AP PSYCH

Token Economy

An operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats

normative social influence

Asch influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval (stems from a desire to be liked) the price we pay for being different can be severe

informational social influence

Asch influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality (going along with the crowd)

B.F. Skinner

BEHAVIORISM : operant conditioning - believed psychology should be an objective science; rooted in empiricism - rejected introspection - observed and recorded behavior as opposed to feelings (behaviorism) - behavior influenced by learned associations ("conditioning")

John B. Watson

BEHAVIORISM: classical conditioning "Little Albert" - shared views with Skinner

Counterconditioning

Behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors. This includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning

Exposure Therapies

Behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization and virtual reality exposure therapy, that treat anxieties by exposing people (an imagination or actual situations) to the things they fear and avoid

Big Five personality factors

CANOE - conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion - currently offer the clearest picture of personality - considered the most stable and appear to be found in al cultures - traits hypothesized to predict behaviors and attitudes - good for average behaviors (certain situations may cause different responses) - some traits are more predictable than others

Garcia's Taste Aversion Experiment

CC'd rats by feeding them bad tasting water --> they learned it was bad and chose the other water option

chameleon effect

Chartrand, Bargh said that we're natural mimics and we're happier among happy people (mood linkage) explains copycat violence (after Columbine, there were many more school violence threats)

Evidence-Based Practice

Clinical decision making that integrates the best available research with clinical expertise and patient characteristics and performances

Rumination

Compulsive fretting. This is over thinking about our problems and their causes

natural selection

Darwin's theory that traits contributing to reproduction and survival are more likely to be passed on

Dissociative Disorders

Disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings

Antianxiety Drugs

Drugs used to control anxiety and agitation

Antidepressant Drugs

Drugs used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD (several widely used _________ _________ are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

Antipsychotic Drugs

Drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder

precognition

ESP foreknowledge

clairvoyance

ESP knowing something beyond sensory contact

mental telepathy

ESP reading minds

Active Listening

Empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers' client-centered therapy

Delusions

False beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders

Hallucination

False sensory experience, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

Agoraphobia

Fear of avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide open places where one has felt loss of control and panic

cognitive dissonance theory

Festinger the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when 2 of our thoughts are inconsistent for example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting discomfort by changing our attitudes, often through rationalization either changing actions to match thinking or changing thinking to match actions ex.) know smoking is bad -- either change actions by quitting or change thoughts by thinking it's not as bad as other addictions

unconscious

Freud believed that this was a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories that are stored in a preconscious area from where it can be retrieved; it is here where we also repress unacceptable passions and thoughts

personality structure

Freud states that there is an internal conflict between the three interacting parts of personality: the id, ego, and superego

free association

Freud's method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

Type B

Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people

Type A

Friedman and Rosenman's tremor competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive and anger-prone people

attribution theory

Fritz Heider the theory that we can explain someone's behavior by crediting either the external situation or the person's internal disposition (situational vs dispositional attribution) ex.) if a friend doesn't say hi you can attribute it to that she was in a rush (situation) OR that she is mean/rude (disposition)

Thematic Apperception Test

Henry Murray; a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes - hopes, dears, desires --> projections of inner feelings or conflicts - interpreted in three areas: 1. content - reveals attitudes, fantasies, wishes, conflicts, and perspectives 2. feeling/tone - reveals emotions, world assumptions 3. subject's behavior (comments, nonverbal actions)

Interpretation

In psychoanalysis, the analysts' noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight

Resistance

In psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material

Transference

In psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent)

Social Anxiety Disorder

Intense fear of social situations, leading to avoidance of such. Was formerly called social phobia

collective unconscious

Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history - universal experiences --> common reservoir of images (archetypes)

hippocampus

LIMBIC SYSTEM converts short term to long term memory - connects memory and emotion - damage prevents storage to long term memory

hippocampus

LIMBIC SYSTEM converts short term to long term memory - connects memory and emotion - damage prevents storage to the long term memory

amygdala

LIMBIC SYSTEM regulates emotion and decision making - stimulation = anger, fear - damage = mellows or diminishes inhibition

amygdala

LIMBIC SYSTEM regulates emotion and decision making - stimulation = anger, fear, anxiety - damage leads to mellowed or diminished inhibition

hypothalamus

LIMBIC SYSTEM regulates endocrine system, autonomic nervous system

thalamus

LIMBIC SYSTEM relays sensation to cortex (except scent)

thalamus

LIMBIC SYSTEM relays sensation to the cortex (all but scent)

manifest content

LITERAL MEANING - actual meaning on things we remember from a dream

social loafing

Latane the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable occurs because working as part of a group makes one feel less accountable ex.) group projects

Strange Situation Experiment

Mary Ainsworth; studied babies' reactions in moms' absences

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfies before higher level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

psychology

Modern Latin psychologia, or "study of the soul" - the modern definition: science of behavior and mental processes

Richard Atkinson & Richard Schiffrin

Multi-Store Model of Human Memory - sense --> encoding and retrieval in short --> rehearsal -->long term

association areas

NEW BRAIN areas of cerebral cortex involved in higher mental functions like learning, remembering, etc.

association areas

NEW BRAIN areas of cerebral cortex involved in higher mental functions like learning, remembering, thinking and speaking

somatosensory cortex

NEW BRAIN front of parietal lobes that registers and processes touch

somatosensory cortex

NEW BRAIN front of partial lobes that registers and processes touch

cerebral cortex

NEW BRAIN intricate fabric of neural cells that covers hemispheres and connects and controls all the things: front lobes, parties lobes, occipital lobes, temporal lobes, and association areas

cerebral cortex

NEW BRAIN intricate fabric of neural cells that covers hemispheres of the brain while also connecting and controlling all the things

occipital lobes

NEW BRAIN part of the cerebral cortex at the back of the head that receives information from visual fields

pariteal lobes

NEW BRAIN portion of cereal cortex at back of head that receives information from visual fields

occipital lobes

NEW BRAIN portion of cereal cortex at the top of the head towards the rear, this received sensory input for touch and kinesthetic awareness

parietal lobes

NEW BRAIN portion of cerebral cortex at the top of the head towards the rear that receives sensory input for touch and kinesthetic awareness - includes somatosensory cortex

frontal lobes

NEW BRAIN portion of cerebral cortex behind the forehead that affect speaking, muscle movements, making plans, and judgement

frontal lobes

NEW BRAIN portion of cerebral cortex behind the forehead that affects speaking, muscle movements, making plans, and judgements - includes motor cortex

temporal lobes

NEW BRAIN portion of cerebral cortex lying above the ears that receives information from opposite-side ear

temporal lobes

NEW BRAIN portion of the cerebral cortex lying above the ears that receives information from the opposite-side ear

motor cortex

NEW BRAIN rear of frontal lob that controls voluntary movements

motor cortex

NEW BRAIN rear of frontal lobe that controls voluntary movements

social facilitation

Norman Triplett stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others due to a higher physiological arousal why we eat more when with other people (simple task) says that when observed by others, the most LIKELY response occurs, so on a difficult task (not well-learned) one is most likely to have a weaker response

Oedipus/Electra complex

Oedipus - according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father - similar complex for girls called Electra

GRIT

Osgood Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction a strategy deigned to decrease international tensions slowing backing down (giving in), with expectation that the other part will slowly give in as well conciliation for conciliation, but also retaliation for retaliation

Pavlov's Dogs

Pavlov's experiment with dogs examining their natural response (drooling) to an unconditioned stimulus (food) --> used a bell as a neutral stimulus for whenever the food is presented --> association between bell and food --> bell is conditioned stimulus and drool is conditioned response

Posttraumatic Growth

Positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crises

Biomedical Therapy

Prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person's physiology

Anxiety Disorders

Psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety

Mood Disorders

Psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes

Personality Disorders

Psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning

physiological function theory

REM develops and preserves neural pathways

neural activation theory

REM triggers neural activity to evoke random memories that are weaved into dreams

paradoxical sleep

REM, body is internally aroused yet asleep and externally calm

latent content

SYMBOLIC MEANING - things from a dream that we remember

general adaptation syndrome

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases - alarm, resistance, and exhaustion

Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud's therapeutic technique. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistance, dreams, and transferences- and the therapists' interpretations of them-released previously repressed feelings.\, allowing the patient to gain self-insight

Binge-Eating Disorder

Significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging or fasting that marks bulimia nervosa

Skinner Box Experiment

Skinner designed an operant chamber and had a rat press a key for a reward of food or water, proved reinforcement and shaping

facial feedback effect

Strack, Martin, Stepper found that facial movement not only reacts to emotion, but can influence emotion

Psychosurgery

Surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior

DSM-5

The American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition. It is a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders

Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS)

The application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain. This is used to stimulate or suppress brain activity

Medical Model

The concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital

nature vs. nurture

"Are our psychological traits and behaviors more affected by genes or experience?" - Plato/Socrates: knowledge is innate and unlocked through experience - Aristotle: knowledge is learned through experience - today, seen as: "nurture works on what nature endows," meaning that every psychological phenomenon is simultaneously biological

hindsight bias

"I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon" - tendency to believe that, after an event, it was predictable - intuitive sense more easily describes what just happened (but will remember this when predicting what will happen in the future)

hindsight bias

"I-knew-it-all-along" phenomenon - tendency to believe that, after an event, it was predictable - intuitive sense more easily describes what just happened

antagonist

"blockers" of repuptake sites

psychological illness

"mind-body illness"; any stress related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches

psychophysiological illness

"mind-body illness"; any stress related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches

outgroup

"them" those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup

ingroup

"us" people with whom we share a common identity

universal attractive features

"youthfulness" in women (able to reproduce -- evolutionary) women attracted to healthy-looking, mature, dominant, affluent men people prefer physical features that aren't oddly large or small (averaged face is most attractive)

oral stage

(0-18 months) - pleasure centers around mouth - sucking, biting, chewing

anal stage

(18-36 months) - pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination - child copes with demands for control

phallic stage

(3-6 years) - pleasure focuses on genitals - child copes with incestuous sexual feelings

latency

(6-puberty) - dormant (temporarily inactive) sexual feeling

Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs

(from bottom) physiological > safety > love/belonging > esteem > self-actualization

manifest content

(literal) the remembered content or material of dreams

latent content

(meaning) the dreamer's unconscious wishes - the meaning or interpretation of them

genital stage

(puberty on) - maturation of sexual interest

Broca's and Wernicke's area

*BRAIN LATERALIZATION = the left and right hemispheres are not exactly alike - Broca: speech production - Wernicke: Speech processing/perception

Type A vs. Type B personality

- A: Friedman and Rosenman's tremor competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive and anger-prone people - B: Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people

psychodynamic personality theory

- Alder, Horney, and Jung - the unconscious and conscious mind interact - childhood experiences and defense mechanisms are important - the dynamic interplay of conscious and unconscious motives and conflicts shape our personalities

trait personality theory

- Allport, Eysenck, McCrae, and Costa - we have certain stable and enduring characteristics influenced by genetic predispositions - scientific study of traits has isolated important dimensions of personality, such as the Big Five traits

NREM sleep stage 1

- Alpha waves dissipate into NREM 1 waves ~2 minutes - semiconsciousness - hypnagogic sensation: feeling of falling - hypnagogic jerks: brief muscle contractions that jolt us awake

Minnesota Starvation Experiment

- Ancel Keys - over a 28 week period, he cut the people's caloric intake in half - found that by removing ½ of caloric intake, weight was reduced by ¼ (subjects stayed relatively near set point) - also found that higher level needs on Maslow's hierarchy were affected, subjects found those less important

Socrates/Plato

- Ancient Greeks who answered questions with logic - said soul and body are separate ("dualism") and knowledge is innate (we are born with it) - mind continues after death

ABC's of animal testing

- Appropriate - nothing cruel and unusual - Beneficial - must benefit human psychological research - Caring - must care for the animals' well being

social-cognitive personality theory

- Bandura - our traits and the social context interact to produce our behaviors - conditioning and observational learning interact with cognition to create behavior patterns

psychoanalytic personality theory

- Freud - emotional disorders spring from unconscious dynamics, such as unresolved sexual and other childhood conflicts, and fixation at various developmental stages - defense mechanisms fend off anxiety - personality consists of pleasure-seeking impulses, a reality-oriented executive, and an internalized set of ideals

modern view of Freud's ideas

- Freud is credited with drawing attention to the unconscious, sexuality, and conflict between biological impulses and social restraints - concept of repression and view of unconscious as a collection of repressed and unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories are criticized for being after-the-fact explanations with little scientific support - research does not support many of his specific ideas that development is fixed in childhood - male superiority and "penis envy"

theories of sleep

- Freud's wish fulfillment (manifest and latent) - Information Processing Theory: dreams sort of the day's events and consolidate memories - Physiological Function Theory: REM develops and preserves neural pathways - neural activation theory: REM triggers neural activity to evoke random memories that are weaved into dreams - cognitive development theory: dream content reflects cognitive development; their knowledge and understanding, top down

NREM sleep stage 2

- K Complexes: bursts of brainwave activity countered by sleep spindles: brain inhibiting processing to keep us asleep ~20 minutes long - definitely asleep, but easy to wake - sleeptalking - Lucid Dreaming Stage - hallucinations

learned helplessness

- Martin Seligman - perceived lack of control over bad events - not trying to get out of a negative situation due to feeling helpless - leads to increased feelings helplessness, rates of depression, stress - prominent in people with little or no control in life

reinforcement: primary vs. secondary

- Primary Reinforcers: things we need to live biological - Secondary Reinforcers: things we don't need, but are associated to primary - part of OC

