria and king in Hungary. - Yet the union was not personal only; for, though there was no common parliament, delegates of the two parliaments were to meet together alternately in Vienna and Budapest, and there was to be a common ministry for finance, foreign affairs, and war. - To this common ministry of Austria-Hungary both Austrians and Hungarians were to be appointed. - Both Austria and Hungary under the Dual Monarchy were in form constitutional parliamentary states, although the principle of the ministerial responsibility was not consistently honored. - Neither was democratic.

Social Darwinism

- With the popularization of biological evolution, a school known as Social Darwinists actively applied the ideas of the struggle for existence and survival of the fittest to human society. - Social Darwinists were found all over Europe and the US. - Their doctrines were put to various political and cultural uses, to show that some peoples were naturally superior to others, such as whites to blacks, or Nordics to Latins, etc - that the upper and middle classes, comfortable and contented, deserved these blessings because they had proved themselves fitter than the shiftless poor - that big businesses in the nature of things had to take over small concerns - that some states, such as German or British Empires, were bound to rise, or that war was a morally fine thing, providing the virility and survival value to those who fought.

Bismarck

- a Junker from Brandenburg. - He was an accomplished man of the world. - Intellectually, he was far superior to the unsophisticated landlord class from which he came. - He shared in many Junker ideas. - He felt a Protestant piety, was not nationalistic, did not look upon all Germany as his Fatherland, and was Prussian. - He considered parliamentary bodies as ignorant and irresponsible. - Individual liberty seemed to him disorderly selfishness. - Did not like liberalism, democracy, and socialism. - He preferred to stress duty, service, order, and the fear of God. - Fought against liberals who said that the government policy was unconstitutional whereas Bismarck said the constitution could not have been meant to undermine the state. - Said "Not by speeches and majority votes are the great questions of the day decided-that was the great error of 1848 and 1849-but by blood and iron."

Schwarzenberg

- a prince of the Austrian Empire while the Bach system was in place. - He was the emperor's chief minister.

Alexander II

- became tsar during the Crimean War. - Was not a liberal by nature or conviction, but he saw that something drastic must be done. - The prestige of western Europe was at its height. - There the most successful and even enviable nations were to be found. - The reforms in Russia therefore followed the European model. - Attempted to enlist the support of the liberals among the intelligentsia by implementing a whole series of significant reforms. - He gave permission to travel outside Russia, eased the controls on schools, and allowed the censorship to go unenforced. - The result was a great outburst of public opinion, which was agreed at least on the point of emancipating the peasants. - Decided to overhaul and westernize the legal system of the country. - Reformed the courts from bottom to top. - The arbitrary ability of authority and the defenselessness of the subject were removed. - All class distinctions in judicial matters were abolished, except peasants who still remained at a disadvantage. - He also began to allow some self-government, and hoping to win over the liberals, he created zemstvos. - Refused to concede a representative body for all of Russia. - After 1864, his policy became more cautious and a rebellion in Poland caused he to be more repressive. - He began to break down the reforms and whittle down the granted concessions, but the essence of the reforms remianed unaffected. - From 1886-1881, he escaped many assassination attempts because the revolutionaries were not pleased with the reforms. - Under threats from many in the country, he again rallied for support witht the liberals by abolishing the police, allow the press to discuss more political subjects freely, and encouraged the zemstvos to do the same. - He propose not exactly a parliament but two nationally elected commissions to sit with the Council of State. - He was assassinated on the same day.

Syllabus of Errors

- codified anathemas of Pius IX's predecessors that were anti-liberal. - It warned Catholics, on the authority of the Vatican, against everything that went under the names of liberalism, progress, and modern civilization.

zemstvos

- created by Alexander to allow more self-government, they were a system of provincial and district councils. - Elected by various elements, including the peasants, they gradually went into operation and took up matters of education, medicine, welfare, food supply, and road maintenance. - Their great value was in developing civic sentiment among those who took part in them.

nihilism

- dissatisfied intelligentsia in the 1860s began to call themselves "nihilists:" - they believed in "nothing-" except science-and took a cynical view of the reforming tsar and his zemstvos.

