AP Lang A Final Exam Study Guide

Diction

Related to style, diction refers to the writer's word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author's diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author's purpose. Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author's style

Paine's "The Crisis" - Rhetorical Devices

-Allusion -Alliteration -Antithesis -Invective -Repetition

Roosevelt's "A Proper Place for Sports" - Rhetorical Devices

-Allusion -Pathos -Ethos -Metaphor -Anaphora

James Baldwin's Rage - Tone

-Anger -Hate

Lincoln's "The Gettysburg Address" - Rhetorical Devices

-Antithesis -Connotation -Asyndeton -Tricolon - Epistrophe -Allusion -Anaphora -Irony

Thoreou's "Civil Disobedience" - Major Rhetorical Devices

-Antithesis -Imagery -Analogy -Irony -Alliteration -Satire -Paradox

Emerson's "Self Reliance" - Purpose

-Be original "You don't have to be brilliant" -Value of one's self worth -Show how much society influences us -Believe in yourself

Kennedy's Inaugural Address - Purpose

-Challenge the nations to come together through peace and without violence -Unite the country -Advocate for civil rights and have everyone reach their highest potential

Kennedy's Inaugural Address - Tone

-Compassionate/hopeful -Confident in what can be accomplished -Promising

Jacoby's "Freedom of Hate" Speech - Tone

-Confident -Bold

Gilman's "The Yellow Wallpaper" - Purpose

-Critiques the position of women in marriage -Reveals that gender division had effect of keeping women n childish state of ignorance

Anthony's "On A Women's Right To Vote" Speech - Major Rhetorical Devices

-Denotation -Syllogism -Allusion -Pathos -Ethos -Logos -Comparison

Reagan's "The Challenger Disaster" Speech - Major Rhetorical Devices

-Diction -Atmosphere

Jacoby's "Freedom of Hate" Speech - Major Rhetorical Devices

-Ethos -Pathos -Logos -Allusion -Antecendent

Thoreou's "Civil Disobedience" - Purpose

-Evoke a sense of responsibility in people -To get people to abolish slavery

Anthony's "On A Women's Right To Vote" Speech - Tone

-Formal -Not pedantic, but organized to make her point clear -She is educated -Direct to the point immediately

Lincoln's "The Gettysburg Address" - Tone

-Formal -Solemn -Hopeful -Determined

Paine's "The Crisis" - Tone

-Formal -Solemn -Persuasive -Objective

"Behind The Beautiful Forevers" by Katherine Boo - Tone

-Formal -Objective -Jouranalistic

The Narratives in the Life of Frederick Douglass - Tone

-Informal

King's "I Have A Dream" Speech - Tone

-Informal -Hopeful

Gilman's "The Yellow Wallpaper" - Major Rhetorical Devices

-Metaphors -Antithesis -Repetition -Irony -Diction -Structure

James Baldwin's Rage - Major Rhetorical Devices

-Metaphors -Point of View -Irony -Personification

The Narratives in the Life of Frederick Douglass - Rhetorical Devices

-Narration -Imagery -Ethos -Pathos -Symbolism

Kennedy's Inaugural Address - Major Rhetorical Devices

-Parallelism -Alliteration -Metaphor -Antithesis -Repetition -Chiasmus -Rhetorical Questions -Diction -Pathos -Allusion

Emerson's "Self Reliance" - Tone

-Passionate -Persuasive

Truth's "Ain't I A Woman" Speech - Tone

-Passionate -Proud -Powerful Argument -Confident -Vibrant -Commanding

Gilman's "The Yellow Wallpaper" - Tone

-Passive -Paranoid -Disturbed

"Behind The Beautiful Forevers" by Katherine Boo - Major Rhetorical Devices

-Pathos -Logos -Narrative -Imagery -Irony - inherent in the subject matter

Emerson's "Self Reliance" - Major Rhetorical Devices

-Pedantic -Metaphors -Allusions -Irony -Rhetorical Questions -Repetition -Ethos

James Baldwin's Rage - Purpose

-Points out how black oppression and segregation can lead some African-Americans to mentally snap

Thoreou's "Civil Disobedience" - Tone

-Purposeful and indignant -Persuasive -Convicted of the rightness of his beliefs and firm in his support for civil disobedience

Truth's "Ain't I A Woman" Speech - Major Rhetorical Devices

-Repetition -Homily -Narratives -Allusion -Ethos -Rhetorical Questions

King's "I Have A Dream" Speech - Major Rhetorical Devices

-Repetition -Metaphor -Listing -Parallelism -Allusion -Anectdote

Wiesel's "Perils of Indifference" Speech - Major Rhetorical Devices

-Rhetorical questions -Antithesis -Allusions -Imagery -Denotation

Swift's "A Modest Proposal" - Tone

-Sarcastic -Serious

Swift's "A Modest Proposal" - Rhetorical Devices

-Satire -Irony -Imagery -Logos -Pathos -Allusion

Reagan's "The Challenger Disaster" Speech - Tone

-Somber -Informal -Personal -Caring -Supportive -"All In This Together"