REM sleep

- REM: "paradoxical" sleep - body is asleep, brain is awake ~20-30 minutes - rapid brain waves - when crazy dreams happen - increased heart rate and breathing darting eyes - motor cortex going nuts, but brainstem blocks messages to body - atonia: loss of muscle tone (mildly paralyzed_ - dreams are vivid and emotional - this is the only stage you can read without an EEG because of eye movement

humanistic personality theory

- Rogers, Maslow - rather than examining the struggles of sick people, it is better to focus on the ways people strive for self-realization - if our basic human needs are met, people will strive toward self-actualization - in a climate of unconditional positive regard, we can develop self-awareness and a more realistic and positive self-concept

trichromatic vs. dichromatic vs. monochromatic vision

- Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory retina contains three different color receptors RGB and when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color

scatterplot

- a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables - the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship - the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation - little scatter indicates high correlation

scatterplot

- a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables - the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship - the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation: little scatter indicates high correlation

associative learning

- a type of learning that links two or more stimuli and anticipates (preceding) events - shows how learning can be studied through observation of behavior - evolutionary explanation: reinforces behaviors that promote survival

reflex action and arc

- action: automatic reaction (without thinking) - arc: message from sensory neuron to motor neuron without stopping at the brain

Carl Jung

- agreed with Freud's idea of a powerful "personal" unconscious - added "collective" unconscious - sexual drives are relevant, but he emphasized knowledge of self - uses word association to reveal subconscious

Alfred Alder

- agrees personality driven by childhood tensions - tensions driven by social tensions, not sexual ones - like Erikson, development is a series of conflicts - developed inferiority complex

projective tests (TAT and Rorschach)

- ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of inner dynamics - psychodynamic - designed to get beneath the conscious surface of a person's self-understanding; may be a good ice-breaker - results have weak validity and reliability

case study

- analyzes a particular person or group - pros: provides depth/fruitful ideas about the subject(s) - cons: may be misleading if the case is atypical (and cannot be replicated)

Aristotle

- answered questions with observations/data - more scientific than Socrates/Plato - knowledge only grows from experience - mind is inseparable from body ("monism")

evolutionary theory (instinct)

- behaviors result from instincts: unlearned behavior common throughout a species - innate drives to do certain things/act certain ways - criticism: labels behaviors, but does not explain them

Piaget's Theory of cognitive development

- believed children construct understanding through interaction - spurts of change --> stability --> movement to cognitive plateau - four stages: 1. sensorimotor 2. pre-operational 3. concrete operational 4. formal operational

John Locke

- believed in Tabula Rasa: mind is a "blank slate," we are inscribed by experiences and born neither good nor evil without innate knowledge - what we know comes from experience - scientific knowledge comes from observation and experimentation ("empiricism")

Abraham Maslow

- believed that motivation is structured in hierarchy of needs (pyramid) - studied healthy/creative minds (not just people who needed help) - promoted idea of self-actualization and peak experiences

Gordon Allport

- believes behaviorism was too shallow and psychoanalysis was too deep - pioneered trait theory: deriving personality through behavior patterns and conscious motivations - emphasis on describing, not explaining - wanted to define personality in terms of identifiable behavior patterns and fundamental traits

Hippocrates' four humors

- blood responsible for sanguine personality (talkative, cordial, carelessness) - black bile responsible for melancholic personality (moody, artistic, introspective) - yellow bile responsible for phlegmatic personality (relaxed, peaceful, reliable) - green bile responsible for choleric personality (independent, ambiguous_ - imbalance of humors corrected by draining (such as bloodletting)

social belonging

- bonding helps evolutionary fitness - primitive survival aided by grouping behavior - must be balanced with autonomy; ideal situation is connected, but independent

plasticity

- brain's ability to change, reorganize after damage change during growth and development - builds new pathways after experiences - combining plasticity and perception can trick the brain into adopting analogs as its own

psychiatry

- branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders - psychiatrists are physicians (MDs) - prescribe medication and treatments - can also practice psychological therapy

Francis Bacon

- built arguments using observations from the ground up ("induction") - laid groundwork for modern scientific method: observed tendency to notice/interpret data that confirms existing beliefs ("confirmation bias") - research pitfall today - noted human mind's desire for order and patterns (much like modern Gestalt psychology)

hypnosis

- calm state of heightened concentration - often more open to suggestion - ~20% of people are highly hypnotizable - social phenomenon because it is reliant on performance, power of suggestion and pressure of fulfilling a role - cannot control you nor act against your will nor access "buried" memories therefore unreliable in court - used clinically

survey

- can measure self-reported attitudes - must ask representative, random sample - wording effect: surveys must be carefully worded as to not influence responses - interviewer effect: who's asking?

chromosomes

- carry genetic information - structures of DNA - humans have 46 (23 pairs), but more chromosomes =/= more complexity - all cells have chromosomes except red blood cells, sperm, and egg - sperm and egg only have half (sex cell + sex cell = 46 chromosomes) - incorrect number usually leads to death, but in humans can cause down syndrome: extra copy of chromosome 21 -- diminished physical and cognitive development

coronary heart disease

- caused by stress - the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries

operant conditioning

- changing behavior using consequences - behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement (causing desired behavior through introduction of appetitive stimuli or removal of aversive stimuli) and diminished if followed by punishment (causing a behavior to diminish by introducing aversive stimulus or removing appetitive stimulus) - Skinner Box

endocrine system

- chemical communication system that uses hormones and is therefore much slower than nervous system - leaves lingering sensations - controls "Four F's": fight, flight, food, and reproduction

sex hormones

- chemical messengers from endocrine system specific to sexual development, drives, and reproductive processes - direct physical development of biological characteristics - activate sexual behavior - males and females secrete both sex hormones in different amounts: testosterone and estrogen

Piaget

- child = active learner - ordered states of development by maturation - development precedes learning (interpreted through schema) - assimilation into schema = learning

Vygotsky

- child = active learner - society/instruction steers learning & development - learning precedes development - present state enhanced by new tasks just outside of knowledge (ZPD) zone of proximal development in Cultural-Historical Theory

acquisition

- classical conditioning - neutral stimulus is paired with unconditioned stimulus - neutral stimulus now causes natural response - stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus - response becomes conditioned response

Rene Descartes

- cogito ergo sum = "I think, therefore I am" - dualist - may have responded to religious pressure - asked how the mind (immaterial) and body (physical) are connected suggested "animal spirits" flow between brain and muscles

prototype

- concepts based on quintessential examples of things - prototype map: circular diagram with main example in middle with other examples in surrounding rings, as rings increase the example digress further from main example - can be modified or made more specific

adoptive studies

- correlation between children and adoptive parents become smaller over time - correlation between children and their birth parents grows over time

optimal arousal theory

- desire to maintain a balance between stimulation and relaxation - Yerkes-Dodson

kinesthetic awareness

- detect changes in positioning or body without other senses, coordination - kinesthesia = system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

positron emission tomography (PET) scan

- detects radioactive glucose - glucose is used by working neurons; allows scientists to see where the brain is working

color blindness

- deuteranopia: deficiency in green cones; 6% of male population - tritanopia: absence of blue cones so they appear as yellow and violet

possible selves

- different imagined versions of ourselves - ideal self: who we want to be (successful, happy) - feared self: who we do not want to be (a failure, unloved) - integrate possible future life roles

divergent vs. convergent thinking

- divergent: expands the number of possible problem solutions (promotes creativity) - convergent: narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution (intelligence tests)

Erikson's Stages od Development

- egoidentity, personal identity, and social-cultural identity 1. infant 2. toddler 3. preschooler 4. school-age child 5. adolescent 6. young adult 7. middle aged adult 8. older adult

mood-congruent theory

- emotions act as a retrieval cue - ex. being angry helps you recall memories from other times you were angry

continuity and stages

- emphasize experience and learning = slow, continuous shaping process - emphasize biological maturity = sequence of genetically predisposed stages or steps - stages/steps are proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg, Erik Erikson, and Jean Piaget - concept of stage contribute developmental perspective on whole life span

behaviorism

- empirically-based science focused on observable behaviors and not unobservable internal mental processes (like introspection) - pioneered by Ivan Pavlov: work with dogs & digestion, observed natural responses to food (drool)

deep processing

- encodes semantically - using the actual meaning to commit something to memory - ex. effortful processing, mnemonics

sleep stages

- every 90 minutes there are 5 stages - discovered by Eugene Aserinsky by taping electrodes to his kid's head

cocktail party effect

- examples of selective attention - listening to one conversation at a time --> can't focus on others: "undivided attention"

what makes you you?

- free will vs. determinism - nature vs. nurture - past, preset, or future - uniqueness - optimism vs. pessimism

genome and genome expression

- genome: the complete instructions for making an organsim consisting of all the genetic material in that organisms chromosomes

Carl Rogers

- had person-centered perspectives - believed that development is through achieving principles (rather than stages) - constructed self-concept and unconditional positive regard

influences of humanistic theories

- helped renewed interest in the concept of self - criticized for being vague and subjective, its values self centered, and its assumption naively optimistic

drive-reduction theory

- homeostasis: your need to maintain a balanced biological state - when not at homeostasis, body will give cues to return - physiological needs drive us to want to reduce those needs - drives push us to behaviors

circadian rhythm

- hormone release determined by cycle melatonin from the pineal gland makes us sleepy - cortisol from the adrenal glands makes us wake up - preferable times for eating, sleeping, and mating - problems: cycle disrupted by artificial light, all-nighters, electronic screens - lasts 24 hours, sleep cycles are 90 minutes

statistical significance

- how likely a result did not occur by chance - null hypothesis: the status quo (what our alternative hypothesis is testing against) --> if the null occurs more than 5%, then the alternative looks bad - if the data falls beyond 2 SD's then the null can be rejected - notated by H^0

dizygotic and monozygotic twins

- identical twins are monozygotic: single fertilized egg that split in two, two genetically identical organisms - fraternal twins are dizygotic: separate fertilized eggs, genetically no closer than siblings but share fetal environment

Harlow's Monkey Experiment

- importance of touch for development - sensation vs. perception - placed baby monkey in a cage with two model mothers: one that offered food and water and one that was soft --> monkey tended to choose soft one because IT WAS SOFT

case study

- in depth study of one individual - psychoanalytic, humanistic - less expensive than other methods - may not generalize to the large population

incentives (push and pull)

- incentives: we seek rewards - incentives pull us to certain behaviors

misinformation effect

- incorporating misleading information into a memory of an event - errors in reconstruction and inference - we naturally fill in missing gaps, but not necessarily accurately - problems with eyewitness accounts

William James

- influenced by Darwin - argued consciousness as an adaptation and explored how mental and behavioral processes promote genetic fitness ("functionalism") - taught Mary Whiton Calkins

Schacter-Singer two-factor experiment

- injected subjects with epinephrine, those who were told of the effects correlated them with the drug but those who were not told of the effects assumed it was a subjective emotional response - groups only labelled their feelings if they were suggested they were going to feel that way

instrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation

- instrinsic: we do a task because we like or think it is valuable - extrinsic: we do a task for a reward or to avoid punishment - over justification effect comes in place when extrinsic > intrinsic

internal vs. external loci of control

- internal: feeling one controls one's own fate/outcomes - external: feeling outside forces control one's fate/outcomes

monocular cues

- interposition - relative size, clarity, height, motion/motion parallax - texture-gradient - linear perspective - light and shadow

sensory memory

- large capacity, brief duration, simple - parsed down by selective attention

memory

- learning that persists or information that has been stored and can usually be recalled - Multi-Store Model of Human Memory: Richard Atkinson & Richard Schiffrin - dichotomous memory

Bandura on observational learning (Bobo beatdown)

- left children alone in a room with either an aggressive or non-agressive model - children tended to act towards the Bobo doll as their model did - learning by imitation

Yerkes-Dodson law

- low arousal (not caring) and high arousal (anxiety) yields lowest performance - medium arousal yields peak focus, performance

experimentation

- manipulate variables, with random assignment to conditions - social-cognitive - discerns causes and effect - some variable cannot feasibly or ethnically be manipulated

explicit memory

- memories that one can consciously know and declare - experiences, episodes, facts, descriptions - includes episodic and effortful memory

vestibular sense

- monitors head's position and balance by using the movement of fluid in the inner ear

estrogen

- more in females - levels peak during ovulation - increase fertility and sexual motivation

testosterone

- more in males levels fairly constant, - slight bump at ovulation

long-term memory

- more permanent and limitless memory: knowledge, skills, experiences - large capacity, long duration - semantically encoded concepts (rather than senses); attaches meanings

night terrors

- more prominent in childhood - occurs in NREM 3 - cannot be woken up; usually don't remember - cause uncertain

Rorschach Inkblot Test

- most widely use projective test created by Hermann Rorschach - set of 10 inkblots - subjects shown symmetrical inkblots and asked to respond with what they see - identify personality characteristics, emotional functioning - can detect thought disorders and identify inner feelings - some have demonstrated validity (predicting what they are not supposed to predict) and do not yield consistent results

double blind procedure

- neither the participants nor the researchers are told who is in which group - this prevents groups from responding a certain way to treatments (or non-treatment) and prevents researchers from accidently influencing participants/results

personality inventories

- objectively scored groups of questions designed to identify personality dispositions - trait - generally reliable and empirically validated - explore limited number of traits

onozygotic (identical) twins

- one sperm fertilizes one egg, egg splits in two --> creates identical organisms - have same genes, but in different quantities - can be nourished differently in womb

dream

- oneirology: study of dreams (blend of psychology and neuroscience) - Lucid Dreaming takes place during NREM 2 but majority of vivid dreams are in REM because limbic system is active while frontal cortex has little activity)

