AP PSYCH FULL COURSE

Endorphins

"Morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

case study

-An in-depth study of one individual -Psychoanalytic, humanistic -Benefits: less expensive than other methods -Weaknesses: may not generalize to the larger population

change beliefs

-Take appropriate responsibility (challenge total self-blame and negative thinking, noting aspects for which you may be truly responsible, as well as aspects that aren't your responsibility) -Resist extremes (develop new ways of thinking and feeling to replace maladaptive habits. For example, change from thinking "I am a total failure" to "I got a failing grade on that paper, and I can make these changes to succeed next time")

Defensive self-esteem

-fragile -focuses on sustaining itself, which makes failures and criticism feel threatening

Neuroticism

-high = anxious, insecure, self-pity -low = calm, secure, self-satisfied

Openness

-high = imaginative, prefers -low = practical, prefers routine, conforming

Conscientiousness

-high = organized, careful, disciplined -low = disorganized, careless, impulsive

Agreeableness

-high = soft-hearted, trusting -low = ruthless, suspicious, uncooperative

Charles Darwin's theories about emotion

-if you express an emotion outwardly, its feeling is intensified -He also believed that, in prehistoric times, before our ancestors communicated in words, they communicated threats, greetings, and submission with facial expressions. Thus, helping them to survive

Alfred Adler

-neo-Freudian -believed that childhood social tensions were crucial in personality development -came up with inferiority complex

Carl Jung

-neo-Freudian -created concept of "collective unconscious"

Karen Horney

-neo-Freudian -offered feminist critique of Freud's theory -believed childhood anxiety triggers our desire for love and security

Psychologists study implicit prejudice by...

-testing for unconscious group associations -considering unconscious patronization -monitoring reflexive bodily responses

George Miller

Found that short term memory has the capacity of about 7 (+/- 2) items.

Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers

Founded humanistic psychology -Believed that Freudian psychology and behaviorism were too limiting, so they began to open the field to our potential for personal growth

GRIT

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction - a strategy designed to decrease international tensions

What are three specific ways in which individuals and environments interact?

1. Different people choose different environments 2. Our personalities shape how we interpret and react to events 3. Our personalities help create situations to which we react

What three steps are basic to all our sensory systems?

1. Receiving sensory stimulation, often using specialized receptor cells 2. Transforming that stimulation into neural impulses 3. Delivering the neural information to our brain

convergence

A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object

Blindsight

A condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it -For example, someone who is blind is still able to grip objects correctly

Asperger Syndrome (AS)

A condition that is much like mild autism, but usually without significant delays in cognition and language

Social script

A culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

Mutation

A random error in gene replication that leads to a change

Critical thinking

A scientific way of thinking that examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

telomeres

DNA at the tips of chromosomes that shorten naturally as one ages -However, shortened telomeres in someone of a young age is often a telltale sign that they suffered through severe childhood stressors

Forgetting Curve (Ebbinghaus)

Describes how the ability of the brain to retain information decreases in time.

Benjamin Lee Whorf

Famous for describing concept of "liguistic determinism"

Lawrence Kohlberg

Famous for his theory of moral development in children; made use of moral dilemmas in assessment

Unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

trait

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports

flow

a completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one's skills

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

schema

a concept that is created through individual experience

cochlear implant

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

substance use disorder

a disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied (in relation to the dependent variable)

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, hyper-vigilance, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience

Trichotillomania

a disorder characterized by the repeated pulling out of one's own hair -an OCD-related disorder

conversion disorder

a disorder related to somatic symptom disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found -also called functional neurological symptom disorder

Sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

a personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types drawn from Jung, and is widely used as a counseling and coaching tool despite its lack of scientific validity

encoding

The process of acquiring information and transferring it into memory.

fusiform face area

a region in the temporal lobe of the brain that helps us recognize the people we know

Id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives -the id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification

Random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

dream

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it.

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.

cost-benefit analysis

a study that compares the costs and benefits to society of providing a public good - done by accountants

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

pitch

a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

leadership

an individual's ability to motivate and influence others to contribute to their group's success

gender expression

an individual's behavioral manifestations of gender

transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex

Parallel processing

The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; generally used to process well-learned information or to solve easy problems

spermarche

boys' first ejaculation

reappraisal

changing one's emotional experience by changing the way one thinks about the emotion-eliciting stimulus

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Life story approach

collecting a rich narrative detailing each person's unique life history -believed much of our identity could be revealed though this

Biological psychology

The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes

Psychometrics

The scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

display rules

cross-cultural guidelines for how and when to express emotions -Ex: in China, calmness is emphasized. So, their faces in pictures are much more calm, whereas Americans were four times more likely to smile in pictures

social script

culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

Mary Ainsworth

developmental psychology; compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment; "The Strange Situation": observation of parent/child attachment

PYY

digestive tract hormone; sends "I'm not hungry" signals to the brain

extraversion

dimension of personality referring to one's need to be with other people

sexually transmitted infection/disease (STI/STD)

disease that spreads from one person to another through intimate sexual contact

monocular cues

distance cues, such as linear perspective and overlap, available to either eye alone

barbiturates

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment. Such as tranquilizers

anti-anxiety drugs

drugs used to control anxiety and agitation

antidepressant drugs

drugs used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD -several widely used antidepressant drugs are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors-- SSRIs

antipsychotic drugs

drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder

Amphetamines

drugs, such as methamphetamine, that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

representativeness heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

basal ganglia

facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills

change deafness

failing to notice change in auditory stimulus

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattention blindness

inattention blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

agoraphobia

fear or avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide open places, where one has felt loss of control and panic

Group identification

feeling of belonging -provides a sense of belonging, a set of values, and an assurance of security in collectivist cultures

task leadership

goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals

sensorineural hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness

gherlin

hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends "I'm hungry" signals to the brain

psychodynamic

how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

implicit

implied though not plainly expressed

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

Free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

Pleasure principal

in psychoanalysis, the id's boundless drive for immediate gratification

transference

in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent)

repression

in psychoanalytic theory (Freud), the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Reaction formation

in psychoanalytic theory, a defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites

Regression

in psychoanalytic theory, the defense mechanism retreating to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated

Projection

in psychoanalytic theory, the defense mechanism whereby we transfer or project our feelings about one person onto another

Defense mechanism

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

specific phobias

irrational fears of specific objects or situations (ex: animals, heights, blood, close spaces)

transformational leadership

leadership that, enabled by a leader's vision and inspiration, exerts significant influence

vicarious reinforcement/punishment

learning brought about by watching another person react to a stimulus

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

hypnagogic sensations

life-like hallucinations that occur shortly after falling asleep; usually sensation of falling or floating

mirror-image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Limbic system

Neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

What prenatal and genetic effects can influence schizophrenia?

People are more likely to develop schizophrenia if... -their mothers were at risk for contracting the flu virus during pregnancy -they share a placenta with their identical twin who is set to suffer from schizophrenia -their biological parent has schizophrenia -they have one of over 103 genes that are linked with schizophrenia

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object -if you looked at a tomato with a magnifying glass throughout the day, you could clearly see changes in color throughout its surface. But, if you look at the same tomato as one item in a salad bowl, the color appears consistent. This is because we see color thanks to our brain's computations of the light reflected by an object relative to the objects surrounding it

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change

What are the three P's that characterize mental illness?

Permanent, pervasive, and personal

Hans Eysenck

personality is determined to a large extent by genes; used the terms extroversion and introversion

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Robert Rescorla and Allan Wagner

showed that an animal can learn the predictability of an event

Psychopathology

sickness or disorder of the mind, also known as a mental illness

Bibb Latane

social psychologist, worked with John Darley, focused on social loafing and diffusion of responsibility

distributed practice

spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

Deja vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

(esp) extrasensory perception

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

blame-the-victim dynamic

the idea that the victim of discrimination is partially responsible for that discrimination

infantile amnesia

the inability to remember events from early childhood

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups We group in three ways: -proximity: we group nearby figures together -continuity: we perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones -closure: we fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration- the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger which can generate aggression

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

humanistic perspective

the psychological view that assumes the existence of the self and emphasizes the importance of self-awareness and the freedom to make choices

morphemes

the smallest units of meaning within a language

mood contagion

the spillover of one's positive or negative moods onto others

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

false consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

Generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Chromosomes

Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

Prefrontal cortex

Part of frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning, and language

John Locke and David Hume believed what?