Wiesel's "Perils of Indifference" Speech - Tone

-Swiftness between guilt and hope

Reagan's "The Challenger Disaster" Speech - Purpose

-To address all citizens of the USA after this tragedy -Needed to calm and connect everyone listening in such a horrible time

Paine's "The Crisis" - Purpose

-To argue for American independence from Britan -To show the author's support for the Revolutionary War

King's "I Have A Dream" Speech - Purpose

-To bring to light the struggles of African-Americans -A call to action -To call out racists

Lincoln's "The Gettysburg Address" - Purpose

-To comfort and honor the former lives of fallen soldiers -To call both sides of the war to come together in peace

Roosevelt's "A Proper Place for Sports" - Purpose

-To convince his son that he should focus more on school -To show his son that people can be good at things other than athletics and be successful

Wiesel's "Perils of Indifference" Speech - Purpose

-To draw attention to the Holocaust -Asking why no one stepped in to help -To emphasize that this did happen

The Narratives in the Life of Frederick Douglass - Purpose

-To narrate and share his life experiences

Jacoby's "Freedom of Hate" Speech - Purpose

-To share Jacoby's beliefs on free speech and its limits according to government

"Behind The Beautiful Forevers" by Katherine Boo - Purpose

-To share the story of Annawadi and raise awareness of the horrific conditions in Indian slums -To give people who have nothing a voice

Swift's "A Modest Proposal - Purpose

-To show the British government how truly dire the economic situation is in Ireland

Anthony's "On A Women's Right To Vote" Speech - Purpose

-To show why women should be allowed to vote and call out hyprocisy

Roosevelt's "A Proper Place for Sports" - Tone

-Warm -Authoritative

Truth's "Ain't I A Woman" Speech - Purpose

-Women are equal -Work just as hard (or herder) -Prove that the whole "men are superior" concept is incorrect -Calling out men

Figure of Speech

A device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar things. Figures of speech include apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement.

Allusion

A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion.

Conceit

A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the unusual comparison being made.

Onomatopoeia

A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. Simple examples include such words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur. If you note examples of onomatopoeia in an essay passage, note the effect

Apostrophe

A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, "Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: / England hath need of thee." Another example is Keats' "Ode to a Grecian Urn," in which Keats addresses the urn itself: "Thou still unravished bride of quietness." Many apostrophes imply a personification of the object addressed.

Hyperbole

A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. (The literal Greek meaning is "overshoot.") Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony. The opposite of hyperbole is understatement.

Metaphor

A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and meaningful.

Clause

A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause, cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause. The point that you want to consider is the question of what or why the author subordinates one element should also become aware of making effective use of subordination in your own writing.

Extended Metaphor

A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work.

Analogy

A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging.

Paradox

A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. (Think of the beginning of Dickens' Tale of Two Cities: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times....")

Metonymy

A term from the Greek meaning "changed label" or "substitute name," metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. For example, a news release that claims "the White House declared" rather than "the President declared" is using metonymy; Shakespeare uses it to signify the male and female sexes in As You Like It: "doublet and hose ought to show itself courageous to petticoat." The substituted term generally carries a more potent emotional impact.

Aphorism

A terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author's point.

Loose Sentence/Non-Periodic Sentence

A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, or conversational. Generally, loose sentences create loose style. The opposite of a loose sentence is the periodic sentence. Example: I arrived at the San Diego airport after a long, bumpy ride and multiple delays. Could stop at: I arrived at the San Diego airport.

Caricature

A verbal description, the purpose of which is to exaggerate or distort, for comic effect, a person's distinctive physical features or other characteristics.

Transition

A word or phrase that links different ideas. Used especially, although not exclusively, in expository and argumentative writing, transitions effectively signal a shift from one idea to another. A few commonly used transitional words or phrases are furthermore, consequently, nevertheless, for example, in addition, likewise, similarly, on the contrary, etc. More sophisticated writers use more subtle means of transition.

Euphemism

From the Greek for "good speech," euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement. Saying "earthly remains" rather than "corpse" is an example of euphemism.

Rhetoric

From the Greek for "orator," this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.

Syllogism

From the Greek for "reckoning together," a syllogism (or syllogistic reasoning or syllogistic logic) is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one called "major" and the second called "minor") that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. A frequently cited example proceeds as follows: major premise: All men are mortal. minor premise: Socrates is a man. conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is a mortal. A syllogism's conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid. Syllogisms may also present the specific idea first ("Socrates") and the general second ("all men").

Didactic

From the Greek, didactic literally means "teaching." Didactic words have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles.