6 months (prenatal development)

- organs like the stomach are developed enough to give the fetus a good chance of survival if born prematurely - respond to genetic and environmental factors

inferiority complex

- perceived lack of self-worth - resolved through overcompensation or asocial behavior - children strive for superiority/power - adult behavior results from lingering inferiority complexes

sleep

- periodic, natural, reversible near-total loss of consciousness state - wakey-time hormones (cortisol) pump during the day, sleepy-time hormones pump at night (melatonin)

place vs. frequency theory

- place theory: by Hermann von Helmholtz; we hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlea's basilar membrane - frequency theory: alternative to place; the brain reads pitch by monitoring the frequency of neural impulses traveling up the auditory nerve

participant protections

- protection from harm and discomfort - must minimize discomfort or risk - must prevent long-term negative consequences - freedom to participate (cannot coerce/force participants to participate or stay - must allow withdrawal at any time)

Gestalt's principles and rules of grouping

- proximity: groups nearby figures - similarity: groups similar figures together - continuity: see smooth patterns rather than discontinuous - closure: fill in the blanks in figures - connectedness: perceive spots, lines, or areas as single units when uniform and linked

phrenology

- pseudoscience claiming personality could be determined by shape and size of the skull - accurately predicted different areas of the brain control different emotions - inaccurately said measuring the head could determine personality traits

Karen Horney

- rejected Freud's theories heteronormativity and penis envy - said childhood anxiety stems from sense of helplessness (dependence on parents/others triggers desire for love/security) - suggested Elektra complex (pinacle of daddy issues) - advocated self-help

implicit memory

- retention is independent of conscious recollection - skills, feelings, langauge, etc. - impossible to explain - includes procedural learning

binocular cues

- retinal disparity: eyes receive slightly different images which the brain uses to gauge distance - convergence: eyes turn inward to focus on closer objects; further inward = closer

synesthesia

- rogue development of neural connections override normal boundaries - perception of senses overlap and are consistently connected - describing one kind of sensation in terms of another ("a loud color", "a sweet sound")

Alfred Kinsley

- scientifically approached sex when still taboo - Kinsey Reports: Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948), Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1948) - first psychologists to address sexual orientation - Kinsey Scale: humans exhibit a spectrum of sexual orientation - analyzed rates of marital coitus (and infidelity), erotic responses to sadomasochism, and erotic responses to biting - relied on subjective reporting from possibly biased sampling

Masters and Johnson Sex Experiments

- scientifically studied physiological aspects of sex - hooked up monitors to about 700 subjects having sex with each other and/or themselves - recorded 10,000 sexual cycles - sexual response cycle - broke sex into four phases 1. excitement phase (initial arousal) 2. plateau phase (full arousal) 3. orgasm (climax of arousal) 4. resolution phase (after orgasm) - criticized for rigidity and linear nature, focus on physiology with neither psychological nor cultural influence

Masters and Johnson Sex Studies

- scientifically studied physiological aspects of sex hooked up monitors to some 700 subjects having sex with each other/themselves - recorded 10,000 sexual cycles - 4 phases: 1. excitement phase (initial arousal) 2. plateau phase (full arousal) 3. orgasm (orgasm) 4. resolution phase (after orgasm) - refractory period - downtime between orgasms

Wilhem Wundt

- sensation vs. perception test marked first lab (in Leipzig): this was the birthdate of modern psychology - established psych as a science because the mind is a measurable and observable process

sensorineural hearing loss vs. conduction hearing loss

- sensorineural: hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerve (aka nerve deafness) - conduction: hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

computer tomography (CT or CAT) scan

- series of X-rays taken from different angles - computer combines these X-rays into composite representation

functional MRI (fMRI)

- several MRIs taken in quick succession - brain activity attracts blood to location of activity - identifies blood flow

short-term memory

- small capacity, relatively brief duration - rehearsal: repeatedly saying/doing something to memorize it - without rehearsal, sensory memories last ~30 seconds - highly perishable

phoneme

- smallest unit of sound in language - "bat" has three phonemes - clusters of consonants are broken into individual phonemes

morpheme

- smallest unit of sound with meaning - "ed" on the end of a word indicates past tense - includes suffixes and prefixes

Edward Titchner

- structuralist, introspection - student of Wundt - sought to find the building blocks of psychological experience/structure of the mind - ("structuralism") - wanted to know how people felt about stimuli ("introspection") - in experiment, subjects had to be trained to be expressive highly unreliable descriptions varied from person to person

observation

- studying how individuals react in different situations - social-cognitive - allows researches to study the effects of environmental factors on the way an individual's personality is expresses - results may not apply to the larger population

survey

- systematic questioning of a random sample of the population - trait, social-cognitive, positive psychology - results tend to be reliable and can be generalized to the larger population - may be expensive, correlational findings

intelligence

- the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, use knowledge, and adapt - different meaning for different ages/cultures/skills - difficult to assess

split brain

- the brain has a right and left hemisphere, each receives sensory information and controls the opposite side of the body - brain lateralization = Wernicke's and Broca's

pituitary gland

- the endocrine systems most influential gland - under the influence of the hypothalamus, it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

validity

- the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it's supposed to - IQ tests are standardized and reliable, but not valid - Spearman would be most likely to think that IQ tests are valid (believes that there is only one kind of general intelligence)

collectivism

- the group is more important than the individual - more dominant in Eastern cultures - emphasis on connectedness, group networks, harmony, behaviors reflecting social norms/roles - emphasizes interdependence, connections within the whole, group goals and solidarity, accommodations to reality, morality defined by social networks, few and close relationships that are enduring, and behavior reflects social norms and roles

individualism

- the individual is more important than the group - more dominant in Western cultures - emphasis on uniqueness, egocentric perspective, behaviors reflecting one's personality/attitudes - emphasizes independence, uniqueness, personal achievement or fulfillment, changing of reality, self-based morality, temporary or casual relationships, behavior reflects one's personality and attitudes

ESP

- this is a types of parapsychology (study of paranormal psych) - extrasensory perception is controversial because it occurs without sensory input - includes precognition, clairvoyance, and mental telepathy

tolerance and withdrawal

- tolerance: experiencing diminishing effect of a drug (neuroadaptation - brain adapts to presence of drugs) - withdrawl: brain's reverting to normal state, the discomfort and stress that follow discontinuing and addictive drug or behavior = not a good time

dizygotic (fraternal) twins

- two sperm fertilize two eggs - creates two distinct organisms

dual processing

- unconscious and conscious mind are working simultaneously - deliberate mind: conscious focus - automatic mind: sub processing information and associations

working memory

- updated, more comprehensive version of short term memory - holds 7 + 2 pieces of information conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information

shallow processing

- uses basic input to encode - structural processing; encoding based on basic appearance of words - phonemic processing: we encode how the word sounds

Thorndike's law of effect

- we repeat behaviors which have satisfying effects; we limit behaviors which have discomforting effects - part of OC

parallel processing (sight)

- when looking at a big picture, brain divides it into subdivisions and analyzes each part simultaneously - also takes part in detecting features: brain's ability to analyze features simultaneously

set point

- where one's body naturally wants weight to be - result of the oppositional relationship of ghrelin and PYY

4 C's of peacemaking

1. contact 2. cooperation (superordinate goals - Sherif) 3. communication ("win-win") 4. conciliation (GRIT)

scientific attitude

1. curiosity 2. skepticism 3. humility

two effects of sex hormones

1. direct the physical development of male and female sex characteristics 2. activate sexual behavior

scientific method

1. form hypothesis 2. make observation 3. refine theory 4. develop theory

conditions that strengthen conformity

1. one is made to feel incompetent/insecure 2. the group has 3+ people 3. group is unanimous 4. one admires the status/attractiveness of other members of the group 5. one has made no prior commitment to a response 6. others in the group observe one's behavior 7. one's culture stronger encourages respect for social standards (collectivist)

conditions that strengthen obedience

1. person giving orders is close by and a legit authority 2. authority figure is supported by a prestigious institution (Yale) 3. victim is de personalized or at a distance 4. no role models for defiance

Kohlberg's levels of moral thinking

1. preconventional morality 2. conventional morality 3. postconvential morality

psychology of attraction

1. proximity (geographic nearness is friendship's most powerful predictor due to convenience/mere exposure effect) 2. physical attractiveness (affects our 1st impressions because attractive people are considered happier, healthier, more successful, etc. but NOT more honest/compassionate) 3. favorable perception (the more we like someone, the less we notice their flaws, especially with time) 4. similarity (the more we are alike, the more we like someone)

other considerations of Sternberg's Triarchic Intelligences

1. these three facets may be less independent than Sternberg thought and may actually share an underlying g factor 2. additional testing is needed to determine whether these facets can reliably predict success

adolescent

12 - 18 years - identity vs. role confusion - development becomes dependent on what that person does - discover his or her own identity - social interactions ex. "fitting in" - morality, right vs. wrong - relationship to ideals, causes, and friends

rods

120 million; retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision when cones don't respond - high light sensitivity

Resilience

The personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from diversity and even trauma

young adult

18 - 35 years - intimacy and solidarity vs. isolation - seek companions and love - deep intimacy and satisfying relationships - isolation may occur - relationships with martial partners and friends

toddler/early childhood

18 mo - 3 years - autonomy vs. shame - learns new skills and right vs. wrong --> self-esteem and autonomy - "terrible twos": defiance, temper, stubbornness - vulnerability to shame and low self-esteem is common

Psychopharmacology

The study of the effects of drugs on mind and behaviors

Regression toward the Mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fal back (regress) toward their average

preschooler

3 - 5 years - initiative vs. guilt - imagination, exploration of world - social role identification - easily experience guilt - relationship with basic family

Group Therapy

Therapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, permitting therapeutic benefits from group interaction

Psychodynamic Therapy

Therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition that views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and that seeks to enhance self-insight

Behavior Therapy

Therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors

Cognitive Theory

Therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking. This is based on the assumption that our thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions

Family Therapy

Therapy that treats the family as a system. Views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at, other family members

Psychotherapy

Treatment involving psychological techniques. This consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth

middle aged adult

35 - 55/65 years - generativity vs. self absorption or stagnation - career and work most important - greater responsibilities and control - stability - fear inactivity and meaninglessness - major life shifts - relationships within family, workplace, local church, etc.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

WAIS and WISC (version created for school-age children) are the most widely used intelligence tests; contains 15 verbal and performance subtests, including: - similarities - vocabulary - block design - letter-number sequencing this yields an overall intelligence score (like Stanford-Binet) and also separate scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, etc - David Weschler

late adult

55/65 - death - integrity vs. despair - reflection - purpose to life

school age child

6 - 12 years - industry vs. inferiority - capable of learning, creating, and accomplishing new skills and knowledge - social stage - competence and self esteem vs. inadequacy and inferiority - relationship with school and neighborhood

cones

6 million; retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions; detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations - low light/high color sensitivity - RGB - respond faster to stimuli

ABCs of animal testing

A - appropriate: nothing cruel and unusual B - beneficial: must benefit human psychological research C - caring: must care for the animals' well being

Electroconvulsive Therapy (ETC)

A biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient

Therapeutic Alliance

A bond of trust and mutual understanding between a therapist and client, who work together constructively to overcome the client's problem

Unconditional Positive Regard

A caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)

A confrontational cognitive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that vigorously challenges people's illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

A disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy activity, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for 4 weeks or more after a traumatic experience

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

A disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions)

Conversion Disorder

A disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no psychological basis can be found. This was also called functional neurological symptom disorder

Illness Anxiety Disorder

A disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease. This was formerly called hypochondriacs

Client-Centered Therapy

A humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate client's growth. This is also called person-centered therapy

Bipolar Disorder

A mood disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania. This was formally called manic-depressive disorder

Major Depressive Disorder

A mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or another medical condition, two or more weeks with five or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure

Mania

A mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, widely optimistic state

Antisocial Personality Disorder

A personality disorder in which a person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless pr a clever con artist

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

A popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior)

Meta-Analysis

A procedure for statistically combining the results if many different research studies

Schizophrenia

A psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished or inappropriate emotional expression

Psychosis

A psychological disorder in which a person loses contact with reality, experiencing irrational ideas and distorted perceptions

Somatic Symptom Disorder

A psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

A psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity

Lobotomy

A psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The procedure cut the nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain.

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

A rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Formerly called multiple personality disorder

Psychological Disorder

A syndrome marked by clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior.