That Aristotle was right, and that we learn first by association

Wernicke's area

a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

community psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

Developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory

the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.

behavior modification

the use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior

Humanistic theorists

theories tear view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth

humanistic theories

theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth

Psychodynamic theories

theories that view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences

Noam Chomsky

theorist who believed that humans have an inborn or "native" propensity to develop language

cognitive therapies

therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions

synapses

tiny gaps between dentrites and axons of different neurons

Maturity principle

we become more conscientious and agreeable and less neurotic as we get older

Conscious

what we are aware of

Epigenetics

"Above" or "in addition to" genetics; the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

social-cultural influences on aggression

- deindividuation, or loss of self-awareness and self-restraint - challenging environmental factors, such as crowding, heat, and direct provocations - parental models of aggression - minimal father involvement - rejection from a group - exposure to violent media

psychological influences on aggression

- dominating behavior (which boosts testosterone levels in the blood) - believing that alcohol has been ingested (whether it has or not) - frustration - aggressive role models - rewards for aggressive behavior - low self-control

"Rule of Quarters" in schizophrenia

-25% recover w/out therapy or medication -25% recover w/ therapy and medication -25% have a slight recovery w/ a group home, meds, and therapy -25% will have no recovery

Phallic

-3-6 years -pleasure zone is the genitals -coping with incestuous sexual feelings

Latency

-6-puberty -dormant sexual feelings

projective tests: TAT & Rorschach

-Ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of inner dynamics -Psychodynamic -Benefits: designed to get beneath the conscious surface of a person's self-understanding; may be a good ice-breaker -Weaknesses: results have weak validity and reliability

How can the biological and social-cognitive perspectives help us understand depressive disorders and bipolar disorder?

-Behavioral and cognitive changes accompany depression -Depression is widespread, so its causes are likely common -Women's risk of major depressive disorder is nearly double men's, which is most likely because of their societal oppression -Most major depressive episodes self-terminate -Stressful events related to work, marriage, and close relationships often precede depression -Compared to generations past, depression strikes earlier (now often in late teens) and affects more people, with the highest rates among young adults in developed countries

What are the 7 theoretical perspectives of psychology?

-Behavioral: how we learn through observation -Biological: how the body and brain work in terms of psychology -Cognitive: how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information -Evolutionary: how the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes -Humanistic: how we achieve personal growth and self-fulfillment -Psychodynamic: how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts -Social-cultural: how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

What disorders are often diagnosed reliably by clinicians who abide by the new DSM-5 categories? What disorders are not reliably diagnosed by DSM-5?

-Both adult post traumatic stress disorder and childhood autism spectrum disorder have 70% clinician agreement (meaning that, if one psychiatrist diagnosed someone with one of these disorders, there was a 70% chance that another mental health worker would independently give the same results) -However, antisocial personality disorder and generalized anxiety disorder have only 20% clinician agreement

Three key elements of the scientific attitude

-Curiosity: Does it work? -Skepticism: How do you know? -Humility: The rat is always right

test beliefs

-Examine consequences (explore difficult situations, assessing possible consequences and challenging faulty reasoning) -Decatastrophize thinking (work through the actual worst-case consequences of the situation you face, as it often isn't as bad as you imagine. Then, determine how to cope with the real situation you face)

What brain abnormalities are associated with schizophrenia?

-Excessive number of dopamine receptors, meaning that brain signals are intensified (leading to hallucinations and paranoia) -Low activity in the frontal lobes, which help in reasoning -Amygdala, fear and aggression center in the limbic system, is heightened in activity when schizophrenics experience paranoia -Enlarged, fluid-filled ventricles and shrinkage and thinning of cerebral tissue are often found in people with thought disorders (genetically inherited) -Cortex, hippocampus, and corpus callosum, and thalamus are all smaller in people with schizophrenia

What three elements are shared by all forms of psychotherapy?

-Hope for demoralized people -A new perspective -An empathic, trusting, caring relationship

What must one consider when evaluating the effectiveness of any new drug?

-How many people recover without treatment, and how quickly? -Is recovery due to the drug or to the placebo effect?

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

-In the new DSM-5, what was once called "autism" and "Asperger's syndrome" are now called ASD - ASD is a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors

intellectual disability

-In the new DSM-5, what was once called "mental retardation" is now called an intellectual disability, which is a condition of limited mental ability

The benefits of group therapy

-It saves the therapist's time and client's money -It offers a social laboratory for exploring social behaviors and developing social skills -It enables people to see that others share their problems -It provides feedback as clients try out new ways of behaving.

Experimentation

-Manipulate variables, with random assignment to conditions -Social-cognitive -Benefits: discerns cause and effect -Weaknesses: some variables cannot feasibly or ethically be manipulated

What factors increase the risk of suicide?

-National differences: people living in Belarus are 16 times more likely to kill themselves than those in Georgia -Racial differences: whites and native Americans are more likely to kill themselves than blacks, hispanics, and asians -Gender differences: women are more likely to attempt suicide, but men are more likely to end their lives -Age differences: suicide rates increase in late adulthood -Extra info: suicide rates are higher among the rich, nonreligious, unmarried people, in midweek, and in Spring

personality inventories (MMPI)

-Objectively scored groups of questions designed to identify personality dispositions -Trait-perspective -Benefits: generally reliable and empirically validated -Weaknesses: explore a limited number of traits

How do we respond and adapt to stress?

-Our bodies release adrenal stress hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) -Parasympathetic nervous system arouses us, and prepares us for a fight or flight response: increases heart rate and respiration, diverts blood from digestion to the skeletal muscles, dulls the feeling of pain, and releases sugar and fat from the body's storage

Many clients who endure therapy report a positive, helpful experience. Why do people critique the accuracy of these client testimonials?

-People often enter therapy in crisis (when, with the normal ebb and flow of events, the crisis passes, people may attribute their improvement to the therapy. Depressed people often get better no matter what they do) -Clients believe that treatment will be effective (placebo effect is likely at play) -Clients generally speak kindly of their therapists -Clients want to believe the therapy was worth the effort

reveal beliefs

-Question your interpretations (explore your beliefs, revealing faulty assumptions such as "I need to be liked by everyone") -Rank thoughts and emotions (gain perspective by ranking your thoughts and emotions from mildly to extremely upsetting)

Without conscious effort, you automatically process information about...

-Space: when studying, you often encode the place on a page or in your notebook where material appears -Time: When you realize you've lost your backpack, you are able to retrace your steps and find it -Frequency: You can identify how many times you've seen a particular person in one day

observation

-Studying how individuals react in different situations -Social-cognitive -Benefits: allows researchers to study the effects of environmental factors on the way an individual's personality is expressed -Weaknesses: results may not apply to the larger population

survey

-Systematic questioning of a random sample of the population -Trait, social-cognitive -Benefit: results tend to be reliable and can be generalized to the larger population -Weaknesses: may be expensive; correlational findings

What two concerns do critics of behavior modification have?

-The behaviors may be too durable to break by conditioning, and people may become too dependent on the extrinsic rewards and continue the behavior when the rewards stop -It may not be morally correct for one human to control another's behavior, as it can be seen as too authoritarian

energy therapies

-alternative therapy, not scientifically proven -These modes of treatment maintain or restore health through the balancing of energy flow in the body. The goal is to restore the natural movement of vital forces or life essences that may have been disturbed by diseases or psychological factors

recovered-memory therapies

-alternative therapy, not scientifically proven -aim to unearth "repressed memories" of early childhood abuse

rebirthing therapies

-alternative therapy, not scientifically proven -engage people in reenacting the supposed trauma of their birth

We are more likely to conform when we...

-are made to feel incompetent or insecure -are in a group with at least three people -are in a group in which everyone else agrees. (If just one other person disagrees, the odds of our disagreeing greatly increase.) -admire the group's status and attractiveness -have not made a prior commitment to any response. -know that others in the group will observe our behavior. -are from a culture that strongly encourages respect for social standards.

Emotions are a mix of what three things?

-bodily arousal (heart pounding) -expressive behaviors (quickened pace) -conscious experience ("Is this a kidnapping?" and feelings (panic, fear, joy)

When people act as part of a group, they may...

-feel less accountable and therefore worry less about what others think -view their individual contributions as dispensable -overestimate their own contributions, downplaying others' actions -slack off (as you perhaps have observed on group assignments) if they share equally in the benefits, regardless of how much they contribute. Unless highly motivated and strongly identified with the group, people may free ride on others' efforts

insomnia disorder

-feeling unsatisfied with amount or quality of sleep -sleep disruption causes distress or diminished everyday functioning -happens 3 or more nights each week, and occurs during at least 3 consecutive months -happens even with sufficient sleep opportunities -independent from other sleep disorders (like narcolepsy) -independent from substance use or abuse -independent from other mental disorders or medical conditions

Extraversion

-high = sociable, fun-loving, affectionate -low = retiring, sober, reserved

Secure self-esteem

-less fragile -less contingent on external evaluation -and more likely to achieve a greater quality of life

Genital

-puberty on -maturation of sexual interests

What three things do people most often have in their work when they feel that it has meaning?

-significance (value) -coherence (making sense) -purpose (goals)

Obedience is highest when...

-the person giving the orders was close at hand and was perceived to be a legitimate authority figure -the authority figure was supported by a prestigious institution -the victim was depersonalized or at a distance, even in another room -there were no role models for defiance

What three factors did Carl Rogers believe contribute to a growth-promoting social climate?

1. Acceptance: openly express themselves and still be accepted 2. Genuineness: open with feelings, drop their facades, and are transparent and self-disclosing 3. Empathy: to share one's feelings and reflect their meanings

why do we dream?