Pope Pius IX

- elected in 1846 by the College of Cardinals. - He was the one contingency upon which Metternich confessed he had failed to reckon for he was a liberal-minded pope.

Gladstone's First Ministry

- especially notable in the respect of being willing to pioneer (first to apply/use something). - During his first ministry, Gladstone developed the principle of state-supported public education under the Forster Education Act of 1870, introduced the secret ballot, formally legalized labor unions, promoted competitive examinations for civil service posts, reorganized the upper judiciary, eliminated the purchase and sale of commissions in the army, and abolished religious tests. - He also disestablished the Church of Ireland. - He initiated measures to protect the Irish farm tenant. - Gladstone also tried to give the Irish a parliament of there own in 1886, so he spilt his Liberal party, part of which went along with the Conservatives in opposing a political division of the British Isles. T - he parliament was finally granted in 1914.

The Franco-Prussian War

- even after the Seven Weeks' War, it was clear that the situation was not stable. - The small south German states were left floating in empty space: they would sooner or later have to gravitate into some orbit or other, whether Austrian, Prussian, or French. - In France, there were angry criticisms of Napoleon III's foreign policy. - French intervention in Mexico had been a fiasco. - A united Italy had been allowed to rise on France's borders. - And now, contrary to all principles of French national interest observed by French governments for hundreds of years, a strong and independent power was being allowed to spread over virtually the whole of Germany. - Everywhere people began to feel that war between France and Prussia was inevitable. - Bismarck played on the fears of France felt in the south German states. - South Germany, though in its former times often a willing satellite of France, was now sufficiently nationalistic. - To Bismarck it seemed that a war between Prussia and France would frighten the small south German states into a union with Prussia, leaving only Austria outside, which was what he wanted. - In Spain in a turn of events, a revolution had exiled the queen, and a Spanish provisional government invited Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, the king of Prussia's cousin, to be constitutional king of Spain. - To bring the Hohenzollern family into Spain would be distasteful to France, and so he denied three times but Bismarck, who could not control this, foresaw the possibility or a usable incident. - He persuaded the Spanish to issue another invitation for the Prussia king to rule and he had accepted. - The French ambassador to Prussia at the direction of his government, met the king of Prussia and demanded that Prince Leopold withdraw his acceptance. - It was withdrawn, the France having their way and Bismarck defeated. - The French went further by demanding that the no Hohenzollern would ever became a candidate for the Spanish throne. - The Ems Telegram (see ID) caused the war parties in both countries to demand satisfaction. - On July 19, 1870, on these trivial grounds, and with the ostensible issue of the Spanish throne already settled, the irresponsible and decaying government of Napoleon III declared war on Prussia. - The war was short. - Bismarck had isolated his enemy in advance. - Britain felt France was in the wrong and did not like their operations in Mexico. - The Italians had long been waited to take Rome which they did when the French moved their troops to Prussia. - The Russians had been awaiting the chance to upset the Peace of 1856 that forbade them to keep naval vessels in the Black Sea. - They did so in 1870. It failed to become a general European struggle. - Prussia was supported by southern Germany, and France had no one. - The French army was backwards compared to the Prussians. - After the Battle of Sedan, the principal French army surrendered to Germany. - Napoleon III was taken prisoner. - On September 4, an insurrection in Paris proclaimed the 3rd Republic. - The Prussian and German forces moved into France and laid siege to the capital. - Though the French armies dissolved, Paris refused to capitulate. - For four months, it was surrounded and besieged.

the unification of Germany

- favorable opportunity arose for Bismarck. - The Danes in consolidation themselves, wished to make the duchy of Schleswig an integral part of Denmark. - The population of Schleswig was part Dane and part German. - The Germans, not wanted to be annexed to Denmark called for an all-German war against the Danes. - Bismarck had no desire to support or strengthen the existing German confederation. - He wanted not an all-German war but a Prussian war. = To disguise his aims, he joined with Austria, and together they went to war with Denmark whom they soon defeated. - It was his intention to annex both Schleswig and the duchy of Holstein to Prussia. - He arranged a provisional occupation of Schleswig by Prussia and of Holstein by Austria. - He then proceeded to discredit and isolate Austria. - The British government was following a non-intervention policy at the time, the Russian empire was in no position for action (the reform program, hostility to Austria because of the Crimean War, and well disposed toward Prussia and Bismarck because he in 1863 supported it in an uprising of the Poles. - To win over Italy, he held out the lure of Venetia. - As for France, Napoleon III was embarrassed by domestic discontents and his army was committed to adventures in Mexico. - To weaken Austria within Germany, Bismarck presented himself as a democrat. - He proposed a reform of the German confederation, recommending that it have a popular chamber elected by universal male suffrage. - He would use democracy to undermine all established interests that stood in his way.