Aversive Conditioning

A type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)

Systematic Desensitization

A type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant, relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety -triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias

Insight Therapies

A variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person's awareness of underlying motives and defenses

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

An anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal

Phobia

An anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation

Panic Disorder

An anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations, often followed by worry over a possible next attack

Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy

An anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to electronic simulations of their greatest fears

Eclectic Approach

An approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client's problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy

Anorexia Nervosa

An eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly (15% or more) underweight

Bulimia Nervosa

An eating disorder in which a person alternates binge eating (usually of high-calorie foods) with purging (by vomiting or laxative use), excessive exercise, or fasting

linguistic determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the ways that we think

G. Stanley Hall

Wundt's American student who established the first formal US psychology laboratory

sensation vs. perception

Wundt's lab sought to measure "atoms of the mind" - simplest mental processes - sensation: the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus from our environment - perception: the process of organizing and interpreting information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment can be caused by mirror-image perceptions

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth; by comparing images from the retinas in two eyes, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity, the closer the object

convergence

a binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span; focuses on three major issues: - nature vs. nurture - continuity and stages - stability and change

operational definition

a carefully worded description of exact procedures in a research study; specifies the definition of everything in the statement

trait theory

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports - pioneered by Gordon Allport

neurotransmitters

a chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

pyschoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

genome

a complete set of genetic material

instinct

a complex, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person with otherwise limited mental ability has an exceptional specific skill - ⅘ savants are males with ASD - Gardner studied brain damaged subjects and found some intelligences damaged, others intact

equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it

intellectual disability

a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life (formerly called mental retardation) - adaptive behavior is expressed in conceptual skills, social skills, and practical skills

down syndrome

a condition of mild to severe intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21

generalization

a conditioned stimulus causes similar responses ex. a bell sounds similar to a horn

social influence

a factor in increasing risk for obesity

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one neuron to another

g-factor

a general intelligence that underlies all intellectual abilities and can therefore be measured by every task on an intelligence test - Spearman, 1904

stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often generalized) belief about a group of people can be negative OR positive prejudice is often built upon these

cohort

a group of people from a given time period used in a longitudinal study

theory vs. hypothesis

a hypothesis is a testable predication which states a relationship between two variables while a theory explain phenomenons by organizing observations that stimulates research, leading to revision *a proved theory becomes a law

visual cliff experiment

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants; shows that ability is innate

scaffold

a level on which children can step to higher levels of thinking; Lev Vygotsky believes that children learn through interactions with social environment

AIDS

a life treating, sexually transmitted infection caused by HIV; depletes the immune system leaving the person vulnerable to infection

polygraph

a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion

polygraph

a machine, commonly used in attempts to detects lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion

correlation

a measure of how much two variable change together; CORRELATION =/= CAUSATION, only shows possibility of cause-and-effect relationships

correlation

a measure of how much two variables change together: How well does one variable predict the other? *correlation =/= causation - correlation only shows possibility of cause and effect relationships but does not prove them

mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance - relationship between performance level and chronological age - what age does the child's intelligence reflect versus his or her actual age --> mental age > actual age = "bright" actual age > mental age = "dull" - designed to evaluate French schoolchildren; Binet wanted to identify who needed attention, but feared tests might be used to label stupid kids - Binet, 1909

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses

grit

a passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals

conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas comprised of many destructive processes -- social traps, distorted perceptions product of process and perception

refractory period (brain)

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

temperament

a person'a characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

projective tests

a personality test that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics - downside: not easily measurable and results must be interpreted, and are therefore unreliable

incentive

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

sexual dysfunction

a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus - the second is often weaker

id

a reservoir of the unconscious psychic energy that strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives - pleasure principle: demanding immediate gratification

emotion

a response of the whole organism, involving: 1. physiological arousal 2. expressive behaviors 3. conscious experience

refractory period

a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm

iris

a ring of muscle that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls its size

basic trust

a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave adopting a new one feels strange at first, but since attitudes follow behavior, you eventually become the new role

role

a set of expectations about a social position, defining how those in the positions out to behave

gender role

a set of expected behaviors for males or for females

strengths of Thurston's Primary Mental Abilities

a single g score is not as informative as scores for seven primary mental abilities

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior focusing on only the self can ultimately hurt the self ex.) energy blackout during high temps because everyone is pursuing their own self interest - keeping themselves cool - that the grid cannot handle it ex.) Bachelor Pad finale

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identified clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score - Spearman, 1904

factor analysis

a statistical procedure used to identify clusters of test items that tap basic component of intelligence - statistically correlated clusters of behaviors reflect basic factors aka traits - extraversion-intraversion and emotional stability-instability diagram

*which of the following is an example of an assessment likely to be used by a social cognitive psychologist

a student teacher is formally observed and evaluated in front of the classroom

cross-sectional study

a study which people of different ages are compared with one another

health psychology

a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine

insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution

posthypnotic suggestions

a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; can help control undeserved symptoms and behaviors: headaches, asthma, etc.

biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle psychological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

homeostasis

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around particular level

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned - AP Psychology Test, driver's license test

aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn - IQ test, career test, LSAT - SAT is a mix of achievement and aptitude

empirically derived test

a test, such as the MMPI, developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups

terror-management theory

a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death - considered a mechanism that defends our self esteem and deters anxiety

pitch

a tone's highness or lowness depending on frequency

clinical psychology

abnormal behavior and psychological disorders; psychologist vs. psychiatrist

Phineas Gage

accidental lobotomy (rock-blasting accident that destroyed much of left frontal lobe); personality and the brain: - index case for brain damage affecting personality - short term: shifted between delirious/cognitive states - long term: irritability, mood swings, "no longer Gage"

self-actualization

according to Maslow, this is a secure sense of self and the motivation to fulfill one's potential, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved

unconditional positive regard

according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person

self-concept

according to Rogers, this is a mix of thoughts/feelings to address one's own identity aka the answer to the question, "Who am I?" - healthy self-concept requires: 1. genuineness: parents/adults have a transparency of feelings 2. acceptance: accepting parents --> children are okay with making mistakes 3. empathy: ability to share feelings - positive self concept --> positive outlook - negative self concept --> fall short of ideal self

crystallized intelligence

accumulated knowledge and verbal skills (increases with age)

sublimation

acting out impulses through acceptable forces

respondent behavior

actions that are automatic responses to a stimulus --> OC --> operant behavior

accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

conformity

adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard studied by Solomon Asch rates are lowest in individualistic societies behavior is contagious (yawning, tipping, looking at something someone else is looking at)

postconvential morality

adolescence and beyond, actions reflect rebels in basic rights and self defined ethical principles

adrenal glands

adrenaline - "fight or flight"

self help

advocated by Horney, this was the idea of people taking control of their own psychological health - stated that they have the ability to be essentially trained into correcting their own mental health shortcomings

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Robert Sternberg

agreed with Gardner's multiple intelligences, but simplified eight intelligences into three in his Triarchic Theory

applied research

aims to solve practical problems - I/O, human factors, counseling, clinical and community psychologists

retroactive interference

aka backward-acting interference: new learning interferes with recalling old information

proactive interference

aka forward-acting interference: old learning interferes with learning or recalling new information

random samples

all members of a population have an equal chance in participating

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question "Who am I?"

debriefing

all relevant information revealed to participants participants must leave the same way they arrive

debriefing

all relevant information revealed to participants; participants must leave the same way they arrive

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

coping

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

categorization

allows us to simplify the world, but is a cognitive root of prejudice we acknowledge the differences in our own group, but overestimate the similarity of other groups (outgroup homogeneity)

stimulants

amphetamines cocaine MDMA meth nicotine

*if Dr. Albonico wanted to cause a cat to take on an attack posture, which of the cat's brain structures should he electrically stimulate?

amydala

near-death experience

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death, often similar to drug induced hallucinations like those of LSD

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought; as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

sexual orientation

an enduring sexual tartan toward members of either one's own sex, the other sex, or both sexes

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them, even if they can't give anything in return and even if the costs outweigh the benefits (parent to child relationship) helping behavior is something we are socialized to do

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them helping behavior is something we are socialized to do compels us to give about as much as we receive

personality

an individual's characteristics pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting - combination of specific characteristics and how those characteristics combine perspectives: 1. psychoanalytic 2. trait 3. humanistic 4. social-cognitive

critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development

habituation

an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

gestalt

an organized whole

transgender

an umbrella terms describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex

norm

an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior prescribe "proper" behavior ex.) personal space, fast vs slow pace of life, expressiveness

prejudice

an unjustifiable (and usually negative) ATTITUDE toward a group and its members (NOT an action) generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory actions

variable ratio

an unknown number of correct responses gets rewarded

*What fixation is this? Mary, Mary quite contrary How does your garden grow? With silver bells, and cockle shells And pretty maids all in a row

anal

case study

analyzes a particular group or person in depth for a long course of time but may be atypical and cannot be replicated

utilitarianism

animals can feel suffering (both physical and emotional), therefore they should not be subjected to it

inherent value

animals should not be treated as renewable resources

stimulus

any events or situation that evokes a response

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

forensic psychology

apply psychology to legal issues: police work, public policy, court/correctional setting

using emotions

applying them to adaptive or creative thinking or activities, solving conflict, manipulation - emotional intelligence test by Mayer, Salovey, Caruso

Institutional Review Board

approves research at a college level

Satoshi Kanazawa

argues that general intelligence evolved as a form of intelligence that helps people solve novel problems - (problem solving, like how to stop of fire, etc.) - common problems require a different type of intelligence - general intelligence scores do correlate with the ability to solve various novel problems but do not much correlate with individuals' skills in evolutionary familiar situations

one-word stage

around 12 months

two-word stage

around 24 months - telegraphic speech: clunky expression, mostly unconjugated verb and noun pairings

babbling stage

around 4 months, infants utter various sounds

sympathetic nervous system

arouses and expends energy

placenta

as the embryo develops, outer cells become the life link that transfers nutrients and oxygen from mother to embryo

relative motion

as we move, stable objects appear to move

analytical intelligence

assessed by traditional intelligence tests, which present well-defined problems having a single right answer - such test predict school grades reasonably well and vocational success more modestly - Triarchic Intelligences

APA Ethics Code

assures ethical behavior within the field

cerebellum

at the rear of the brainstem, functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, enabling nonverbal learning and memory

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

attempt to sort people according to Carl Jung's personality types based on their responses to 126 questions

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction

problem-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way that we interact with that stressor

central route persuasion

attitude change path in which interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts (being analytically involved in something) argument based on merit, often evoking examples looking at what's at the heart of the issue more durable/long-lasting persuasion that is more likely to influence behavior

peripheral route persuasion

attitude change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues (not important to the issue), such as a speaker's attractiveness not systematic/analytical thinking snap judgment based on incidental cues ex.) fav singer supports a cause, so you decide to support it

projection

attributing one's own impulses to others

*Although she is intelligent and a good athlete, Abigail believes that her low grades in school and losing the quarter-mile racing record are reflections of her own intellectual and athletic incompetence. Her conclusions best illustration a pessimistic ___

attributional style

reflex action

automatic reaction (without thinking)

ANS

autonomic nervous system

mean

average of data (sum of values) / (# of values)

alpha waves

awake but relaxed state

stages of speech development

babbling stage, one-word stage, two-word stage

automatic reflect responses

babies come equipped with these like the rooting reflex, sucking, tonguing, swallowing, and breathing

secure

babies ok with stranger if mom present, slight freakout when mom left, happy when mom returned (70%)

histogram

bar graph depicting frequency distribution

histogram

bar graph depicting frequency distribution; can be misleading depending on how graph is labeled

depressants

barbiturates alcohol opiates

basic vs. applied research - differences and careers

basic is pure science that decreases uncertainty while applied aims to solve practical problems

experimental psychology

basic laboratory focus; animals or humans learning, memory, motivation

insecure avoidant

basically unaffected through experiment (15%)

preconventional morality

before age 9, self-interest, obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli

waves' relationship to volume/pitch (hearing)

bigger wavelength = higher volume higher frequency = higher pitch

binocular vs. monocular vision

binocular is key is judging distance of near objects while monocular is key in judging distant objects

circadian rhythm

biological clock, regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle; can be altered by experience and age

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience; decrees many of our commonalities

touch's role in development

biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences in touch (like pain, for example) - biological: activity in spinal cord, brain's interpretation, genetic difference in endorphin production - psychological: attention to pain, learning based on experience - social-cultural: presence of others, empathy, cultural expectation

infancy

birth - 18 mo - basic trust vs. mistrust - emphasis on caregiver's nurturing ability and care for a child; esp. visual contact and touch - optimism, trust, confidence, and security vs. insecurity, worthlessness, and general mistrust

vestibular sense

body movement and position including balance

autonomic nervous system

body's autopilot that controls glands and muscles of internal organs (heartbeat, digestion)

nervous system

body's electrochemical communication network

cognitive neuroscience

born in the Cognition Revolution during the 1960's as the study of brain activity's relation to cognition (perception, thinking, memory, language)

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord; dictates body's decisions

feeling loved activates ___

brain regions associated with reward and safety systems

phantom limb

brain still perceives sensations from missing body parts

phantom limb

brain still perceiving sensation from missing body parts - mirror therapy can help treat this

plasticity

brain's ability to change, reorganize after damage, change during growth and development, and build new pathways after experiences - combining plasticity and perception can trick the brain into adopting analogies as its own

brainstem

brainstem the oldest part and central core of the brain; beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull, responsible for automatic survival functions

nerves

bundled acons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles glands, and sense organs

nerves

bundles of axons that link the CNS with sensory receptors, muscles, and glands

slep spindles

bursts of activity followed by periods of rest

K Complexes

bursts of brainwave activity during NREM 2 that are a part of sleep spindles

Three Levels of Processing

by Craik and Lockhart, includes shallow and deep which are broken up into: structural, phonemic, and semantic

Fritz Heider

came up with the attribution theory

Festinger

came up with the cognitive dissonance theory

surveys

can measure self-reported attitudes; must ask representative, random sample

operational definition

carefully worded description of exact procedures in a research study - "500 mg of caffeine makes subjects complete math tests more accurately"

optic nerve

carries nerve impulses from the eye to the brain

sensory (afferent) neurons

carry incoming information to brain and spinal cord

sensory (afferent) neurons

carry incoming information to brain and spinal cord (back)

motor (efferent) neurons

carry instructions from brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands

motor (efferent) neurons

carry instructions from brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands (front)