1. Freud: to satisfy our own wishes. In dreams, we can do things that might be otherwise unacceptable. 2. To file away memories: dreams may help sift, sort, and fix the day's experiences in our memory 3. To develop and preserve neural pathways 4. To make sense of neural static: the limbic system is often stimulated when people report emotional dreams, for example 5. To reflect cognitive development: they simulate reality by drawing on our concepts and knowledge, and they overlap with waking cognition and feature coherent speech

What three major issues are studied within developmental psychology?

1. Nature and nurture (How does our genetic inheritance interact with our experiences to influence our development?) 2. Continuity and stages (What parts of development are gradual and continuous, and what parts change abruptly in stages?) 3. Stability and change (Which of our traits persist through life? How do we change as we age?)

What three things did Carl Rogers encourage people to use in order to improve our communication with others?

1. Paraphrase (summarize the person's words out loud, in your own words) 2. Invite clarification 3. Reflect feelings

What are the three pillars of positive psychology?

1. Positive well-being 2. Positive character 3. Positive groups, communities, and cultures

What are sleep's five functions?

1. Protects: helped our ancestors stay away from dangers at night 2. Recuperate: restores immune system, repair brain tissue, give resting neurons time to repair themselves 3. Restore and rebuild memories of the day's experiences 4. Feeds creative thinking 5. Supports growth: pituitary gland releases the human growth hormone during the first half of sleep

What are the four basic steps of visual information processing?

1. Retinal processing: receptor pods and cones relay information to bipolar cells, which relay information to ganglion cells 2. Feature detection: brain's detector cells respond to specific features- edges, lines, and angles

Identify the four stages of the cycle of depressed thinking

1. Stressful experiences, which are interpreted through... 2. A ruminating, pessimistic explanatory style, which creates... 3. A hopeless depressed state, which causes... 4. cognitive and behavioral changes. (which fuels further stressful experiences... so we go back to step 1)

what are the two stages of color processing?

1. the retina's red, green, and blue cones respond in varying degrees to difference color stimuli, as the Young- Helmholtz trichromatic theory suggested 2. the cones' responses are then processed by opponent-process cells, as Hering's opponent-process theory proposed

Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

1. trust vs. mistrust 2. autonomy vs. shame and doubt 3. initiative vs. guilt 4. industry vs. inferiority 5. identity vs. role confusion 6. intimacy vs. isolation 7. generativity vs. stagnation 8. integrity vs. despair

early adulthood

20s and 30s

middle adulthood

40-65 years

late adulthood

65+

MEG (magnetoencephalography)

A brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain's natural electrical activity

Pons

A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain. Also involved in calming

psychoneuroimmunology

A branch of health psychology that explores how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health

Psychodynamic psychology

A branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

catastrophizing

A cognitive distortion involving the assumption that terrible but incorrect consequences will result from an event.

Information-processing model

A cognitive understanding of memory, emphasizing how information is changed when it is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Likens human memory to computer operations

integrative therapy

A combination of techniques from different therapies based on the therapist's judgment of which particular methods will provide the greatest benefit for the client.

DNA

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Split brain

A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

the Ames room

A distorted room, first built by Adelbert Ames, that creates an erroneous perception of the sizes of people in the room. The room is constructed so that two people at the far wall of the room appear to stand at the same distance from an observer. In actuality, one of the people is much farther away than the other.

phobias

A group of anxiety disorders involving a pathological fear of a specific object or situation

Humanistic psychology

A historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential

leptin

A hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells that acts as a satiety factor in regulating appetite

Myelin Sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory, LTP-enhancing

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

prototype

A mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin, or comparing "heart attacks" to those you've seen on TV) -When behaviors don't fit our discrimination prototypes (white against black, male against female, young against old) we fail to notice prejudice

Explain the Phineas Gage case study

A metal pole was accidentally hurled through the left cheek and out the other side of his head. He lost sight in his left eye but functioning remained as per seemingly normal. Psychologically he changed. His personality became aggressive and hostile. -His frontal lobe was damaged, and he could no longer control his emotions -Before this, people thought that the frontal lobe had no tangible effect on the person

algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier- but also more error-prone- use of heuristics

peg-word system

A mnemonic in which the items in a list to be remembered are associated with the sequential items in a memorized jingle and then the list is retrieved by going through the jingle and retrieving the associated items.

Antagonist

A molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action -An example of an antagonist would be botox: which is made up of botulin, a chemical poison that paralyzes muscles, such as underlying facial muscles, to smooth wrinkles

Agonist

A molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, increases a neurotransmitter's action -An example of an agonist would be most drugs (heroine, morphine). They will increase a neurotransmitter's action at synapses, and will therefore amplify normal sensations of arousal

bipolar disorder

A mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania. Formerly known as manic-depressive disorder

Neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Reticular formation

A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events for storage

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

Action potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

arculate nucleus

A neural network within the hypothalamus that secretes appetite-stimulating hormones -When stimulated in well-fed animals, they begin to eat. When damaged, animals have no interest in eating. If completely destroyed, animals will overeat themselves to death

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward

Dendrites

A neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

All-or-none response

A neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing

serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects hunger, sleep, arousal, and attending to threats -scarce or inactive during depression -low levels of serotonin makes one more likely to suffer from anorexia or bulimia

Reuptake

A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Adrenal glands

A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress

permissive parenting

A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior -Often correlates with children who are more aggressive and immature

negligent parenting

A parenting style in which parents are uninvolved. They are neither demanding nor responsive -Often correlates with children who have poor academic and social outcomes

authoritarian parenting

A parenting style in which the parents are demanding, expect unquestioned obedience, are not responsive to their children's desires, and communicate poorly with their children -Often correlates with children with less social skill and self-esteem, and a brain that overreacts when they make mistakes

authoritative parenting

A parenting style that encourages the child to be independent but that still places limits and controls on behavior -Often correlates with children with high self-esteem, self-reliance, self-regulation, and social competence

macrophage cells

A part of the immune system: "big eaters" that identify, pursue, and ingest harmful invaders and worn-out cells

T lymphocytes (T cells)

A part of the immune system: a lymphocyte that matures in the thymus and attacks cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances

natural killer cells

A part of the immune system: a type of white blood cell that attack and can kill diseased cells, such as tumor cells and virus-infected cells

B lymphocytes (B cells)

A part of the immune system: produces antibodies to fight bacterial infections

recency error

A performance rating error in which the appraisal is based largely on the employee's most recent behavior rather than on behavior throughout the appraisal period

William James

A philosopher-psychologist who wanted to study the evolved functions of our thoughts and feelings: why do we do certain things like smelling and thinking? -Influenced by Charles Darwin, James assumed that thinking developed because it was evolutionarily advantageous. He determined that our consciousness has the function of considering the past, adjusting to the present, and planning the future -He was a functionalist, which means that he studied down-to-earth emotions, memories, willpower, habits, etc

insulin

A protein hormone synthesized in the pancreas that regulates blood sugar levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into tissues -An example of how the body naturally regulates calorie intake to prevent energy deficits and maintain a stable body weight

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

CT (computed tomography) scan

A series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body. Also called CAT scan

psychological contract

A set of perceptions of what employees owe their employers, and what their employers owe them.

Estrogens

A sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity.

Reflex

A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.

narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

Midbrain

A small part of the brain above the pons that integrates sensory information and relays it upward

basilar membrane

A structure that runs the length of the cochlea in the inner ear and holds the auditory receptors, called hair cells.

SQ3R

A study method that uses 5 steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review

normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shape that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

fMRI (functional MRI)

A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy

Homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level -Drive reduction is one way our bodies strive for homeostasis

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

drive-reduction theory

A theory of motivation stating that motivation arises from imbalances in homeostasis

arousal theory

A theory of motivation suggesting that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness and physical and mental activation

systematic desensitization

A type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias.

pruning process

A use-it-or-lose-it process that shuts down unused links in the brain and strengthens others

PET (position emission tomography) scanning

A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain preforms a task

conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

Inferiority complex

Adler's conception of a basic feeling of inadequacy stemming from childhood experiences

Psychodynamic personality theory

Adler, Jung, Horney. The conscious and unconscious interact, childhood experiences and focuses on defense mechanisms. The dynamic interplay of conscious and unconscious motives and conflicts shapes our personality

Trait personality theory

Allport, Eysenck, we have certain traits that are stable and influenced by genetics.Scientific studies of traits has isolated important dimensions of personality, such as the Big Five traits (conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion)

A.L. Washburn and Walter Cannon

American physiologists, experimented on hunger. Their tests demonstrate that stomach contractions (pangs) send signals to the brain making us aware of our hunger -However, hunger can still exist without stomach pains, as cancer patients who have had their stomachs removed still feel hungry. So, hunger is more complex than just biology.