Symbol/Symbolism

Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else. Usually a symbol is something concrete -- such as an object, action, character, or scene - that represents something more abstract. However, symbols and symbolism can be much more complex. One system classifies symbols into three categories: (1) natural symbols are objects and occurrences from nature to symbolize ideas commonly associated with them (dawn symbolizing hope or a new beginning, a rose symbolizing love, a tree symbolizing knowledge). (2) conventional symbols are those that have been invested with meaning by a group (religious symbols such as a cross or Star of David; national symbols, such as a flag or an eagle; or group symbols, such as a skull and crossbones for pirates or the scale of justice for lawyers). (3) literary symbols are sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are found in a variety of works and are more generally recognized. However, a work's symbols may be more complicated, as is the jungle in Heart of Darkness. On the AP exam, try to determine what abstraction an object is a symbol for and to what extent it is successful in representing that abstraction.

Thesis

In expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the author's opinion, purpose, meaning, or position. Expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively, and thoroughly a writer has proven the thesis.

Semantics

The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another.

Ironic/Irony

The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or the difference between what appears to be and what is actually true. Irony is often used to create poignancy or humor. In general, there are three major types of irony used in language: (1) verbal irony - when the words literally state the opposite of the writer's (or speaker's) meaning (2) situational irony - when events turn out the opposite of what was expected; when what the characters and readers think ought to happen is not what does happen (3) dramatic irony - when facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work.

Allegory

The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.

Repetition

The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern.

Atmosphere

The emotional nod created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the author's choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as a description of the weather can contribute to the atmosphere. Frequently atmosphere foreshadows events. Perhaps it can create a mood.

Genre

The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genres themselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc. On the AP language exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the following genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing. There may be fiction or poetry.

Ambiguity

The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage

Connotation

The non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes.

Periodic Sentence

The opposite of loose sentence, a sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone. The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis and structural variety. It is also a much stronger sentence than the loose sentence. (Example: After a long, bumpy flight and multiple delays, I arrived at the San Diego airport.)

Mood

The prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood. Mood is similar to tone and atmosphere

Alliteration

The repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in "she sells sea shells"). Although the term is not frequently in the multiple choice section, you can look for alliteration in any essay passage. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage.

Imagery

The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses: visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory. On a broader and deeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may present visual imagery while also representing the color in a woman's cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection. An author may use complex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In addition, this term can apply to the total of all the images in a work. On the AP language exam, pay attention to how an author creates imagery and to the effect of this imagery.

Denotation

The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color. (Example: the denotation of a knife would be a utensil used to cut; the connotation of a knife might be fear, violence, anger, foreboding, etc.)

Colloquial/Colloquialism

The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.

Subject Complement

The word (with any accompanying phrases) or clause that follows a linking verb and complements, or completes, the subject of the sentence by either (1) renaming it (the predicate nominative) or (2) describing it (the predicate adjective). These are defined below: (1) the predicate nominative - a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject. It, like the predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence. Example: Julia Roberts is a movie star. movie star = predicate nominative, as it renames the subject, Julia Roberts (2) the predicate adjective -- an adjective, a group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb. It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies, or describes, the subject. Example: Warren remained optimistic. optimistic = predicate adjective, as it modifies the subject, Warren

Antecedent

The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences.

Generic Conventions

This term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre; for example, they differentiate an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing. On the AP language exam, try to distinguish the unique features of a writer's work from those dictated by convention.

Homily

This term literally means "sermon," but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.

Inference/Infer

To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a multiple choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, most reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. If an inference is implausible, it's unlikely to be the correct answer. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated, it is not inferred and it is wrong. You must be careful to note the connotation - negative or positive - of the choices.

Figurative Language

Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid.

Synecdoche

a figure of speech in which a part of something is used to represent the whole or, occasionally, the whole is used to represent a part. Examples: To refer to a boat as a "sail"; to refer to a car as "wheels"; to refer to the violins, violas, etc. in an orchestra as "the strings." **Different than metonymy, in which one thing is represented by another thing that is commonly physically associated with it (but is not necessarily a part of it), i.e., referring to a monarch as "the crown" or the President as "The White House."

Litotes

a form of understatement that involves making an affirmative point by denying its opposite. Litote is the opposite of hyperbole. Examples: "Not a bad idea," "Not many," "It isn't very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain" (Salinger, Catcher in the Rye).

Invective

an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language. (For example, in Henry IV, Part I, Prince Hal calls the large character of Falstaff "this sanguine coward, this bedpresser, this horseback breaker, this huge hill of flesh.")

Wit

in modern usage, intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. A witty statement is humorous, while suggesting the speaker's verbal power in creating ingenious and perceptive remarks. Wit usually uses terse language that makes a pointed statement. Historically, wit originally meant basic understanding. Its meaning evolved to include speed of understanding, and finally, it grew to mean quick perception including creative fancy and a quick tongue to articulate an answer that demanded the same quick perception.

Antithesis

the opposition or contrast of ideas; the direct opposite

Synesthesia

when one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective experience of another. Ex: The sight of red ants makes you itchy. In literature, synesthesia refers to the practice of associating two or more different senses in the same image. Red Hot Chili Peppers' song title,"Taste the Pain," is an example.