Primary Mental Abilities

categories of intelligence which may vary in level - L. L. Thurstone, 1926 - rejection of general intelligence (vs. theories of Spearman) - used battery of tests to rank 7 clusters of mental abilities: spatial ability, verbal comprehension, word fluency, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, memory

sleep loss

causes person to be more vulnerable to obesity

CNS

central nervous system - brain and spinal cord

skew

central tendency distorted by outlier

skew

central tendency distorted by outlier; can be positive or negative

fixed ratio

certain number of correct responses gets rewarded

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues

agonist

chemically similar to a neurotransmitter - this binds to receptor sites and produces the same biological response

agonist

chemically similar to a neurotransmitter; binds to receptor sites to produce same biological response

psychoactive drugs

chemicals that alter mood and perception; mimic/alter functions of neurotransmitters - placebo effect

cornea

clear tissue covering the eye that begins the process of collecting, bending, and focusing light rays

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

inner ear

cochlea = coiled, bony tube, sound waves travel through and trigger nerve impulses - inner ear also has the semicircular canals and vestibular sacs (fluid)

vivid cases

cognitive root of prejudice due to the availability heuristic, our judgment of a group is colored by the most easily remembered and extreme cases, and these feed stereotypes ex.) due to the extremely memorable 9/11, most people judge all Muslims (incorrectly) as violent terrorists

sensation vs. perception lab

compared how long it took to hear sound vs. process and identify sound

representative heuristic

compares prototypes

DNA

complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

DNA

complex molecule with genetic information

addiction

compulsive craving of drugs or certain behaviors despite known adverse consequences

addiction

compulsive craving pf drugs or certain behaviors despite known adverse consequences

Stanley Milgram

conducted an unethical study at Yale on obedience where he examined the influence of authority figures in getting participants to shock other people exploited the foot-in-the-door phenomenon

corpus callosum

connects the left and right hemispheres

corpus callosum

connects the left and right hemispheres, severing this allows the split hemisphere to operate independently

informed consent

consent given by subjects after being informed as to possible consequences of a study/experiment - doesn't have to reveal everything - assures voluntary participation

informed consent

consent given by subjects after being informed as to possible consequences of a study/experiment; doesn't have to reveal everything but this assures voluntary participation

behavioral psychology

considering observable behaviors

reliability

consistent results (is scores correlate, test if reliable) - can be tested by test-retest or split-half scores

sensory adaptation

constant stimuli results in less sensitivity

substance use disorder

continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk

serotonin

controls mood, hunger, sleep, dreaming, pain, sexual arousal, and emotions, but too little leads to depression

new brain

controls perception, thinking, and speaking; also called the neocortex brain or analytical mind

dopamine

controls voluntary movement, learning, emotion, but too little causes shakiness or tremors and too much causes hallucinations

school psychology

counseling and guidance in school settings

Francis Galton

cousin of Charles Darwin who tried to measure "natural ability" and encourage those of high ability to mate with each other --> "best fit society" (ideas later used in Nazi Germany) - eugenics: application of Darwinism to society/social structure to improve a population - assessed 10,000 people in 1884 at the London Exposition for their "intellectual strengths" based on reaction time, sensory acuity, muscular power, and body proportions - found that measures did not correlate and well-regarded individuals did not outscore others - contributed to some statistical techniques used today, but failed to find a simple intelligence measure - book: Hereditary Genius; although science strives for objectivity, individual scientists themselves are affected by their own assumptions and attitudes

Zimbardo

created the Stanford Prison Experiment that showed the effects of adopting new roles of prisoner, guard, etc. showed that what we do (behaviors) are gradually what we become

Cultural-Historical Theory

culture, guidance, and social interaction => cognition - contradicts Piaget's universal states - development is scaffolded - built level to level - through instruction by MKO (more knowledgeable other)

three elements of scientific attitude

curious, skeptical, and humble

descriptive statistics

data used to measure and describe groups

descriptive statstics

data used to measure and describe groups

counseling psychology

dealing with life situations; guidance

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation; as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

NREM 3

deepest sleep, night terror, sleep talking, sleep walking

sexual dysfunction

defined as self-consciousness or impaired ability to achieve arousal, harm to themselves

clinically obese

defined by WHO as a body mass index of 30+

intelligence quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiple by 100 IQ = [(ma)/(ca)] x 100 - on contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100, with scores assigned to relative perform above or below average - William Stern

standardization

defining meaningful scores through a comparison of other groups

reliability

degree to which an assessment produces consistent results

independent variable

deliberately manipulated to cause change; inputs to a function "What am I changing?"

hindsight bias

demonstrated in experiment where... participants hearing a story ending in rape of a woman has participants partly blaming woman's behavior VS hearing the story with the ending deleted don't perceive behavior as inviting rape (victim blaming)

creative intelligence

demonstrated in reacting adaptively to novel situations and generating novel ideas - many inventions result from creative problem solving - Triarchic Intelligences

Iranian Orphanage Study

deprivation trumps innate intelligence; orphans were neglected - only basic care on routine schedule - no cause/effect reinforcement between crying and attention - development stagnated, babies described as "glum lumps" - tutored human enrichment, caregivers trained to be good caregivers --> children learned quickly, many adopted - Hunt, 1982

absolute threshold

detectable 50% of the time but unperceived stimulus = subliminal --> prime --> subliminal suggestion

correlational research method

detects naturally occurring relationships collects data on two or more variables - no manipulation - strengths: works with large groups of data, can be done anywhere where as experimentation cannot - weaknesses: also does not specify cause and effect

PET scan

detects radioactive glucose; glucose is used by working neurons so it allows scientists to see where the brain is working

John Mayer, Peter Salovey, and David Caruso

developed a test to assess four emotional intelligence components: 1. perceiving emotions 2. understanding emotions 3. managing emotions 4. using emotions - caution against stretching emotional intelligence to included varied traits such as self-esteem and optimism - believed emotionally intelligent people and socially and self aware

range

difference between highest and lowest value

strengths of Spearman's g-factor

different abilities, such as verbal and spatial, do have some tendency to correlate

discrimination

differentiate between stimuli ex. responds to bell but doesn't respond to a horn

Split Brain Experiment

differentiated Wernicke's vs. Broca's

egocentrism

difficult taking another's point of view; in pre-operational stage

autism spectrum disorder

difficulty understanding that others have different state of minds than themselves

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

*the role of "possible selves" play in our lives is to ___

direct our behavior towards an imaged future

positive punishment

discouraging undesired behavior by introducing aversive stimulus

negative punishment

discouraging undesired behavior by removing appetitive stimulus

parasympathetic nervous system

division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body

cognitive development theory

dream content reflects cognitive development - their knowledge and understanding, top down

Freud's wish fulfillment theory

dreams express otherwise unacceptable feelings, manifest and latent content

information-processing theory

dreams sort of the day's events and consolidate memories

infantile amnesia

earliest memories seldom predate age 3; as children mature, they become more capable of remembering experiences

conventional morality

early adolescence, uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order; conformity and communal norms

Neo-Freudians

early followers of Freud who accepted basics of psychoanalysis, but deviated from finer ideas: - placed more emphasis on conscious mind's role in interpreting experience and in coping with the environment, and also doubted that sex and aggression were all consuming motivations but instead emphasized social interactions - Carl Jung, Alfred Alder, and Karen Horney

functionalism

early school of thought that explored how mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish - promoted by James, influenced by Darwin

structuralism

early school of thought that used introspection to reveal the "building blocks" of the human mind - promoted by Wundt and Titchener

interviewer effect

effect the interviewer may have on the outcome of the survey

testing bias

elements of test affect performance results: 1. problems with questions - socioeconomic/racial bias in SATs (2010) 2. administration of test - can cause anxiety or stress 3. test-taker expectations - stereotype threat

9 weeks (prenatal development)

embryo begins to look like a human

6 weeks (prenatal development)

embryo's organs begin to form and function

Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

emotion is physical arousal PLUS the ability to cognitively label that arousal - spillover effect: physiological responses require cognitive labelling to be interpreted as "emotion"

James-Lange theory

emotions are a result of the body's reactions to situations - stated that physiological arousal precedes emotion; emotions are interpretations of physiological responses

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and effort EXPLICIT

positive reinforcement

encouraging desired behavior by introducing appetitive stimulus (good things)

negative reinforcement

encouraging desired behavior by removing aversive stimulus (bad things)

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information

other considerations of Thurston's Primary Mental Abilities

even Thurstone's seven mental abilities show a tendency to cluster, suggesting an underlying g-factor

environment

every external influence from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

evolutionary explanations/ functions of sensation

evolutionary explanation of sensory adaptation is that it allows the brain to detect new changes

Charles Darwin

evolutionary thinking; known for natural selection - influenced functionalism

critically thinking

examining assumptions, assessing sources, discerning hidden values, evaluating evidence, assessing conclusions

narcissism

excessive self-love or infatuation for oneself - named after Greek myth of Narcissus who thought he was so pretty that he fell into a lake looking at his reflection

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone

Signal Detection Theory

explains how we decide between information-bearing stimuli and meaningless background stimuli - signal present and we detect it = hit - signal present and we do not detect it = miss - no signal present but we detect one = false alarm - no signal present and we do not detect one = correct rejection

theory

explains phenomena by organizing observations; stimulates research, leading to revision

experimental research method

explores cause and effect - manipulates variables - strengths: specifies cause and effect - weaknesses: results may not generalize to other contexts and may not be ethical :(

managing emotions

expressing them, controlling them - emotional intelligence test by Mayer, Salovey, Caruso

validity

extent to which the experiment tests what it intends to test

heritability

extent to which variation of trait is due to genes

heritability

extent to which variation of traits is due to genes

emotional roots of prejudice

facing death heightens patriotism and produces loathing toward others (scapegoat) ex.) 9/11

confounding variable

factor other than the IV that could affect experiment

confounding variable

factor other than the independent variable that could affect experiment e.g., memories, intelligence, age

sports psychology

factors that influence physical activity, like anxiety

change blindness

failing to notice changes

change blindness

failing to notice changes in environment

inattention blindness

failing to see something we are not looking for

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

choice blindness

failure to notice similarity between two different falsely advertised products that are the same

hallucinations

false sensory experiences that may occur during NREM 1

relative size

farther away objects are smaller

hypnagogic sensation

feeling of falling during NREM 1

attitude

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events when you BELIEVE someone is mean, you FEEL dislike for them, and ACT unfriendly (cycling relationship) this is changed by beliefs, which in turn drives actions can be affected through central and peripheral route persuasion

7 months (prenatal development)

fetuses demonstrate learning sound in other ways than language, become adapted to certain noises

figure-ground

figures are objects that stand out from their surroundings which are the ground

mirror neurons

fire when performing certain actions or when observing others perform certain actions

Mary Whiton Calkins

first female to earn a Ph.D. in Psychology (which was then denied to her); taught by William James

menarche

first menstrual period - pituitary hormones cause ovaries to release estrogen - can be affected by family life, abuse, insecure attachments - occurs around 12.5 years in US; 2 years earlier than 1 century ago

sampling bias

flawed sampling produces unrepresentative sample

reaction formation

flipping impulses tot their opposites (acting friendly when mad)

emerging adulthood

for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-20's, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood

source amnesia

forgetting where you learned something

neurogenesis

formation of new neurons

nature and nurture

formed by interaction of biological, psychological, and social-cultural forces; person-to-person differences > differences between groups

Carol Dweck

found the difference between a "fixed mindset" and a "growth mindset" and how the two affect our intelligence

synapse

gap between neurons where neurotransmitters are transferred

L.L. Thurstone

gave 56 different tests to people and mathematically identified seven clusters of primary mental abilities, founded theory of Primary Mental Abilities - did not rank people on a single scale of general aptitude (opposed to Spearman)

What changes in habit promote weight loss?

get enough sleep, boost energy expenditure through exercise, limit variety and minimize exposure to tempting food cues, eat healthy foods and reduce portion sizes, space meals throughout the day, beard of the binge, monitor eating during social events, forgive the occasional lapse, and connect to a support group

retrieval

getting information out of memory storage - retrieval failure: inability to access known information on demand - aphasia: tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon - cue-dependent forgetting: stimuli present during encoding are missing can be caused by interference - other memories interfere; jogged by retrieval cues

cross-sectional studies

give a snapshot of analytics of a person, group, or groups - useful for comparing groups - tend to be cheaper than longitudinal studies - ex. measure intelligence of 5 year olds compared to 30 year olds

experimental group

group exposed to treatment

marijuana

hallucinogen and depressant; main ingredient THC triggers variety of effects

LSD

hallucinogen; acid with trips similar to near-death experiences, including geometric shapes, colors, and flashbacks of meaningful emotional experiences

relative clarity

hazy objects are farther away, sharp objects are closer

amplitude

height of a wave, determines intensity of hue; measures in decibels (every 10 is 2x as loud as previous)

norepinephrine

heightens alertness and arousal, but too little depresses moods

glutamate

heightens memory, but too much overstimulates the brain and leads to seizures

Erikson

heorized that each stage of development is characterized by a different psychological crisis (conflict) that must be resolved to progress to the next stage

availability heuristic

heuristic = mental shortcut, prone to error - based on how available examples are mentally

waves' relationship to hue/intensity (sight)

higher amplitude = more intense hue size of wavelength = color of hue

framing

how a fact, question, or issue is presented affects how we think/feel about them

psychodynamic psychology

how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflict

neuroticism

how emotionally stable someone is low - calm, secure, self-satisfied high - anxious, insecure, self-pitying

epigenetics

how environment affects expression regardless of DNA

interaction

how environment and heredity affect each other

continuous vs. partial reinforcement

how frequently reinforcement is made - continuous reinforcement: reinforcing every time behavior occurs; leads to rapid learning, rapid extinction - partial reinforcement: reinforcing only sometimes; lead to slower learning but slow extinction

agreeableness

how friendly someone is low - ruthless, suspicious, uncooperative high - soft-hearted, trusting, helpful

statistical significance

how likely a result did not occur by chance

human factors psychology

how machines and people interact

conscientiousness

how mentally aware one is low - disorganized, careless, impulsive high - organized careful, disciplines

standard deviation

how much values deviate form one another

standard deviation

how much values deviate from one another;normal curve is symmetrical with a bell-shaped curve - 68.2% fall within one SD, 95.4% fall within two

evolutionary psychology

how natural selection of traits has promoted survival of certain genes

openness

how open someone is to doing things low - practical, routine, conforming high - imaginative, variety, independent

community psychology

how people interact in social environments and how social institutions affect individuals/groups

extraversion

how social someone is low - sober, reserved, retiring high - sociable, fun-loving, affection

biological psychology

how the brain/endocrine system (hormones) enables emotions and sensory experiences; studied at many levels and often involving animals as research models

cognitive psychology

how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information

humanistic psychology

how we meet our needs for love and self-fulfillment; Carl Rogers

other considerations of Spearman's g-factor

human abilities are too diverse to be encapsulated by a single general intelligence factor