EEG (electroencephalogram)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

panic disorder

An anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations (also known as panic attacks)

Somatosensory cortex

An area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Motor cortex

An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

Association areas

An areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)

An attempt to treat the depressed brain. Preformed on wide-awake patients over several weeks, rTMS administers repeated pulses that surge through a magnetic coil held close to the skull can stimulate or suppress activity in areas of the cortex -produces no memory loss or other serious side effects, aside from possible headaches -studies have shown that rTMS works for 30-40% of people with depression

Biopsychosocial approach

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints

imprinting

An unlearned behavior in animals -the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

predictor

Any variable used to forecast a criterion -For example, religious involvement, like nonsmoking and excursive, is a predictor of health and longevity

Variable

Anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

problem-focused coping

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

Sigmund Freud

Austrian neurologist known for his work on the unconscious mind. Father of psychoanalysis.

Social-cognitive personality theory

Bandura, our traits and sociability interact to produce behavior. Conditioning and observational learning interact with cognition to create behavior patterns. Our behavior in one situation is best predicted by considering our past behavior in similar situations

Mary Whiton Calkins

Became the first female president of the American Psychological Association (APA) -A student of William James -Faced intensive discrimination for being a woman in the field: all the men in her class dropped out when she was admitted and Harvard denied her the degree she deserved

Margaret Floy Washburn

Became the second president of the American Psychological Association (APA) - Wrote the book, "The Animal Mind" which explored cognition within animals and was very influential in the field - Also faced discrimination and was barred from the all-male organization of experimental psychologists

Why is classical conditioning biologically adaptive?

Because it helps humans and other animals prepare for good or bad events. It can also help an animal survive and reproduce- by responding to cues that help it gain food, avoid dangers, locate mates, and produce offspring

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats

postural sway

Being told you're swaying and then actually swaying. Often occurs with hypnosis

ethnocentrism

Belief in the superiority of one's nation or ethnic group.

Richard Lazarus

Believed congnition precedes emotion. May be somewhat unconscious/ automatic

Gregory Kimble

Believed that any activitiy can be conditioned.

Gregory Kimble

Believed that any activity of an organism can be conditioned to any perceived stimulus. (proven wrong)

Robert Zajonc

Believes that we invent explanations to label feelings -didn't believe that we always interpreted our arousal before we could experience an emotion, but rather, that sometimes (for instance) we decide we like someone but we can't identify why

Biopsychosocial influences on successful aging

Biological influences: no genetic predisposition to early cognitive or physical decline, and appropriate nutrition Psychological influences: optimistic outlook, physically and mentally active lifestyle Social-cultural influences: support from family and friends, meaningful activities, cultural respect for aging, and safe living conditions

Nerves

Bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

carcinogens

Cancer causing agents -In one study, experimenters implanted gave rats carcinogens, then exposed them to uncontrollable stress (like inescapable shocks) which weakened their immune systems. Resultantly, stressed rats were more likely to develop cancer. The same is true within humans: those who have more stress are at higher risk to develop cancer. However, stress cannot be classified as to create cancer, just merely weaken one's immune system so as to increasingly allow for cancer to take control

Collective unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history

person-centered perspective

Carl Rogers' belief that people are basically good, and given the right environment their personality will develop fully and normally

Soma

Cell body that organizes information in a neuron

Glial cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

Hormones

Chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues

hierarchies

Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories. Organizing information into hierarchies aids memory

Philip Zimbardo

Conducted Stanford Prison experiment, which proved that role-playing affects attitudes

Martin Seligman

Conducted experiments with dogs that led to the concept of "learned helplessness"

Solomon Asch

Conducted famous conformity experiment that required subjects to match lines -One third of students ditched their own beliefs in order to go along with the group

Ancel Keys

Conducted semi-starvation experiments to measure psych effects of hunger -Found that the men became listless and apathetic as their bodies conserved energy, and also became food obsessed and uninterested in sex and social activities -Exemplified the accuracy of Maslow's pyramid of needs

approach-approach conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose between two attractive alternatives

avoidance-avoidance conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose between two distasteful alternatives

Overlearning

Continued rehearsal of material after one first appears to have mastered it.

Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's Area

Controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

Alfred Kinsey

Controversial Indiana University "sexologist" who documented Americans' changing sexual behavior

Sigmund Freud

Created psychoanalytic psychology, which emphasized the ways our unconscious mind and childhood experiences affect our behavior

Leon Festinger

Created the cognitive dissonance theory

Wilhelm Wundt

Created the first psychological lab -Did so by making an experimental apparatus and wanted to find the "atoms of the mind"-- the fastest mental processes we possess

antisocial effects

Definition: possible response of observational learning Researcher: Albert Bandura (1961) Example: watch abusive parents and become abusive when you are a parent OR kids watching tv learn bad habits and get idea that violence is acceptable

Carolyn Rovee-Collier

Demonstrated detailed memory in 2- to 3-month-old infants -Connected a blanket to a mobile, and tied it to the foot of infant. The infant would move their foot to get the mobile to move, and when they were placed in an alternate mobile, they recognized that the situation was different, and didn't move their foot

Identical (monozygotic) twins

Develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

Fraternal (dizygotic) twins

Develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR)

Developed by Francine Shapiro, clients are asked to imagine traumatic scenes while their therapist triggers eye movements by waving a finger in their face -Supposedly, this allows patients to unlock and reprocess previously frozen memories. Case-studies have proved that it does help -Skeptics argue that EMDR only works because eye movements relax or distract patients, and the placebo effect is likely in play

Julian Rotter

Developed terms: internal/external locus of control

Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer

Developed the two-factor theory of emotion (states that emotions are comprised of physical arousal and a cognitive label)

Walter Cannon

Disagreed with the James-Lange Theory, and co created the Cannon-Bard theory with Philip Bard (arguing that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion)

division of labor

Division of work into a number of separate tasks to be performed by different workers -enabled by culture

stimulants

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Testing effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information

divided consciousness view of hypnosis

Ernest Hilgard's view that hypnosis involves a splitting of consciousness into two separate components, one of which follows the hypnotist's commands and the other wich acts as a "hidden oberserver" -For example, when hypnotized people lower their arm into an ice bath, the hypnosis dissosciates the sensation of the pain stimulus (of which the subjects are still aware, thanks to their mind's "hidden observer") from the emotional suffering that defines their experience of pain. The ice water will feel cold, but not painful

G. Stanley Hall

Established the first formal U.S. psychological laboratory at Johns Hopkins University -A student of Wilhelm Wundt

Environment

Every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

How are cravings related to classical conditioning?

Ex: Drug cravings. Former drug uses often feel a craving when they're again in the drug-using context

visual-spatial information

Ex: mentally picturing someone

substance use disorder

Exemplifies the fact that, when motivations get hijacked, our lives go awry. Here, cravings for an addictive substance override longings for sustenance, safety, and social support - The disorder can be characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk

Functionalism

Explored how mental and behavioral processes function-- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish -An early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin

Marian Breland Bailey and Keller Breland

First applied animal psychologists. Played a major role in developing empirically validated and humane animal training methods and in promoting their widespread implementation. Coined the term "Instinctive Drift," which explains why some animals are more difficult to condition than others. - Because they "drift" naturally away from the direction they are being trained.

Margaret Floy Washburn

First female to be awarded a PhD in psychology; 2nd president of the APA (1921) -Developed studies on animal consciousness. Learned that consciousness and intelligence in animals is inferred from their behavior

alarm reaction

First stage of the GAS, during which the body mobilizes its resources to cope with a stressor -blood is diverted to your skeletal muscles, your heart rate skyrockets

instinct theory

Focuses on how genetically predisposed behaviors (instincts) affect our motivations (has been replaced by the evolutionary perspective)

Terminal branches of axon/ Terminal buttons

Form junctions with other cells

Philippe Pinel

French physician who worked to reform the treatment of people with mental disorder in the early 1800s -Argued that madness was not the result of demonic possession, but rather a sickness of the mind -Said that mental illness can be cured with moral treatment-- treating patients with respect and lifting their spirits

Psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts -the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

Psychoanalytic personality theory

Freud, emotional disorder are from the unconscious, unresolved conflict and defense mechanisms. Personality consists of pleasure-seeking impulses (the id), a reality-oriented executive (the ego), and an internalized set of ideals (the superego)

Type A

Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people -More likely to suffer from heart attacks

Type B

Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people -Less likely to suffer from heart attacks

linkage analysis

Genetic research strategy in which occurrence of a disorder in an extended family is compared with that of a genetic marker for a physical characteristic or biological process that is known to be located on a particular chromosome.

Elizabeth Loftus

Her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony

Hyperviligance

Highly or abnormally alert to potential danger or threat. They attend more to threatening stimuli, and they more often interpret unclear stimuli as threatening (ex: pounding heart= heart attack) -A common characteristic of anxiety disorders

Carl Rogers

Humanisic; self-concept and unconditional positive regard drive personality

Abraham Maslow

Humanistic psychologist known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self-actualization"

gaijin kyofusho

In Japanese culture, social anxiety which centers around self-consciousness of one's appearance, a readiness to blush, and fear of eye contact

amok

In Malaysia, described as a sudden outburst of violent behavior

zone of proximal development

In Vygotsky's theory, the range between children's present level of knowledge and their potential knowledge state if they recieve proper guidance and instruction

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

unconditioned response (UR)

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

Refractory period

In neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state

How do the genders differ in their ability to communicate nonverbally?