William Gladstone

- great leader of the Liberal party. - In his second ministry, workers were assured of compensation for injuries not of their own responsibility - he later campaigned to reduce labor hours and to extend employers' liability in accidents.

Prussia

- had always been the smallest and most precarious of the great powers. - Had risen after the ruin by Napoleon. - It owed its international influence and internal character to its army. - Its army enabled it to expand. - After 1850, the state had been shaken by revolution and in the Crimean War and the Congress of Paris, it was hardly more than a spectator. - It seemed as if the hard-won and still recent position of Prussia might be waning. - Since 1815 the population had almost doubled, but the army had stayed the same even though conscription could have easily doubled it. - After 1850, Prussia had a Parliament that was dominated by wealthy men and some of these wealthy men were liberals who wanted the parliament to have control over governmental policies. - The king at this time in 1862 appointed a new chief minister, Bismarck.

The independence of Canada

- in the face of the Civil War that was tearing the United States apart, the Canadians formed a strong union in which all powers were to rest in the central government except those specifically assigned to the provinces. - The federal constitution, drafted in Canada by Canadians, was passed by British Parliament in 1867 as the British North America act, which constitutionally established the Dominion of Canada. - In 1982, the British North America Act was replaced by a new agreement which explicitly recognized the sovereign independence of Canada and its power to frame a constitution for itself. - By the 1980s, however, the French speakers of Quebec had become determined to defend the autonomy of their own province and culture, so it was again necessary to recognize a special status of Quebec. - The western provinces had felt the same way as Quebec. - The Dominion of Canada was the first example of successful devolution, or granting of political liberty, within one of the European colonial empires. - The dominion after 1867 moved forward from independence in internal matters to independence in such external matters as tariffs, diplomacy, and the decisions of war and peace, thus pioneering the development of "dominion status."

outer zone

- included most of Ireland, most of the Iberian and Italian península, and all Europe east of what was then Germany, Bohemia, and Austria proper. - It was agricultural, though the productivity was far less than the inner zone. - The people were poorer, more illiterate, and more likely to die young. - The wealthy were landlords, often absentees. - This zone lived by selling grain, livestock, wool, or lumber to the more industrialized inner zone but was too poor to purchase many manufacturing products in return. - To obtain capital it borrowed in London or Paris. - Its social and political philosophies were characteristically imported from Germany and the West. - It borrowed engineers and technicians from the inner zone to build its bridges and install its telegraph systems and sent its youth to schools in the first zone to study medicine or other professions. - Many areas of the European settlement overseas, for example in Latin America and the agrarian parts of the United States were also outer zone.

Benjamin Disraeli

- most colorful of the serious of leaders of the Conservative party. - Adopted 2nd Reform Bill. - Under his second ministry, the existing acts regulating public sanitation and conditions in mines and factories were extended and codified - safety measures were enacted to protect sailors - the first attempt to regulate housing conditions for the poorer classes was initiated.

How was Napoleon III's reign two parts?

- one democratic internal the other foreign policy

The 2nd Reform Bill (1867)

- passed in response to continued demand for a wider suffrage. - It was an attempt by the Conservatives as well as the Liberals to outdo one another in an effort to satisfy the country and to win new political strength for their own party. - The bill, adopted under Disraeli's Conservative minister, extended the suffrage from about 1 million eligible voters to about 2 million, over a third of the adult males in the United Kingdom, reaching down far enough to include most workers in the cities.

Realpolitik

- practiced by Bismarck. - First he made wars then insisted for peace. - Enmities and alliances were to him only matters of passing convenience. - The enemy of today might be the friend of tomorrow. - Far from planning out a long train of events, then following it step by step to a grand consummation, he seems to have been practical and opportunistic, taking advantage of situations as they emerged and prepared to act in any one of several directions as events might suggest.