Homonculous

human figure if size of sensory space in cerebral cortex matched sensor organs - large lips, hands, and genitals

Carl Rogers

humanistic psychology - Maslow shared his ideas - rejected behavioralism and Freudian psychology - believed environmental influence can help or hinder growth ("humanistic psychology") - people are naturally good & want to improve need for love and acceptance

what is the survival value of our need to affiliate or belong?

humans have always lived in groups

ghrelin

hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach

internal stimuli (sex)

imagination, fantasies, memories

internal stimuli on sex

imaginations, fantasies, memories

sleep paralysis

immobility that lingers from REM sleep

operant chamber

in OC research, a chamber aka Skinner box containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforced; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage from age 12 during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts; abstract logic and potential for mature moral reasoning

pre-operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage from age 2 to 6-7 during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic; pretend play and egocentrism

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage from age 6-7 to 11 during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events; conservation and mathematical transformations

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage from birth to age 2 during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities; object permanence and stranger anxiety

self

in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality; the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions which orchestrates personality

behavioral approach

in personality theory, this perspective focuses on the effects of learnings on our personality development - conditioning, mental processes, how our environment control us

anterograde amnesia

inability to create new memories after an injury or disease

insomnia

inability to fall or stay asleep

aphasia

inability to speak or use words - "tip of the tongue" phenomenon

Noam Chomksy

inborn universal gramar (non-operant condition theory)

schedules of reinforcement

includes fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval

excitatory neurotransmitters

increase chances of firing

independent and dependent variables

independent is deliberately manipulated to causes change (input into a function) and dependent is what changes when IV is manipulated (output of the function) * dependent variable depends on the independent variable

Phineas Gage

index case for brain damage affecting personality - rock-blasting accident destroyed much of left frontal lobe - short term: shifted between delirious/cognitive states - long term: irritability, mood swings, "no longer Gage"

personality psychology

individual differences perception by others

placebo

inert substance given to a control group (doesn't do anything, e.g., a sugar pill)

embodied cognition

influence of bodily sensations, gestures, etc. on cognitive preferences and judgements

reuptake inhibitor

inhibits reuptake, leaving neurotransmitters in receptor sites - serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSIs) most popular to treat depression (e.g., Prozac)

appetite hormones

insulin, leptin, orexin, and PYY

polygenetic

intelligence has been found to involved many genes, which each genes accounting for much less than 1% of intelligence variations

strengths of Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

intelligence is more than just verbal and mathematical skills other abilities are equally important to our human adaptability

Flynn effect

intelligence test performance improves across 29 countries over time --> tests must be periodically restandardized - James Flynn

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

rationalization

justifying behavior in less threatening ways than actual explanations

Sigmund Freud

known as the father of modern psychology, Freud developed his theory called the psychoanalytic perspective - believed in male superiority - explored the unconscious - defense mechanisms - personality structure - psychosexual stages - dreams and Freudian slips - free association - personality = unconscious motivation + childhood sexuality free association - personality shaped by conflict between pleasure-seeking impulses and socially-driven restraint - not associated w/ states of consciousness (many of his ideas are now contradicted by modern research)

delta waves

large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

Jean Piaget

last century's most influential observer of children; developmental psychologist

Martin Seligman

learned helplessness - dogs classically conditioned to associate a tone with an electric shock

educational psychology

learning and teaching psychology

social-cognition learning

learning can be done through interaction and imitation (observational learning)

latent learning

learning without trying - not apparent until a reward is present

*according to Freud, the energy from life instincts that drive personality is called ____

libido

Hebrews

linked mind and emotion to the body

place theory

links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

manifest content

literal meaning of dream - what happens

suprachiasmatic nucleus

located in hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm

algorithm

logical, step-by-step procedures guaranteed, but can be slow

settling point or set range

looser term than a biologically fixed point; indicates the level at which a person's weight settles in response to caloric intake and energy use

atonia

loss of ability to move muscles while sleeping

retrograde amnesia

loss of access to memories that occurred before an injury or disease

Robert Zajonc and Joseph LeDoux low road theory

low road: emotions occurs before cognition - instant emotional reaction (bottom-up); feel an emotion, then label it later → line up most with Cannon-Bard Theory - opposite of high road theory that emotions are driven by cognition process

gender differences

males can spread genetic information quickly over many partners --> males are typically: - more sexually assertive - more likely to perceive friendliness as attraction - more enthusiastic about sex - more attracted to partners who appears more fertile females incubate, nurse, and raise one child for many years and are therefore typically: - more interested in partners that provide for their offspring - attracted to maturity, dominance, affluence, and commitment homosexuality: non-breeding helpers; increases fitness of group by helping but not producing offspring

experiments ____, correlational studies do not

manipulate variables to determine effects

alcohol use disorder (alcoholism)

marked by tolerance and withdrawal

transpersonal

meaning beyond the self, mentioned in self-transcendence level where people strive for meaning, purpose, and communion beyond themselves

latent content

meaning of dream- underlying symbolism

recognition

measure of memory where you identify information previously learned

recall

measure of memory where you retrieve information learned earlier

EEG

measures brain wave activity during sleep

inhibitory neurotransmitter

mellows neuron out (opposite of excitatory neurotransmitters)

mnemonics

memory aids; usually imagery and organizational devices EXPLICIT

concept

mental groupings of similar things; streamlines understanding, but also prone to error

cognitive map

mental representations of situations/surroundings

reflex arc

message from sensory neuron to motor neuron without stopping at the brain

stimulants

meth, nicotine, cocaine, MDMA; excites neural activity and speeds up body functions

intelligence test

method for assessing mental aptitudes and comparing them using numerical guides/scores

median

middle value in a set of values

selective attention

mind switches from one interpretation of a scene to another (Necker's Cube) - can only focus a limited amount of awareness

difference threshold

minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time

difference threshold

minimum different between two stimuli required for detect 50% of the time

absolute threshold

minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

phantom limb

misinterprets spontaneous central nervous system activity that occurs in absence of normal sensory input

positive psychology

modern (2000's) evolution from humanistic psychology; scientific focus on positive emotions and traits

psychodynamic theories

modern day approaches that view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences

mode

most frequently occurring value

REM dream

most vivid and emotional, confusion because limbic system is active while frontal cortex has little activity

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

most widely researches and clinically used of all personality tests, this was originally developed to identify emotional disorders but is now used for many other screening purposes - includes 567 true/false questions

hallucinogens

mushrooms LSD THC MDMA

protection from harm and discomfort

must minimize discomfort or risk, must prevent long-term negative consequences, freedom to participate (cannot coerce/force participants to participate or stay - must allow withdrawal at any time)

mirror-image perceptions

mutual views often held up conflicting people, as when the other side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive both sides assume the worst in the other (can become a self-fulfilling prophecy) perception distortion that causes conflict

storage decay

natural forgetting over time; like extinction of conditioned behaviors

endorphins

natural opiate like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

endorphins

natural opiate-like neurotransmitter associated with pain control

twin studies

nature vs. nurture, but have anecdotal pitfalls - comparing rates of prevalence between monozygotic and dizygotic twins can indicate whether something is being caused by genes or environment - adopting out monozygotic twins to different families controls the variable of genetics (isolates environment) - confounding variables: certain types of families adopt (environment often similar), socioeconomic status, parenting styles, and adoption agencies often find parents similar to biological families

NREM 1

nearly awake, hallucinations, hypnagogic sensations/jerks

hunger responds to a ___

need

motivation

need or desire which drives behaviors

double blind procedure

neither the participants nor the researchers are told who is in which group - prevents groups from responding a certain way to treatments (or non-treatment) - prevents researchers from accidently influencing participants/results

feature detection

nerve cells in the brain called feature detectors respond to specific features of the stimulus such as shape or angle

peripheral nervous system

nerves; gathers information and transmits CNS decisions

resting potential

neuron is chill at -70 mV

resting potential

neuron rests before firing at -70 mV

no relationship

no relationship in correlation is 0; the closer the # is to 0, the weaker it is

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement

secondary sex characteristics

non-reproductive sexual traits

automatic processing

nonconscious encoding of incidental information

control group

not exposed to treatment

glial cells

nourish and protect neurons

inferential statistics

numerical data that allows generalization, sample data representative of population

inferential statistics

numerical data that allows generalization; sample data representative of population

personality inventory

objective, standardized assessment of true/false questions that is designed to gauge a wide ranger of feelings and behaviors, used to assess selected personality traits

relative height

objects higher in our vision appear farther away

relative height

objects that are higher in our field of view are perceived as farther away

phenotype

observable characteristics influenced by genes

descriptive research method

observe and record behavior; used in case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys - does not manipulate variables - strengths: can be done with few participants (or one), surveys are quick and inexpensive - weaknesses: uncontrolled variables = no cause and effect, single cases may be misleading

Howard Gardner

observed cases of high intelligence in some respects and limited intelligence in others --> Theory of Multiple Intelligences and research of savant syndrome

modeling

observing/imitating behaviors - part of observational learning

night terrors

occur in children and during NREM 3, differ from nightmares because they are seldom remembered

refractory period (sex)

occurs after resolution phase (after orgasm) - downtime between orgasms, longer with males than with females

genetics

offspring inherit traits from their parents through genes

old vs. new brain

old (reptilian) sustains life functions/instincts while new (neocortex) controls the analytical mind: perception, thinking, and speaking

dichromats

one malfunctioning cone system that limits spectrum to two colors and their combinations; more prevalent in males

interposition

one objects that blocks another is closer

monochromats

one or no functioning cone types, all colors appears as different hue intensities; very rare

sensory interaction

one sense may influence another - McGurk effect: you hear what you see - synesthesia

parasympathetic nervous system

opposite effect of sympathetic, calms body down

antagonist

opposite of agonists, these block receptor sites

grouping

organization of information to bring order to color, movement, contrast

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units EXPLICIT

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment - altered states include sleeping, waking, dreaming, tripping, etc. - constantly highlighting shifting perceptions and thoughts - cognitive neuroscience

person-situation controversy

our behavior is influenced by the interaction of our inner disposition with our environment

self-esteem

our feeling of self worth

social-cultural influences on sex

our perspective on function of sex and sexuality

social-cultural perspectives on sex

our perspective on function of sex and sexuality - family values, religion, and media portrayals

gender identity

our sense of being male or female

self-efficacy

our sense of competence

identity

our sense of self, according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

outgroup homogeneity

our tendency to recognize the differences and diversity within our own group (own race), but overestimate the similarity of other groups (other races) "they" look/act alike, but "we" are diverse due in part to the other-race effect

cognition

our thoughts, thinking processes, memories, and mental learning; has to do with concepts and prototypes

external stimuli (sex)

outside sources that trigger sexual excitement

external stimuli on sex

outside sources that trigger sexual excitement

spotlight effect

overestimating how much people notice our appearance, performance, and blunders - worst in teens

adrenal glands

pair of endocrine glands that sit above kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress

linear perspective

parallel lines appear to meet in the distance

permissive

parent submit to their children's desires

authoritative

parents are both demanding and responsive

authoritarian

parents impose rules and expect obedience

limited deception

participants may be deceived only when necessary to the experiment

gene

patterns of DNA carried by chromosomes; unit of heredity determining characteristics with a distinct sequence of nucleotides

I/O psychology

people and work job satisfaction training and selection

Theory of Multiple Intelligences

people have different ways of thinking and learning - there are multiple types of intelligence in different abilities - Howard Gardner, 1986

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states about their feelings. perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict

figure vs. ground

perceiving an object (figure) distinct from its surroundings (ground) - relationship continuously reverses and same stimulus can trigger different perceptions

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color even if changing illumination alters the wavelength reflected by the object

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change

self-serving bias

perceiving ourselves favorably - 70% of people see themselves as better than average but in reality only 50%

illusory correlation

perception of a relationship where there isn't one; may be the result of people seeing what they want to see (confirmation bias)

illusory correlation

perception of a relationship where there isn't one; may be the result of people seeing what they want to see (confirmation bias)

fluid intelligence

perceptual speed, abstract thinking (decreases with age)

longitudinal studies

performed over time with the same person, group, or groups - useful for assessing development - ex. see how intelligence changes between 5 and 30

sleep

periodic, natural loss of consciousness

confidentiality

personal information about participants must be kept secret; results reported in an anonymous way