In studies done by Judith Hall, it was found that women have an accelerated ability to detect the emotions of others, and can also better express their own emotions. This is true of women in all cultures. -Women are also more likely to show empathy for others

ganglion cells

In the retina, the specialized neurons that connect to the bipolar cells; the bundled axons of the ganglion cells form the optic nerve

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

Competent Newborn

Infants are born with reflexes that aid in survival, including rooting reflex which helps them locate food.

Edward Bradford Titchener

Introduced structuralism -A student of Wilhelm Wundt

What does "The rat is always right" mean?

It demonstrates the idea that scientists must have humility; people and test animals (like rats) don't always behave as our ideas and beliefs would predict

How many Americans on average have, or have had, a psychological disorder?

Just under 1 in 5

Erik Erikson

Known for his 8-stage theory of Psychosocial Development

Jean Piaget

Known for his theory of cognitive development in children: 1. Sensorimotor 2. Pre-operational 3. Concrete operational 4. Formal operational

Carl Rogers

Leading humanistic psychologist that developed "client-centered" therapy

Steven Pinker

Linguist that believed that we learn language from the environment

Little Albert Study

Little Albert learns to make associations between stimuli in the environment and reflexes; Albert shows little fear with dog, monkey, or burning newspaper, neutral stimuli since he hasn't learned to fear anything; Shows Albert a white rat while making loud clanging noise, which upsets Albert, who eventually associates white rat with being upset; Proves fear is learned.

older brother or fraternal birth-order effect

Males with older brothers are more likely to be homosexual (only among right-handed men)

third-force perspective

Maslow & Rogers perspective that emphasized human potential

Hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs; must satisfy levels below before reaching to next; can go up and down pyramid stages

lifestyle changes

Modifying or eliminating long-held habits related to one's health (ex. eating habits, physical activity, purchasing patterns, medication adherence) and maintaining the new habits over a period of months to years. -All of our lifestyle changes could likely impact our mental health, as they influence our brain and body

Sensory (afferent) neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Motor (efferent) neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Do disorders increase the risk of violence?

No. Most criminals aren't mental ill, and most mentaly ill people aren't violent

universal grammar

Noam Chomsky's theory that all the world's languages share a similar underlying structure

David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel

Nobel-prize-winning researchers who discovered "feature detectors" within the brain

obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors

Obsessive thoughts are unwanted and so repetitive that it may seem they will never go away. Compulsive behaviors are often responses to those thoughts -researchers have long known that a link exists between obsessive thoughts and the need to act out compulsive behaviors

formal operations

One of Piaget's stages; includes the ability to use abstract thinking

Consciousness

Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment

death-deferral phenomenon

People tend to put off dying when there is an event to look forward to, such as holidays. Spirit affects life expectancy; depression causes poor health and early death; ex: more people die 2 days after Christmas than before

evolutionary perspective

Perspective that focuses on the biological bases of universal mental characteristics that all humans share, and how these affect our motivations

Edward Thorndike

Pioneer in operant conditioning who discovered concepts in intstrumental learning such as the law of effect. Known for his work with cats in puzzle boxes.

Carol Gilligan

Presented feminist critique of Kolhberg's moral development theory; believed women's moral sense is guided by connections to others (relationships)

dialectical behavior therapy (DBT)

Promising treatment for borderline personality disorder that involves exposing the client to stressors in a controlled situation, as well as helping the client regulate emotions and cope with stressors that might trigger suicidal behavior.

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin

Proposed a model to explain our memory forming process Sensory=>Short Term=>Long Term

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

Psychological disorder involving a significant depressive episode and depressed characteristics, such as lethargy and hopelessness, for at least two weeks

Bobo Doll Study

Psychologist: Bandura Description: Children watched (through a one way glass)a man play with the BoBo doll and then played with the BoBo doll in the same way as the confederate Significance: used to develop "observational learning"

John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner

Psychologists who dismissed introspection and redefined psychology as "the scientific study of observable behavior" -Pushed forward behaviorism -Believed science was rooted in observation, and what you can't observe (like feelings, sensations, memories) you cannot study, but you can study how people behave in reaction to these things

Csikszentmihalyi

Psychologists who named the concept of "flow"

Hans Eysenck and Sybil Eysenck

Psychology theorists who suggested that personality could be reduced to two polar dimensions introversion-extraversion and emotional instability-stability (neuroticism).

Basic research

Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

Tolman and Honzik

Rats were put in maze with food placed in goal boxes at the end; latent learning

Excoriation Disorder

Recurrent skin picking resulting in skin lesions -an OCD-related disorder

John Garcia

Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.

Humanistic personality theory

Rogers and Maslow, focuses on healthy striving of self actualization, self concept, self awareness, therapy. If our basic human needs are met, we will strive toward self-actualization. In a climate of unconditional positive regard, we can develop self-awareness and a more realistic and positive self-concept.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion:

Robert Rescola and Allan Wagner

Showed that an animal can learn the predictability of an event. They also realized that the more predictable the assosciation, the stronger the conditioned response.

free-floating anxiety

Sigmund Freud's term for anxiety that is unrelated to any realistic, known source

psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud's therapeutic technique. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences - and the therapist's interpretations of them - released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight.

Social support and its affects

Social support is to feel liked and encouraged bay intimate friends and family, which promotes both happiness and health -Calms us and reduces blood pressure and stress hormones -Fosters stronger immune functioning -Gives us an opportunity for "open heart therapy", which is a chance for us to confide painful feelings

How does stress impact the immune system?

Stress can suppress the immune system by reducing the release of disease-fighting lymphocytes. In addition... - Surgical wounds heal more slowly in stressed people - Stressed people are more vulnerable to colds - Stress can hasten the course of disease - But, notably, stress DOES NOT create cancer cells

amygdala

Stress promotes the amygdala to initiate a memory trace that boosts activity in the brain's memory-forming areas

Adrian Raine

Studied three groups of individuals, those with predispositions to antisocial behavior, those living in poverty and those with both. Those with both were twice as likely to be criminal offenders.

Diminished and Inappropriate Emotions

Symptoms of schizophrenia in which one either responds inappropriately to a stimulus (ex: laughing after hearing bad news) or have difficulty understanding other's emotions and thus have little empathy

Stanley Milgram

Tested people's obedience to authority -Had participants administer what they believed were dangerous electrical shocks to other participants -Over 65% obeyed the experimenter, right up to the deadly maximum of 450 Volts

George Sperling

Tested recall time by flashing rows of numbers and saw if participants could immediately recall the numbers. Participants were able to identify around half of the letters, demonstrating the strength of iconic memory

Cerebellum

The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

What should a person look for when selecting a psychotherapist?

The American Psychological Association offers these common trouble signals: -Feelings of hopelessness -Deep and lasting depression -Self-destructive behavior, such as substance abuse -Disruptive fears -Sudden mood shifts -Thoughts of suicide -Compulsive rituals, such as hand washing -Hearing voices or seeing things that others don't experience

Extraversion-Introversion Dimension

The Myers-Briggs dimension that describes whether someone's energy is directed outward toward observable events or toward an inner, mental landscape

Conditioning won't occur when...

The NS (neutral stimulus) follows the US (unconditioned stimulus)

Thalamus

The brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Genome

The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

Sympathetic nervous system

The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy

Parasympathetic nervous system

The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Somatic nervous system

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

Pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

Culture

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Hermann Ebbinghaus

The first person to study memory scientifically and systematically; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well

glucose

The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.

Heredity

The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

Cognitive neuroscience

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

Interaction

The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

Cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

Synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Corpus callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Nature-nuture issue

The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors - Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nuture

dependent variable

The measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the research is interested. The variable that might change when the independent variable is introduced.

glutamate

The most common neurotransmitter in the brain. Excitatory, heightens activity in the brain's alarm centers

Axon

The neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

Autonomic nervous system

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the 💜). It's sympathetic division arouses; it's parasympathetic division calms

Parietal lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

Frontal lobe

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements

Temporal lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

Dual processing

The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks -Ex: when you see a bird flying, you are consciously aware of your own cognitive processing because you can identify what type of bird it is. However, your subconscious is working to identify its color, form, movement, and distance

Natural selection

The principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Natural selection

The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Overjustification

The process by which extrinsic rewards can sometimes displace internal motivation, as when a child receives money for playing video games

Introspection

The process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one's own psychological processes

Sequential processing

The processing of one aspect of a problem at a time; used when we focus attention on new or complex tasks

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied

Psychology

The science of behavior and mental processes

Positive psychology

The scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

Behavioral psychology

The scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

resistance stage

The second stage of the general adaptation syndrome, when there are intense physiological efforts to either resist or adapt to the stressor -your adrenal glands pump hormones into your bloodstream

Peripheral nervous system

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

X chromosome

The sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

cognitive revolution

The shift away from strict behaviorism, begun in the 1950s, characterized by renewed interest in fundamental problems of consciousness and internal mental processes

linguistic determinism

The strongest form of the Whorf hypothesis, which holds that the language we speak establishes how we perceive and think about the world. -Ex: English has more words for self-focused emotions such as anger, whereas Japanese has more words for interpersonal emotions such as sympathy

Social-cultural psychology

The study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

Molecular behavior genetics

The study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior

Cognitive psychology

The study of mental processes, such as those that occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems

Evolutionary psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

Behavior genetics

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Molecular genetics

The subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

immigrant paradox

The surprising fact that immigrants tend to have higher levels of mental health than U.S. born residents of the same ethnicity, despite the prevalence of poverty and other disadvantages for these immigrants. This was first evident among Mexican Americans

How does the autonomic nervous system affect emotions?