The Bach System

- regime of anti-constitutionalism and anti-nationalism. - Under it the government was rigidly centralized. - Hungary lost the separate right it had held before 1848. - Bach insisted on maintaining the emancipation of the peasants, which had converted the mass of the people from subjects of their landlords to subjects of the state. - He drove through a reform of the legal system and law courts, created a free trading area of the whole empire with only a common external tariff, and subsidized and encouraged the building of highways and railroads.

The Seven Weeks' War

- the occupying powers continued to fight over Schleswig-Holstein. - Austria raised the matter formally in the German federal diet, and Bismarck declared that the diet had no authority, accused the Austrians of aggression, and ordered the Prussian army to enter Holstein. - The Austrians called for federal sanctions in the form of an all-German force to be sent against Prussia. - The result was that Prussia, in 1866, was at war not only with Austria but also with most of the other German states. - The Prussian army soon proved its superiority. - Trained to an unprecedented precision, equipped with the new needle-gun, by which the infantry could deliver five rounds a minute, brought into the zone of combat by an imaginative strategy that made use of the new railroads, and skillfully commanded, the Prussian army overwhelmed the Austrians and defeated the other German states soon thereafter. - The Austro-Prussian, or Seven Weeks' War, was amazing in its own brevity. - Bismarck hastened to make peace before the other European powers could realize what had happened.

The "enormous village"

- the ungainly Russian empire as it had been called. - It stretched from Poland to the Pacific and had proved unable to repel a localized attack by France and Great Britain, into which neither of the Western powers had put anything like its full resources.

inner zone versus outer zone

- there were two Europes, in inner zone and an outer zone.

dominion status

- this idea would later be applied in Australia in 1901, New Zealand in 1907, the Union of South África in 1910, and in the 1920s, temporarily, in Ireland. - By the middle of the 20th century, the same idea, or the Canadian idea, was also applied to the worldwide process of decolonization as it affected non-European peoples, notably in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and the former British colonies in África, until these peoples chose to become republics, though still loosely and voluntarily joined together and to Great Britain in a Commonwealth of Nations. - More immediately, in America, the founding of the dominion, a solid band of self-governing territory stretching from ocean to ocean, stabilized the relations between British North America and the United States. - The United States regarded its northern borders as final. - The withdrawal of British control from Canadian affairs also furthered the long developing conception of an American continent free from European political influence.

The 3rd Reform Bill (1884)

- under Liberal auspices, the suffrage was again broadened, this time in the rural areas, adding some 2 million additional voters and enfranchising over three-fourths of all adult males in the country.

The Durham Report

- was long regarded as one of the classic documents in the rise of British Commonwealth of Nations. - He held that in the long run French separatist feeling in Canada should disappear and all Canadians should be brought to feel a common citizenship and national character. - He therefore called for the reuniting of the two Canadas into one province. - To consolidate this province, he proposed an intensive development of railways and canals. - In political matters, he urged the granting of virtual self-government for Canada and the introduction of the British system of "responsible government," in which the prime minister and cabinet should be responsible to and under the control of the elected assembly in the province, the governor becoming a figurehead. - Most of the report was accepted immediately. - Upper and Lower Canada became one province in 1840. - The British army was withdrawn, and the Canadians undertook to maintain their own military. - The principle of responsible government was established in the late 1840s, the governors of Canada allowing the elected assembly to adopt policies and appoint or remove ministers as it chose. - The union of the two Canadas began to produce friction as the English-speaking immigration continued. - The French were afraid of being outnumbered in their own country, and therefore, many Canadians turned to the idea of federation, in which the French and English areas might each conduct their own local affair, while remaining joined for larger purposes in a central government.

Origin of Species

Charles Darwin's book that contained his theory of Evolution.