Sigmund Freud

personality theorist and therapist; psychodynamic perspective; wish-fulfillment theory of dreams

tinnitus

phantom sounds after hearing loss

fetal alcohol syndrome

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman;s heavy drinking; in severe cases, signs include a small, out of proportion head and abnormal facial features

effector

physical movement receiving motor neural message

list of levels in Maslow's pyramid of human needs

physiological needs --> safety needs --> belongingness and love needs --> esteem needs --> self-actualization needs --> self-transcendence needs

reciprocal determinism

pioneered Bandura, behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and social environment - reciprocal: exchanging, determinism - inevitable consequences - interplay between environment, behaviors, and thoughts (and internal and external factors)

Ivan Pavlov

pioneered study of learning, especially classical conditioning

Stanford Prison Experiment

placed graduate students in roles of prisoners or guards - found that those placed in roles of guards tended to act as if they were a real guard, degrading and beating prisoners

positive vs. negative correlation

positive or negative correlation can be determined by slope of trend of scatterplot - the closer the coefficient is to 0, the stronger the correlation is

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior - opposite of antisocial behavior

Confucius

power of ideas and education

*The ___ contains material of which you may be unaware but can easily bring to awareness

preconscious

understanding emotions

predicting them, understanding change - emotional intelligence test by Mayer, Salovey, Caruso

signal detection theory

predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amis background stimulation; assumes there is no single absolute threshold, detection depends partly on a person's experience/expectations/etc.

social facilitation

presence of others tends to amplify our natural behavior tendencies; eating more when with others

touch

pressure, warmth, cold, and pain

estrogen

primary female sex hormone; levels peak during ovulation and increase motivation and fertility

sleep apnea

problems breathing while sleeping wake up gasping or choking

conception

process begins when a woman's ovary releases a mature egg --> 200 million+ sperm race to egg and eat away at its protective coating before one penetrates the coating --> egg blocks out others --> egg nucleus + sperm nucleus

reuptake

process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed into the synapse; can be inhibited by repute inhibitors that leave neurotransmitters in receptor sites (ex. serotonin to treat depression)

stress

process by which we perceive and respond to challenging or threatening events - can lead to unhealthy behaviors (smoking, drinking, sleep problems) and physiological responses (disruption of ANS, immune suppression, heart disease)

encoding

processing of information - encoding failure is when information never got through encoding process in the first place - role of selective attention

phrenology

pseudoscience claiming personality could be determined by shape and size of the skull - accurately predicted different areas of the brain control different emotions - inaccurately said measuring the head could determine personality traits

developmental psychology

psychological change from womb to tomb; social, cognitive, personality

health psychology

psychological factors in physical health

levels of analysis

psychological perspectives for analyzing phenomena: biological, psychological, and social-cultural - combine to form biopsychosocial approach

basic research

pure science - decrease uncertainty - biological psychologists include developmental, educational, personality and social psychologists

back-to-sleep position

putting babies to sleep on their backs to reduce the risk of crib death, associated with later crawling but not with later walking

random assignment

randomly assign participants into experimental and control groups

random assignment

randomly assigning participants into experimental and control groups * NOT the same as random sampling

electromagnetic spectrum

range of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation; based on frequency (intensity/length) of wavelengths - shorter wavelength = more energy - longer wavelength = lower energy

REM sleep

rapid eye movement, vivid dreams occur aka paradoxical sleep because muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active (motor cortex is active but movements are blocked by brainstem)

frequency theory

rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, enables to sense its pitch

electroencephalogram (EEG)

reads electrical and magnetic signals with an electrode hat

EEG

reads electrical and magnetic signals with electrode hat

self-recognition

realizing you're a person; occurs around 18 months

perceiving emotions

recognizing them in various mediums - emotional intelligence test by Mayer, Salovey, Caruso

Dorothea Dix

reformer in humane treatment of those with psychological disorders

relearning

refreshing previously known information

repression/denial

refusing the believes or even perceive painful realities

pituitary glands

regulates other glands; growth hormone and oxytocin - contractions for birthing - milk flow - orgasm - social bonding/trust

GABA

regulates/slows down bodily functions, but too little causes seizures, tremors

penis envy

rejected by Horney, this is the idea that adolescent girls become anxious about their lack of having a penis

cortisol

released from adrenal gland to wake up

melatonin

released from pineal gland to trigger sleepiness

replication

repeating a research study with new participants to determine accuracy of findings

leptin

reports the body fat to the brain; when levels fall, levels of gherlin rise

symbolic thinking

representing things with words and images; appears at an earlier age that Piaget supposed; in pre-operational stage

practical intelligence

required for everyday tasks, which may be ill-defined, with multiple solutions (managerial abilities) - measured in a test created by Sternberg and Richard Wagner - Triarchic Intelligences

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period of time

animals in experimentation

reserved for research that is unsafe or unethical to do on humans - helps observe diseases, test drugs, alter environment, etc. - animals may not be subjected to extreme pain, extreme hunger, or extreme suffering - if animals are harmed in research, must be deemed necessary to benefit human welfare

basal metabolic rate

resting rate of energy expenditure

long-term potentiation

retention of information for a longer period of time; easily retrieved

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory

retina contains three different color receptors RGB and when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color

parts of the eye

retina, cornea, iris, lens, fovea, optic nerve, pupil

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision when cones don't respond

regression

retreat to infantile sexual stage (fixation)

self-disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

fixed interval

rewards come at a fixed time

variable interval

rewards come at unknown times

syntax

rules for how language is arranged; arrangement of adjectives, nouns, verbs, etc.

semantics

rules for the meaning of words

grammar

rules of structure of language

Yerkes-Dodson Law

says that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, BUT only up to a point when levels of arousal become too high, performance decreases

insecure ambivalent

scared of stranger, major freakout when mom left, pouty when mom returned (15%)

Gambler's Fallacy

seeking order in random events

epigenetic effect

seen in alcohol, meaning it leaves chemical marks on DNA that switch genes abnormally on or off (FAS)

stereotype threat

self-confirming concern one will conform to negative stereotypes about their social group

when people are socially excluded, they may engage in ___

self-defeating behaviors

Buddha

sensations and perceptions combine to form ideas

peripheral nervous system

sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

CT/CAT scan

series of X-rays taken from different angles; computer combines these X-rays into composite representation

deja vu

series sense that you've experienced something before; cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

animal use in experiments

served for research that is unsafe or unethical to do on humans; animals may not be subjected to extreme pain, extreme hunger, or extreme suffering - if animals are harmed in research, must be deemed necessary to benefit human welfare

genotype

set of genes we're born with

fMRI

several MRIs taken in quick succession; brain activity attracts blood to location of activity identifies blood flow

split brain

severing the corpus callosum allows hemispheres to operate independently

estrogens

sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteristics; in nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity

libido

sexual desire and urges decrease with age for both sexes

light and shadow

shading shows depth

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

displacement

shifts sexual or aggressive impulses to more acceptable and less threatening objects or people

other cosniderations of Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

should all of our abilities be considered intelligences? shouldn't some be called talents?

pruning process

shuts down unused links and strengthens others as brain develops (enables physical coordination); association areas are last to develop

unit bias

similar mindlessness; given larger portions, you like increase your caloric intake

Triarchic Intelligences

simplified Gardner's multiple intelligences into analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence - Sternberg, 1985 - note: research suggests multiple/categorical intelligence correlates to some kind of general intelligence

combination of skin sensation

skin sensations are a combination of pressure, hot, cold, and pain

states of consciousness

sleeping, waking, etc.

natural selection

small, random mutations to genes cause change --> mutations can make subject more fit to reproduce and survival of species, not necessarily individual, may be more fit offspring pass on genes to next generation

chemical receptors in smell

smell is also a chemical sense = 20 million receptor cells @ top of naval cavity (olfactory) - some odors trigger a combination of receptors in patterns --> activate different neural patterns - large capacity to recognize odors

ostracism

social exclusion that can lead to physical pain, depression, antisocial behavior

social psychology

social influences on cognition and emotion attitudes and beliefs

hypnotism is a ___ because __

social phenomenon, power of suggestion and pressure of fulfilling a role

___ and ___ interact to produce obesity

society, environment

limbic system

somewhere in between old and new brain, this is largely responsible for emotion and memory; also called the limbic brain or emotional mind

limbic system

somewhere in between the old and new brains; largely responsible for emotion and memory - includes hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus, and hippocampus

NREM 2

spend a majority of night next to REM,

action potential

spike of electrical activity, creates depolarizing current (moves neuron closer to 0 mV) - if charge breaches threshold, neuron fires

action potential

spike of electrical activity, creates depolarizing current (moves neurons closer to 0 mV) - if charge breaches threshold, then the neuron fires - all or none principle

gate control theory

spinal cord contains a gate that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain, gate is opened by activity of brain signals

gate-control theory

spinal cord contains a gate that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain, gate is opened by activity of brain signals

dissociation

split consciousness like spacing out - evolutionary explanation is to act without thinking

language

spoken, written, or gestured words and their combination to communicate meaning

three criteria of tests

standardization, reliability and validity

bottom-up processing

starts at the sensory receptors and works up to higher levels of processing

optimal arousal theory

states that some motivated behaviors actually increase arousal

correlation coefficient

statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other

correlation coefficient

statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other - notation: r = -/+ # # can range 0 - 1 *correlation coefficient over 1 is impossible and 0 is highly unlikely

controlled variable

stays constant to prevent influence

methamphetamine

stimulant; energy and mood changes that lead to euphoria and increased energy, diminishes baseline dopamine levels

cocaine

stimulant; from the coca plant, produces temporarily increase alertness and euphoria

nicotine

stimulant; highly addictive psychoactive drug found in tobacco

amphetamines

stimulant; speed up body functions and energy and mood changes

extinction

stimulus no longer causes the response

Cannon-Bard theory

stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and emotions separately

door-in-the-face phenomenon

strategically leading with a large request, knowing you'll get denied, and then following up with a smaller request to get accepted ex.) curfew: asking parents if you can stay out all weekend, and when they say no, ask if you can just stay out an hour past curfew then

general adaptation

stress resistance lowers immediately after a stressor, is bolstered after that, and drops again

structuralism vs. functionalism - identify the differences

structuralism looks at the building blocks of the mind while functionalism looks at how the specific functions of the mind work and help us

early schools of thought

structuralism, functionalism, and behaviorism --> Gestalt psychology and psychoanalysis

Kohlberg

studied moral development

Solomon Asch

studied the conformity styles of normative and informative social influence created experiment with matching the height of lines to see if participants would conform to the group's (confederates') incorrect answers

oneirology

study of dreams

evolutionary psychology

study of evolutionary behavior on the mind; explains usefulness of psychological traits

behavior genetics

study of how genes affect specific behavior

behavior genetics

study of how genes affect specifically behavior

psychometrics

study of measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

overconfidence effect

subjective confidence is reliable greater than objective accuracy - we tend to think we know more than we actually do

overconfidence effect

subjective confidence is reliably greater than objective accuracy - we tend to think we know more than we do

subliminal perception

subliminal = unperceived because it is bowl one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness - subliminal suggestion: attempted use of subliminal perception to make people do stuff like buy things or donate

shaping

successive approximations; rewarding getting closer and closer to the desired behavior - part of OC

glucose

sugar produced in the body from food

SCN

suprachiasmatic nucleus controls circadian rhythms, located in hypothalamus

wording effect

surveys must be carefully worded as to not influence responses

old brain

sustains life functions; also called the reptilian brain or instinctive mind

taste

sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami

normal curve

symmetrical, bell-shaped curve - 68.2% 1 deviation - 95.4% 2 deviations - 99/7% 3 deviations

kinesthesia

system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

chemical receptors in taste

taste is a chemical sense --> taste buds contain pores that catch food chemicals, each with 50-100 taste receptor cells --> trigger response in temporal lobe

"taste"

temperature, texture, visual appeal, and smell - identify: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami

REM rebound

tendency for REM sleep to increase following sleep deprivation

mental set

tendency to approach a problem a certain way predisposes how we think just as a perceptual set predisposes how we perceive

serial position effect

tendency to more accurately recall the first and last items in a list - primacy effect: first on the list = rehearsed more - recency effect: last on the list = lingering in working memory

hypothesis

testable prediction, statement of relationship between variables

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept, the part of our answer the "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

two-factor theory

the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal

*brain plasticity refers to which of the following

the ability of the brain to take on a new function

self control

the ability to control impasse and delay short term gratification for greater long term rewards

intimacy

the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in later adolescence and early adulthood; in Erikson's theory

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions - emotionally intelligence is one's unconscious processing of emotional information - impacts gratification, success, impulses - brain damage --> diminished emotional intelligence in people with high general intelligence - criticized for stretching concept of intelligence too far - Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, 2002

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distances

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

priming

the activation of certain associations; predisposes one's perception, memory - previous experience affects interpretation of event

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived; in sensorimotor stage

medulla

the base of the brainstem, controls heartbeat and breathing

repression

the basic defense mechanism that banished from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

retinal disparity

the binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing the difference of two objects

genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA are capable of synthesizing proteins

primary sex characteristics

the body structures that makes sexual reproduction possible

basal metabolic rate

the body's resting rate of energy expenditure

endocrine system

the body's slow chemical communication system, set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

nervous system

the bodys speedy electrochemical communication network, consisting of all nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

brain lateralization

the brain has a right and left hemisphere that each receives sensory information and controls the opposite side of the body - the left and right are not exactly alike - ex. Broca's Area (speech production) and Wernicke's Area (speech processing/perception) tend to move with hand dominance

personal space

the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies Scandinavians, North Americans, and British prefer more of this than Latin Americans, Arabs, and French