The sympathetic division of the automatic nervous system mobilizes your body for action Ex: -It directs your adrenal glands to release the stress hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) -To provide energy, your liver pours extra sugar into your bloodstream

state-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

Behaviorism

The view that psychology... - 1: Should be an objective science - 2: Studies behavior without preference to mental processes - Most psychologists today agree with 1 but not 2

How did Maslow and Rogers define their clients' self-concept?

They had clients take questionnaires or conducted interviews in which they had them describe their ideal self versus who they actually were -Found that when the ideal and actual self were nearly alike, one had a positive self-concept

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

humanistic therapies

Treatment techniques based on the assumption that people have a tendency for positive growth and self-actualization, which may be blocked by an unhealthy environment that can include negative self-evaluation and criticism from others. -humanistic therapists aim to boost people's self-fulfillment by helping them grow in self-awareness and self-acceptance -promoting this growth, not curing illness, is the therapy focus. (thus, those in therapy have become "clients" or just "persons" rather than "patients") -the path to growth is taking immediate responsibility for one's feelings and actions, rather than uncovering hidden determinants -conscious thoughts are more important than the unconscious -the present and future are more important than the past (thus, therapy focuses on exploring feelings as they occur, rather than on achieving insights into the childhood origins of those feelings)

amygdala

Two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system that are involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression -Traumatic fear-learning experiences can leave tracks in the brain, creating fear circuits within the amygdala. These fear pathways create easy inroads for more fear experiences -People with PTSD show higher-than-normal activity in the amygdala when they view traumatic images

Amygdala

Two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion

Joseph Wolpe

Used classical conditioning theory in psychotherapy and introduced Systematic Desensitatization and concepts of reciprocal inhibition which he applied to reduce anxiety. In treatment he paired relaxation with an anxiety- provoking stimulus until the stimulus no longer produced anxiety

Structuralism

Uses introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

Edward L. Thorndike

Widely known for the law of effect- the principle that rewarded behavior is likely to recur and punished behavior is unlikely to recur. This principle was the basis for BF Skinner's behavioral technology.

What is intuition based off of?

Your experiences

Histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

Superstitious behavior

a behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary

counterconditioning

a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning

strange situation

a behavioral test developed by Mary Ainsworth that studies a child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child's reactions are observed

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object

preparedness

a biological readiness to learn certain associations because of their survival advantages, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

electroconsulsive therapy (ECT)

a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient

therapeutic alliance

a bond of trust and mutual understanding between a therapist and client, who work together constructively to overcome the client's problem

Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC)

a brain region that monitors our actions and checks for errors -Seems especially likely to be hyperactive in people with OCD, specifically during behaviors like excessive hand washing, checking, ordering, or hoarding. In OCD, when the brain detects that something is amiss, it seems to generate a mental hiccup for repeating thoughts (obsessions) or actions (compulsions)

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

human factors psychology

a branch of psychology allied with I/O psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study -For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures

Trait

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports

psychoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods

flashbulb memory

a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Dunning-Kruger effect

a cognitive bias in which unskilled people make poor decisions and reach erroneous conclusions, but their incompetence denies them the metacognitive ability to appreciate their mistakes. Accounts for why low-skilled individuals are prone to greater overconfidence than are higher-skilled persons (in a particular area).

cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

instinct

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it

intersex

a condition present at birth due to unusual combinations of male and female chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy; possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes

rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT)

a confrontational cognitive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that vigorously challenges people's illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions

virtual reality exposure therapy

a counterconditioning technique that treats anxiety by creative electronic simulations in which people can safely face their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking

Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder (DMDD)

a depressive disorder in children characterized by persistent irritability and frequent episodes of out-of-control behavior

Survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

Case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

achievement motivation

a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard

Intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

neophobia

a dislike of things unfamiliar, adaptive for ancestors to protect them from potentially toxic substances

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience

hoarding disorder

a disorder in which individuals feel compelled to save items and become very distressed if they try to discard them, resulting in an excessive accumulation of items -Added as a new disorder in the DSM-5

illness anxiety disorder

a disorder related to somatic symptom disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease -formerly called hypochondriasis

autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

myelin

a fatty substance that helps insulate neurons and speeds the transmission of nerve impulses -a particular gene that affects the production of myelin is shown to be linked with schizophrenia

integrity

a feeling that one's life has been meaningful and worthwhile

placenta

a flattened circular organ in the uterus of pregnant eutherian mammals, nourishing and maintaining the fetus through the umbilical cord.

Persistent Depressive Disorder (PDD)

a form of depression that is milder in intensity but longer in duration than major depressive disorder -also called dysthymia -symptoms include: feeling hopeless, poor self-esteem, reduced energy levels, reduced energy levels, problems regulating sleep, problems regulating appetite

chronic schizophrenia (process schizophrenia)

a form of schizophrenia in which symptoms usually appear by late adolescence or early adulthood. As people age, psychotic episodes last longer and recovery periods shorten

acute schizophrenia (reactive schizophrenia)

a form of schizophrenia that can begin at any age, frequently occurs in response to an emotionally traumatic event, and has extended recovery periods

scaffold

a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

Duchenne smile

a genuine smile that involves contraction of a particular set of facial muscles

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation)

psychotic disorder

a group of psychological disorders marked by irrational ideas, distorted perceptions, and a loss of contact with reality

client-centered therapy

a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients' growth. (Also called person-centered therapy.)

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals. Most infants will not walk over this drop-off due to an innate fear of falling, thus, proving that they have depth perception

taste aversion

a learned avoidance of a particular food

AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)

a life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections.

polygraph

a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes).

stigma

a mark of disgrace - mental illness can often elicit societal judgement

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

imagination inflation

a memory phenomenon in which vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the event actually occurred

Concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

mania

a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state in which dangerously poor judgement is common

Lithim

a mood-stabilizing drug composed of simple salt, which effectively levels the emotional highs and lows of bipolar disorder

motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

insula

a neural center deep in the brain that is activated when we experience various negative social emotions, such as lust, pride, and disgust -This region of the brain, however, can light up if we're tasting food we don't like, thinking about a gross cockroach, or feel moral disgust over an issue. Therefore, the brain has multitasking regions that exemplify the complexity of emotion

Alzheimer's disease

a neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques, often with an onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities

Norepinephrine

a neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal; undersupply can depress mood

startle reflex

a newborn's automatic response to a loud noise or a touch on the stomach, in which the legs are thrown up, fingers spread, and arms are first extended, and then brought back rapidly while the fingers close in a grasping action -an adaptive reflex

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas

emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

midlife transition

a period in middle adulthood when a person's perspective on his or her life may change significantly

Paraprofessional

a person who works under the supervision of a more highly educated professional, may be recovered former clients

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

explanatory style

a person's habitual way of explaining events, typically assessed along three dimensions: internal/external, stable/unstable, and global/specific

avoidant personality disorder

a personality disorder characterized by inhibition in social situations; feelings of inadequacy; oversensitivity to criticism

borderline personality disorder

a personality disorder characterized by lack of stability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotion; impulsivity; angry outbursts; intense fear of abandonment; recurring suicidal gestures

schizotypal personality disorder

a personality disorder characterized by several traits that cause problems interpersonally, including constricted or inappropriate affect; magical or paranoid thinking; and odd beliefs, speech, behavior, appearance, and perceptions

antisocial personality disorder

a personality disorder in which a person exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members; may be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist -usually male -display symptoms at a young age, as they begin to lie, steal, fight, or be sexually aggressive -lower emotional intelligence

narcissistic personality disorder

a personality disturbance characterized by an exaggerated sense of self-importance

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

a personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types

Projective test

a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics

settling point

a point at which a person's weight stabilizes in response to caloric intake and expenditure

cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior)

incentives

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

cocaine

a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria

LSD

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide)

Methamphetamine

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels

meta-analysis

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

higher-order conditioning (second-order conditioning)

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

outcome simulation

a process where we visualize the endpoint of a specific event, less impactful than process simulation

process simulation

a process where we visualize the process of a specific event, more impactful than outcome simulation

Alzheimer's disease

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

a psychological disorder marked by extreme inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity -DSM-5 has broadened the diagnostic criteria for ADHD

clinical psychologist

a psychologist who diagnoses and treats people with emotional disturbances

lobotomy

a psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The procedure cut the nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain -no longer a popular practice today, as they are irreversible. Only preformed as a last result

Personality inventory

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors -used to assess selected personality traits

personality inventory

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.