The modernization and westernization of Japan

During the Meji Era. Japan turned into a modern nation-state. Feudalism was abolished, most of the great lords voluntarily surrendering into the emperor's hands their control over common people and samurai. The legal system was reorganized and equality before the law was introduced in the sense that all persons became subject to the same rules regardless of class. In part, with the hope of getting rid of extraterritoriality (Europeans were exempt from the laws of Japan and under the jurisdiction of their respective countries), the reformers recast the criminal law along Western lines, deleting the bizarre and cruel punishments which Europeans considered barbaric. A new army was established, modeled mainly on the Prussian. The samurai in 1871 lost his historic right to carry two swords; he now served as an army officer not as the retainer of a clannish chief. A navy, modeled on the British, followed somewhat later. Control of money and currency passed to the central government, and a national currency with decimal units was adopted. A national postal service began to function, and above all the government developed a national school system, which soon brought a high rate of literacy to Japan. Buddhism was discouraged, and the property of Buddhist monasteries was confiscated. Shinto was the cult favored by the government. Shinto gave a religious tincture to national sentiment and led to a renewed veneration of the imperial family. In 1889 a constitution was promulgated. It confirmed the civil liberties then common in the west and provided for a parliament in two chambers, but it stressed also the supreme and eternal authority of the emperor, to whom the ministers were legally responsible. In practice, in the new Japan, the emperor never actively governed. He remained aloof, as in the past; and political leaders, never fully responsible to the parliament, tended to govern freely in what they conceived to be the interest of the state. Industrial and financial modernization went along with and even preceded the political revolution. In 1858 the first steamship was purchased from the Dutch. In 1859 Japan placed its first foreign loan, borrowing five million yen by a bond issue floated in England. In 1869 the first telegraph connected Yokohama and Tokyo. The first railroad, between the same two cities, was completed in 1872. In 1870 appeared the first spinning machinery. Foreign trade, almost literally zero in 1854, was valued at $200 million a year by the end of the century. The population rose from 33 million in 1872 to 46 million in 1902. The island empire, like Great Britain, became dependent on exports and imports to sustain its dense population at the level of living to which it aspired. The modernization of Japanese society still stands as the most remarkable transformation ever undergone by any people in so short a time. It recalls the "westernizing" of Russia under Peter over a century before, though conducted somewhat less brutally, more rapidly, and with a wider consent among the population. For Japan, as formerly for Russia, the motive was in large measure defense against Western penetration, together with an admiration for Western statecraft and an ambition to become an international power. The new government institutions helped to produce a more unified nation-state of the type then developing throughout Europe and the Americas. What the Japanese wanted from the West was primarily science, technology, and organization. they were content enough with the innermost substance of their culture, their moral ideas, their family life, their arts and amusements, their religious conceptions, though even in these they showed an uncommon adaptability.Essentially it was to protect their internal substance, their japanese culture, that they took over the external apparatus of modern Western civilization. This apparatus-science, technology, machinery, arms, political and legal organization-was the part of Western civilization for which other peoples generally felt a need, which they hoped to adopt without losing their own cultural and spiritual independence, and which therefore, though sometimes rather scornfully dismissed as materialistic, became the common ground for the interdependent world wide civilization that emerged at the close of the nineteenth century.

Karl Marx

He was the son of a lawyer in the Prussian Rhineland, studied law and philosophy at several German universities, and received a doctoral degree in 1841. - Unable to find an academic job, he associated with radical German intellectuals, began writing for left-wing journals, and soon moved to Paris with other Germans who wanted to produce philosophical publications in the historic birthplace of modern revolutions. - Marx and Engels met in Paris in 1844 where they began a collaboration in thinking and writing that lasted 40 years. - In 1847, they joined the Communist League, a tiny, secret group of revolutionaries, mainly Germans in exile in the more liberal cities of Western Europe. - The word communist had only a vague and uncertain meaning, and Engels said that the League was not more than a German branch of the French secret societies. - It was for this league that Marx and Engels wrote their Communist Manifesto in 1848. - Marx also settled in England, spending the rest of his time in London where he finally produced his huge work Capital of which the first volume was published in 1867 and the final two after his death.

Describe Marx's philosophy on each of the following: labor, property, freedom, religion, nation (country), wages, the capitalistic economic cycle, the dialectic, material conditions, ideas, post-revolution society, labor unions, the law, and social legislation (welfare).