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the cones cluster

middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing hammer, anvil, and stirrup that concentrate vibrations of the eardrum on the oval window

psychosexual stages

the childhood stages of development in which the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones (parts of the body sensitive to sexuals stimulation)

coronary heart disease

the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, etc.

companionate love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month; comes from the zygote and attaches to uterine walls

tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of drug requiring the user to take larger and larger does before experiences the drugs effect (does not apply to THC)

withdrawal

the discomfort and stress that follow discontinuing and addictive drug or behavior

wavelength

the distance for the peak of one wave to the peak of the next

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the bodys skeletal muscles

defense mechanisms

the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality - combination of defense mechanisms contributed to personality - function indirectly and unconsciously, Freud said

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next each has its own norms and a great capacity to change rapidly (technological age)

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group differences between groups grow with time, especially with group discussion on issues in question ex.) when high-prejudice students discussed racial issues, they became MORE prejudiced

content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

outer ear

the external auditory canal that is separated from the middle ear by the eardrum

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display about the age of 8 months

zygote

the fertilized egg; enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

Maraget Floy Washburn

the first woman to receive a psychology Ph.D. synthesized animal behavior "The Animal Mind"

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

sexual response cycle

the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

experimental group

the group that is exposed to treatment * variables are manipulated unlike those of correlational studies

control group

the group that is not exposed to treatment; serves as something to which experimenters can compare results

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological needs creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need; replaced original instinct theory of motivation

inner ear

the innermost part of the ear containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep (NREM 3)

ego

the largely conscious "executive" part of personality that mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality - reality principle: satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity less self-control, less restrained ex.) rioting, caf food fight

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives fed by overconfidence, CONFORMITY, self-justification, and group polarization accounts for the ill-fated Bay of Pigs invasion under JFK

testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones, both males and females have it but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sec characteristics during puberty

testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones; both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

all or none principle

the neuron either fires or doesn't - they can fire a larger amount of neurotransmitters, but rate stays the same

all or none principle

the neuron either fires or it doesn't

axon

the neuron extension that passes messeges through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or to glands

frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass through a point at a given time - very high frequencies (short wavelengths) can be harmful gamma rays, x rays, UV - lower frequencies (long wavelengths) are mostly harmless radio waves, infrared

superego

the part of personality that represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgement and for future aspirations - perfection principle: how things ought to be

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

puberty

the period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them familiarity breeds attraction ("no such thing as bad publicity")

set point

the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set; when the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye creating a blind spot because no receptor cells are located there

minority influence

the power of one or two individuals to sway the opinions of majorities

conservation

the principle (believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects; begin to grasp in concrete operational stage

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration - the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal - creates anger, which can generate aggression

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

Weber's law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachment during an early life critical period

identification

the process by which children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos (now called gender identity)

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus from our environment

accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

stress

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions - contrasts with the step by step (serial) processing

heritability

the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes - may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

positive psychology

the scientific study of optimal human functions; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive, led by Martin E. Seligman

X chromosome

the sex chromosome found in both men and women men = XY women = XX SEX DETERMINED BY 46TH CHROMOSOME

Y chromosome

the sex chromosome found only in males

gender

the socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female

null hypothesis

the status quo, what our alternative hypothesis is testing against - if it occurs more than 5% of the time, the alternative hypothesis looks bad - can be rejected if falls within 2 deviations

psychoneuroimmunology

the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health

molecular genetics

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

predictive reliability

the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict - can be tested by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior (criterion-related validity)

normal curve

the symmetrical, bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes - most scores fall near the average, and fewer near the extremes - average is 100 - used in Stanford-Binet and Weschler, which both indicate whether a score lies above or below the average

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

bystander effect

the tendency for any bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present the more bystanders there are, the less likely any given bystander is to give help "someone else will do it, not me" - everyone ex.) Kitty Genevese

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice o yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior/making attributions, to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of personal disposition (even when it doesn't make rational sense) our tendency to blame behavior rather than situation and typically assume the worst in people (can go the other way around though) occurs most in Western individualistic societies

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get cognitive root of prejudice says that if someone is successful, they deserve to be successful (and vise versa) supports VICTIM BLAMING ("he/she deserved it")

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply with a larger request starting small and slowly working up ex.) POWs, samples of products to get you to buy them

facial feedback effect

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor our own group

false consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and our behaviors; this is a modern day name for Freud's ideas of projection - considered a mechanism that defends our self esteem and deters anxiety

other-race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias emerges between 3-9 months old, but can be reduced with increased exposure to other races

Cannon-Bard theory

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers 1. physiological responses and 2. the subjective experience of emotion

James-Lange theory

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimizes costs

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame makes us "feel better" ex.) after 9/11, all Muslims came to blamed for the actions of a few

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation and biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines - ovaries produce less estrogen - hormonal change can cause physical & cognitive imbalances

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

lymphocytes

the two types of the white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system: B - bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections T - thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances

empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation - basis of ideas from Bacon and Locke

strengths of Sternberg's Triarchic Intelligences

these three facets can be reliably measured

seeing order in random events

this false perception of order is what leads to Gambler's Fallacy

chromosomes

threadlike structure made of DNA molecules that contain all the genes

episodic memory

tied to an event play by play EXPLICIT

lesion

tissue destruction in the brain that can be made surgically to determine function of brain regions

lesion

tissue destruction that can be made either surgically or naturally; in surgery, used to determine functions of brain regions

six sense

touch, taste, smell, sight, hearing, and kinesthetic awareness

neurons

transmit signals when stimulated by sensory input or other neurons

sleep apnea

trouble breathing during sleep

insomnia

trouble falling asleep and/or staying asleep

Little Albert

turned stuffed animals into conditioned stimulus for fear

Carl Jung

two layers of consciousness

opponent process

two processes do opposite things and work in opposition of each other, like sympathetic and para sympathetic

classical conditioning

unconditioned stimulus causes a natural response (the normal reaction to stimulus) --> addition of neutral stimulus (stimulus that has nothing to do with a given natural response) --> acquisition --> neutral stimulus now causes natural response --> stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus --> response becomes conditioned response

dual process theory

unconscious and conscious mind are working simultaneously

narcolepsy

uncontrollable "sleep attacks;" can be accompanied by intense emotions; debilitating

narcolepsy

uncontrollable sleep attacks, may lapse into REM sleep

tend and befriend

under stress, people often provide support to others and bond with and seek support from others

tend-and-befriend response

under stress, people often provide support to others and bond with and seek support from others

discrimination

unjustifiable negative BEHAVIOR toward a group and its members

neophobia

unlike of things unfamiliar

fixation

unresolved conflicts result in lingering focuses on younger stage

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others "helping behavior"

skepticism

use skeptical testing to reveal which idea best matches the facts, analytical and critical thinking

word association

used by Jung, this is a process in which patients are presented with a word and respond with the first thing that comes to mind - response time, response, and reproduction are recorded and abnormal patterns may evidence psychological complexes and intellectual and emotional deficiencies

Charles Spearman

used factor analysis to determine how skills relate to each other; g-factor

posthypnotic suggestion

used in clinical hypnosis when clinician will ask patients to do things when under hypnosis which will be carried out after

mirror therapy

used the treat phantom limb, uses a reflection of an existing limb to trick the brain

twin studies

used to assess nature vs, nurture in intelligence, through heritability - found that correlation becomes stronger with age

visual preference

used to study habituation in infants; found that infants like adults, focus first on the face not the body

neuroadaptation

user's brain adapts to offset the drug effect

top-down processing

uses expectations and context to interpret sensation: existing perceptions interpret information --> puts stimuli into context

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

uses magnetic fields & radio waves to produce images - magnetic field aligns spinning atoms of brain molecules - temporarily disorients this alignment with radio waves - records the realignment

MRI

uses magnetic fields & radio waves to produce images; magnetic field aligns spinning atoms of brain molecules - this temporarily disorients this alignment with radio waves records the realignment

Hans and Sybil Eysenck

using factor analysis, they believed that we can reduce many of our normal individual variations to two or three dimensions --> extraversion-intraversion and emotional stability-instability diagram - believe factors are genetically influenced, supported by research

bottom-up processing

using the pieces of information to form higher levels of processing: sensation receives and relays stimuli --> stimulus drives cognition and understanding that results in perceptions

social-cognitive perspective

view behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits and their social context (we learn behavior by imitating others and we think about these interactions) - pioneered by Albert Bandura - difficult to measure with questions and answers like trait theory - includes Bandura's idea of reciprocal determinism environment = situation behavior = retaliation internal factor = reaction, thoughts

humanistic theorists

views personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth, client-centered practice - measure personality through one's self-perceived identity - Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers

somatic nervous system

voluntary control of muscles

alpha waves

waking alpha waves cause us to feel sleepy

naturalistic observation

watching natural behavior without interfering or manipulating setting or subjects; does not attempt to explain behavior

naturalistic observation

watching natural behavior; does not interfere or manipulate setting or subjects but does not attempt to explain behavior

stability and change

we experience both stability and change, and both are required by life; stability = identity, change = motivation - temperament = very stable - social attitudes = less stable - as people grow, personality gradually stabilizes - all people change without chancing a person's position relative to others

social-cultural psychology

we think and act based on our social environment; attitudes, beliefs

bystander intervention

we will only help if the situation enables us to we must: 1) notice the incident, 2) interpret it as an emergency, and 3) assume responsibility for helping ex.) Darley and Latane's smoke-filled room experiment

dependent variable

what changes when IV is changed; output of the function "What is the observable effect?" - dependent variable depends on independent variable

controlled variable

what stays constant to prevent influence: "What do I keep the same?"

population

when all members in a population have an equal chance in participating, the sample is random can be achieved by using a random number generator

blindspot

where the optic nerve enters the retina, there are no receptors there

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

widely used American revisions of Binet's original intelligence test - measures five factors both verbally and nonverbally - established new age norms and extended the upper end of the test;s range from teens to adults - assesses: fluid reasoning, basic knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual spatial processing, working memory - scores are compared to age to find IQ, developed by Stern - Lewis Terman

interneurons

within brain & spinal cord, these link and communicate between afferent and efferent neurons

interneurons

within the brain and spinal cords, these link and communicate between afferent and efferent neurons

Stroop effect

word-color conflict: ex. 'RED' written in green print

ghrelin vs. PYY

work in tandem aka opponent processing - drop in blood glucose (sugar) causes stomach lining to secrete ghrelin hormone - ghrelin triggers hypothalamus to send appetite signal via orexin - full belly causes intestines to secrete PYY hormone, decreasing hunger

food variety

you eat more when offered more

zone of proximal development

zone between what children can and can't do - what a child can do with help; Vygotsky

10 days (prenatal development)

zygote attaches to mother's uterine wall --> embryo and palcenta

NREM sleep stage 3

~30 minutes - large Delta waves - hard to wake - sleepwalking - response to stimuli - night terror

selective attention

another form of dual processing that shows hypnosis may block our attention to certain stimuli, but not block the stimuli itself

consciousness

awareness of ourselves and our environment

parallel processing

when looking at a big picture, brain divides it into subdivisions and analyzes each part simultaneously

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

opiates

depressant; opium, heroin, narcotics, etc; temporarily lessen pain and anxiety

barbiturates

depressant; tranquilizers; reduce anxiety but impair judgement and memory

monocular cues

depth cues available to either eye alone ex. interposition or linear perspective

binocular cues

depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes ex. retinal disparity

cochlear implant

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants

perception adaptation

ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

cocktail party effect

ability to hear one voice among a crowd

bipolar cell

activated by chemical reaction after light enters the eye and triggers reactions in the rods and cones

pupil

adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

alcohol use disorder

aka alcoholism; alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdraw, and a drive to continue problematic use

depressant

alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates; reduce neural activity and slow body functions

subliminal

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

endorphins

biological influences to naturally diminish pain

oval window

cochlea's membrane

cochlea

coiled, bony tube in the inner ear; sound waves travel through and trigger nerve impulses

hue

color determined by wavelength

top-down processing

constructs perceptions from sensory input based on experience

stroboscopic movement

continuous movements in a rapid series of slightly varying images

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another: sights/sounds/smells → neural impulse

McGurk effect

hear what you see

sensorineural hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves, also called nerve deafness

conduction hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

amplitude

height of a wave, determines intensity of hue

retina

light-sensitive inner surface of the eye that contains receptor rods and cones plus a layer of neurons that begin to processing of visual information

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus such as shape or angle

sensory interaction

one sense may influence another

opponent-process theory

opposing retinal processes enable color vision

cones

retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions; detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations

audition

sense or act of hearing

disinhibitor

slows brain activity that controls judgement and inhibitions

dissociation

split between different levels of consciousness which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others; dual processing, dissociates sensation of pain stimulus with emotional suffering

MDMA/ecstasy

stimulant and hallucinogen; euphoria and social intimacy, harm to serotonin neurons and mood/cognition, oxytocin

popout

stimuli that is so distinct that it draws our eye and demands attention

psychophysics

study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli and our psychological experience of them

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two dimensional; allows us to judge distance

priming

the activation of certain associations; predisposes one's perception, memory

frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass through a point at a given time

hypnosis

the subject responds to the hypnotist's suggestions that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur; social phenomenon

lens

transparent structure behind the pupil that focuses incoming light rays into an image on the retina

ganglion cells

triggered by bipolar cells, their axons twine together to form the optic nerve