Eysenck Personality Questionnaire

a questionnaire to assess the personality traits of a person -believes personality can be reduced down to two dimensions (extraversion-introversion, emotional stability-instability)

dissociative identity disorder (DID)

a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Formerly called multiple personality disorder.

Self-serving bias

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably

self-serving bias

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably

mindfulness meditation

a reflective practice in which people attend to current experiences in a nonjudgmental and accepting manner. It works to... -Strengthen connections among brain regions -Activate brain regions associated with more reflected awareness -Calm brain activation in emotional situations

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

gender role

a set of expected behaviors for males or for females

disorganized speech

a severe disruption of verbal communication in which ideas shift rapidly and incoherently among unrelated topics -also known as a word salad -symptom of schizophrenia

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

night terrors

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

Hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

individualism

a social theory favoring freedom of action for individuals over collective or state control -psychotherapists who live in cultures that emphasize individualism will likely prioritize personal desires and identity

collectivist

a social theory focused more on the needs of the group and less on individual desires -psychotherapists who live in cultures that emphasize collectivism will likely prioritize social and family responsibilities, harmony, and group goals

disassociation

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

catatonia

a state of unresponsiveness to one's outside environment, usually including muscle rigidity, staring, and inability to communicate -symptom of schizophrenia

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

Factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test -used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

nicotine

a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

longitudinal study

a study that observes the same participants on many occasions over a long period of time

personnel psychology

a subfield of I/O psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development

health psychology

a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

fugue state

a sudden loss of memory or change in identity, often in response to an overwhelmingly stressful situation -likely a result of dissociative disorders

posthypnotic suggestion

a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors

psychological disorder

a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior

Ecstasy (MDMA)

a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition

Biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

Biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension - Notably, simple methods of relaxation produce many of the results biofeedback once promised

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Empirically derived test

a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups

empirically derived test

a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups

Terror-management theory

a theory of death-related anxiety -explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

aversive conditioning

a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)

Connectionism

a type of information-processing approach that emphasizes the simultaneous activity of numerous interconnected processing units

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events -Ex: We learn that, when lightning flashes, a loud boom of thunder will follow. So, when we see the flash of lighting, we brace ourselves for the sound

nondirective therapy

a type of therapy in which the client rather than the therapist is encouraged to take the lead -client-centered therapy is a type of non-directive therapy

cocktail party effect

ability to attend to only one voice among many

receptive language

ability to comprehend speech -At four months old, babies can recognize differences in speech sounds, which marks the beginning of the development of receptive language

survivor resiliency

ability to recover after severe stress

pedophilia

abnormal sexual desire in adults for children

What three things did Carl Rogers believe that a therapist show provide to their patients to allow people to best grow?

acceptance, genuineness, and empathy

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

Oedipus complex

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

Unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories -according to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

manifest content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream

latent content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream

Self-actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved -the motivation to fulfill one's potential

Self-actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

Self-trancendence

according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self

self-transcendence

according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self

Peak experiences

according to Maslow, times in a person's life during which self-actualization is temporarily achieved

peak experiences

according to Maslow, times in a person's life during which self-actualization is temporarily achieved

neurocognitive disorders (NCDs)

acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive deficits; often related to Alzheimer's disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse. In older adults neurocognitive disorders were formerly called dementia

avoidance

actions made to avoid an adverse outcome (getting grounded for bad grades)

approach

actions made to obtain desirable outcomes (grades, belonging)

sexual behavior

actions that produce arousal and increase the likelihood of orgasm -Sexual behavior does not always indicate sexual orientation

Short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

trans-cranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)

administers a weak 1-2 milliamp current to the scalp in an attempt to treat the depressed brain -skeptics argue that such a current is too weak to penetrate to the brain and that studies don't confirm cognitive benefits -however, recent studies offer a "probable efficacy" of tDCS as a depression treatment

monoamine oxidase (MAOA) gene

affects levels of aggression in humans (neurotransmitters like serotonin and adrenaline are monoamines)

violence-viewing effect

after you view so much violence you become de-sensitized to it and you begin to imitate it

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

Cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn -Except for national studies, this doesn't refer to a country's whole population

near-death experience

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

an anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions) -more common among teens and young adults than among older people

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal

eclectic approach

an approach to psychotherapy that uses techniques from various forms of therapy

life-span perspective

an approach to the study of human development that takes into account all phases of life, not just childhood or adulthood

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

facial expression

an arrangement of the facial muscles to communicate thoughts, emotions, and attitudes

expectancy

an awareness of how likely it is that the US will occur

bulimia nervosa

an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise

anorexia nervosa

an eating disorder in which an irrational fear of weight gain leads people to starve themselves -often appears in adolescent females

binge-eating disorder

an eating disorder in which people overeat compulsively in binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory behavior that marks bulimia nervosa -Added as a new disorder in the DSM-5

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

sexual orientation

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)

McGurk Effect

an error in perception that occurs when we misperceive sounds because the audio and visual parts of the speech are mismatched.

stressor

an event or situation that causes stress

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

cortisol

an example of a glucocorticoid: a stress hormone released by the adrenal cortex

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

neurogenesis theory of depression

an explanation of depression that proposes that neurogenesis, the growth of new neurons, in the hippocampus stops during depression, and when it resumes, the depression lifts

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession -our brain perceives a rapid series of slightly varying images as continuous movement- a phenomenon called stroboscopic movement

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory -Drugs that block LTP interfere with learning -Drugs that mimic what happens during learning increase LTP -Rats given a drug that enhanced LTP learned a maze with hard the usual number of mistakes

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory -repeated stimulation through processes like repetitive trans cranial magnetic stimulation may cause nerve cells to undergo LTP

Extinction burst

an increase in the frequency of responding when an extinction procedure is initially implemented.

Personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

employee engagement

an individual's involvement, satisfaction, and enthusiasm for work

organizational psychology

an industrial-organization psychology subfield that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change

Personelle psychology

an industrial-organization psychology subfield that helps with job seeking, and with employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development

human factors psychology

an industrial-organizational psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

grasping reflex

an infant's clinging response to a touch on the palm of his or her hand -an adaptive reflex

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

behavioral medicine

an interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease -recognizes that mind and body interact; everything psychological is simultaneously physiological

International Classification of Diseases (ICD)

an international resource published by the World Health Organization (WHO) that makes it easy to track worldwide trends in psychological disorders

token economy

an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

critical period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

Gestalt

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

prejudice

an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

What particular issues do cognitive and cognitive-behavioral therapies combat?

anxiety, PTSD, insomnia, and depression

Stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

Reinforcement

any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy -men, on average, are more likely to be aggressive

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy someone physically or emotionally

maladaptive

anything that does not allow a person to function within or adapt to the stresses and everyday demands of life -a key element of the emotions, thoughts, or behaviors of someone who has a psychological disorder

Sport Psychology

applies psychology to athletic activity and exercise

Martin Seligman and learned helplessness

argued depression is common among westerners because of epidemic hopelessness stemming from the rise of individualism and the decline of commitment

spillover effect

arousal response to one event spills over into our response to the next event -Ex: you come home from an invigorating run to find you you've been accepted to your dream college. You would be more happy to hear this news at that moment than you would if you were coming back from a hard study session

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Theory X management

assumes employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work so the management believes that workers need to be closely supervised -Emphasizes preformance

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction

situational atribution

attributing behavior to the circumstances of their situation

dispositional attribution

attributing behavior to the person's disposition and traits

two-word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements

babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

Respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

counterconditioning

behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; include exposure therapies and aversive conditioning

exposure therapy

behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actuality) to the things they fear and avoid

John B. Watson

behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat

Edward Chase Tolman

behaviorist, discovered latent learning in rats in a maze with Honzik

Theory Y management

belief that employees are intrinsically motivated to do good work -Emphasizes mastery

subliminal

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

bilingual advantage

bilingual children who learn to inhibit one language while using the other are better able to inhibit their attention to irrelevant information

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

Harry Harlow and Margaret Harlow

bred monkeys and discovered that baby monkeys formed attachment based on "contact comfort," which was not based on nourishment

tyranny of choice

brings information overload and a greater likelihood that we will feel regret over some of the unchosen options

epigenetic marks

chemical modifications to DNA that can turn genes on and off -Experiences such as abuse can increase the likelihood that a genetic vulnerability to a disorder will be expressed

Overimitate

children 2-5, copy even irrelevant adult actions

evidence-based practice

clinical decision making that integrates the best available research with clinical expertise and patient characteristics and preferences