Marx developed the idea of the alienation of labor, a social experience and state of mind produced when human beings in the historic process of mechanization become estranged from the objects on which they work. This alienation was a distinctive feature of modern capitalistic societies. The economic system of wage labor and private ownership of the means of production kept workers from identifying with or benefiting from the products of their labor. Marx argued the wealth that workers produced was regularly used against them in the social and political institutions of capitalist societies. It followed that true freedom would be possible only when private property in capital goods was abolished. The depressed condition of labor was an actual fact. It was a fact that labor received a relatively small portion of the national income and that much of the product of society was being reinvested in capital goods, which belonged as private property to private persons. Religion was commonly viewed as necessary for keeping the lower classes in order, but such views did not encourage the kind of reform movements that religious groups had often led in other centuries and other cultures. The churches at the time took little interest in the problems of the workers. The Communist Manifesto said that workers were deprived of of the wealth they themselves had created. It called the state a committee of the bourgeoisie for the exploitation of the people. Religion was a drug to keep the worker quietly dreaming upon imaginary rewards. It seemed that the workers should be loyal to nothing except their class, and every country had become meaningless because the proletarian had no country. Workers everywhere had the same problem and faced the same enemy. He adopted the subsistence theory of wages or Iron Law, which held that the average worker could not obtain more than a mimium living standard, of which the corrallary was that the existing economic system held out no better future for the laboring class as a class. He also took over the labor theory of value (see ID) and from this developed his doctrine of surplus value (see ID for wages and cycle). What brought all these observations together in a unified and compelling doctrine was the philosphy of dialectical materialism. By dialectic, Marx meant what the German philosopher Hegel had meant, that all things are in movement and in evolution and that all cahnge comes through the clash of antagonistic elements. The implications of the dialectic form both Hegel and Marx were that all history, and indeed all reality, is a process of development through time, a single and meaningful unfolding of events in a clear historical direction; that every event happens for good and sufficient reasons and that history, though not predetermined exactly, is always shaped by impersonal forces and deep structural chnages rather than by individuals or chance events. Marx differed from Hegel in one vital respect. Where Hegel emphassized the primacy of ideas in social change, Marx emphasized the primacy of material conditions, or the relations of production, which included technology, inventions, natural resources, and property systems. These material realities create the social world in which people live. It is the relations of production that determine what kind of religions, philosophies, governments, laws, and moral values are accepted. To believe that ideas precede and generate actualities was the error of Hegel. Hegel had thought, for example that the mind concieves the idea of freedeom, which it then realizes in the Greek city state. According to Marx, the idea of freedom or any other idea is generated by the actual economic and social conditions. Conditions are the roots, and ideas the trees. Hegel had held the opposite. In the picture of historical development by Marx, material conditions give rise to economic classes. Agrarian conditions produce a landholding or feudal class, but with changes in trade routes, money, and productive techniques, a new Bourgeoisie class arises. Both classes develop ideologies and religion, government, laws, and morals reflect the outlook of these classes. The two classes clash. As the Bourgeoisie class develops, it calls its dialectical antithesis the Proletariat into being. The more a country become bourgeois the more proletarian it becomes. The more production is concentrated in factories the more the revolutionary laboring class is built up. under competitive conditions, the Bourgeoisie tend to devour and absorb each other, and ownership of capital becomes concentrated in fewer hands. In the end, the proletariat takes over from the remaining bourgeoisie, and the social revolution is accomplished. This will create a classless society because classes arise from economic differences, which will disappear, and the state and religion, being outgrowths of bourgeoisie interest, will disappear. Meanwhile, the call is to war, and the Bourgeoisie and proletariat are locked in universal struggle, meaning the workers and labor unions must be kept in a belligerent and revolutionary mood. They must never forget that the employer is their class enemy, and government, law, morality, and religion are merely artillery directed against them. They must not be fooled and learn how to detect the class interest underlying institutions and beliefs. Individuals must lose themselves in the whole and not try to better themselves. It is a danger for labor unions to merely obtain better wages or hours by negotiation for by such little gains the war itself may be forgotten. It is likewise dangerous for workers to put faith in democratic machinery or social legislation because the state, an engine of repression, can never be made into an instrument of welfare. Law simply expresses the will of the stronger class.