Microaggressions

common, everyday verbal or behavioral indignities and slights that communicate hostile, derogatory, and negative messages about someone's race, gender, sexual orientation, or religion

rumination

compulsive fretting; overthinking about our problems and their causes -excessive rumination can distract us, increase negative emotion, and disrupt daily activities

approach-avoidance conflict

conflict occurring when a person must choose or not choose a goal that has both positive and negative aspects -often can be solved with a pros-cons list

predictability

consistent repetition of a state, course of action, behavior, or the like, making it possible to know in advance what to expect

anxiety

constantly craving acceptance but remaining vigilant to signs of possible rejection -often the result in adults who felt no sense of belonging to others during childhood

Preconscious

contains material just beneath the surface of awareness that can easily be retrieved

dissociative disorders

controversial, rare disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.

massed practice

cramming, can produce speedy short-term learning and feelings of confidence

William James

created the James-Lange theory -argued that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our psychological responses to an emotion-arousing stimulus

preservation of innovation

culture's accumulated knowledge, made possible by language

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. - Ex: As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

obesity

defined as a body mass index (BMI) measurement of 30 or higher (overweight individuals have a BMI of 25 or higher)

explicit

definite, clearly stated

ostracism

deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups

secure attachment

demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver's return

insecure attachment

demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness

Neal Miller

demonstrated that animals could be conditioned to control autonomic processes. (heart rate, blood pressure)

interdependent

depending on each other -women are more likely to be interdependent

What particular issues does psychodynamic therapy combat?

depression, anxiety

binocular cues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

David Rosenhan

did study in which healthy patients were admitted to psychiatric hospitals and diagnoses with schizophrenia (each claimed to hear voices that said "empty" "hollow" and "thud"); showed that once you are diagnosed with a disorder, the label, even when behavior indicates otherwise, is hard to overcome in a mental health setting

impaired theory of mind

difficulty perceiving facial emotions and reading others' states of mind, therefore, they have little sympathy and compassion -symptom of schizophrenia

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI)

direct, deliberate destruction of body tissue in the absence of any intent to die -more common in adolescence and among females

Ivan Pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

Eric Kandel and James Schwartz

discovered the neural basis of learning, long-term potentiation, by observing changes in the sending neurons of a simple animal, the California sea slug, Aplysia. When learning occurs, the slug releases more of the neurotransmitter serotonin into certain neurons. These cells' synapses then become more efficient at transmitting signals. Experience and learning can increase- even double- the number of synapses

Schizophrenia

disorder characterized by hallucinations, delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression

androgyny

displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics

depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Gustav Fechner

early German psychologist credited with founding psychophysics. Also discovered absolute thresholds.

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs.

deep brain stimulation

electrical stimulation applied through surgically implanted electrodes; used to treat some anxiety and mood disorders

People who fear rejection often...

elicit rejection

Paul Ekman

emotion; found that facial expressions are universal

emotional stability-instability

emotionally stable people react calmly because their autonomic nervous systems are not so reactive as those of unstable people

active listening

empathetic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers' client-centered therapy

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

daily hassles

everyday irritations that cause small disruptions, the effects of which can add up to a large impact on health

auditory rehearsal

ex: repeating a password to memorize it

Narcissism

excessive self-love and self-absorption

narcissism

excessive self-love and self-absorption

narcissism

excessive self-love and self-absorption -typically, people with high levels of narcissism were also found to have a higher use of social media

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)

self-fufilling prophecies

expectations that increase the probability of the predicted event

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

stress-vulnerability model

explanation of disorder that assumes a biological sensitivity, or vulnerability, to a certain disorder will result in the development of that disorder under the right conditions of environmental or emotional stress -Also called the diathesis-stress model

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is episodic memory)

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is semantic memory)

Psychological influences on sex

exposure to stimulating conditions, sexual fantasies

distress

extreme anxiety, sorrow, or pain -these feelings often accompany psychological disorders

bipolar cells

eye neurons that receive information from the retinal cells and distribute information to the ganglion cells

Delusions

false beliefs -symptom of schizophrenia

Hallucinations

false perceptions -symptom of schizophrenia

hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

Social-cultural influences on sex

family and society values, religious and personal values, cultural expectations, media

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories

attitude

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

servant leadership

focuses on increased service to others rather than to oneself

behavioral approach

focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development

Neo-Freudians

followers of Freud who developed their own competing psychodynamic theories

mild cognitive impairment

forgetfulness and loss of verbal fluency that often comes before the first stage of Alzheimer disease

Sigmund Freud

founder of psychoanalysis

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy

person-situation controversy

genuine personality traits that persist over time and across situations

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Individualism

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

Collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly

collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly

social leadership

group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support

asexual

having no sexual attraction to others

sex hormones

hormones that regulate the development and functioning of reproductive organs and that stimulate the devolopment of male and female sexual characteristics

self-esteem

how much you value, respect, and feel confident about yourself

Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers

humanistic theorists

orexin

hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus

social influence theory of hypnosis

hypnotic subjects may simply be imaginative actors playing a social role -they begin to feel and behave in ways appropriate for "good hypnotic subjects" -an authoritative person in a legitimate context can, hypnotized or not, induce people to preform some unlikely acts

utilitarianism

idea that the goal of society should be to bring about the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people - used by philosophers

Allport and Odbert

identified almost 18,000 words representing traits

possible selves

images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future -an example of thinking about our "self"

afterimages

images that occur when a visual sensation persists for a brief time even after the original stimulus is removed

Gene-environment interaction

impact of genes on behavior depends on the environment where behavior develops

social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others (can also work the opposite way: if someone has a limited ability to preform a task alone, they will decrease in their ability if they are watched by a group)

context dependent memory

improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same

intimacy

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

egocentric

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. Semantics is the language's set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is its set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response.

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that aren't reinforced

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

fixation

in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving

Self

in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions

self

in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions

place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

phonemes

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows -Anything that enables us to avoid or escape a feared situation can reinforce maladaptive behaviors. Ex: fearing a panic attack, we may decide not to leave the house

assume responsibility

in order for help to be given, someone must "step-up" and give the help

Behavioral approach

in personality theory, this perspective focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development

free association

in psychoanalysis, Freud's method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

interpretation

in psychoanalysis, the analyst's noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight

resistance

in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material

Fixation

in psychoanalytic theory, according to Freud, lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

grit

in psychology, grit is passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals

gender

in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

Catharsis

in psychology, the idea that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges -Although cathartic releases may be temporarily calming, expressing anger in any way (including through catharsis) can make us feel angrier

perceptual adaptation

in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

positive symptoms of schizophrenia

inappropriate behaviors are present -ex: delusions and hallucinations

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event -In remembering an event, small things change, like a yield sign becomes a stop sign

Given more options, people make...

increasingly superficial choices

autonomy

independence, the ability to make your own choices -a basic psychological need

Generation Me

individuals who were born in the 90s and 80s; tended to express more narcissism

personality disorders

inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

informational social influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

Robert Sternberg

intelligence; devised the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (academic problem-solving, practical, and creative) with five components (Expertise, imaginative thinking skills, a venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, a creative environment)

social anxiety disorder

intense fear and avoidance of social situations (formerly called social phobia)

self-defeating beliefs

intensely negative assumptions about themselves, their situations, and their futures lead them to magnify bad experience and minimized good ones -often feeds depression

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

tardive dyskinesia

involuntary movements of the facial muscles, tongue, and limbs; a possible neurotoxic side effect of long-term use of antipsychotic drugs that target certain dopamine receptors

structured interview

involves asking each applicant the same questions and comparing their responses to a standardized set of answers -is more likely to allow an interviewer to accurately predict how the interviewee will preform on the job

unstructured interview

involves asking probing questions to find out what the applicant is like -succeed in providing a better sense of one's personality

depressive disorder

involves periods of symptoms in which an individual experiences an unusually intense sad mood -the DSM-5 now classifies severe grief following the death of a loved one as a possible depressive disorder. However, critics suggest that that this grief could instead simply be considered a "normal" reaction to tragic life events

selection effect

kids seek out peers with similar attitudes and interests

Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart

learning and recall depend on depth of processing; from most superficial phonological (pronunciation) to deep semantic level, the deeper the easier to learn and recall

modeling

learning by imitating others; copying behavior

Observational learning

learning by observing others

observational learning

learning by observing others; also called social learning

progressive relaxation

learning how to systematically relax your body so your mind calms (then, in the process of systematic desensitization, the therapist would invite you to think of an anxiety-arousing situation in an attempt to replace your anxiety with relaxation)

Associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

conduction hearing loss

less common form of hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

pretend play

make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one -done in the pre-operational stage (2 to 6 or 7 years)

undifferentiated

many and varied symptoms of schizophrenia

paranoid tendencies

may believe they are being threatened or pursued -symptom of schizophrenia

psychiatrist

medical doctor who has specialized in treating psychological disorders

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

male answer syndrome

men are more likely than women to hazard answers rather than admit they don't know

What particular issue does client-centered counseling combat?

mild to moderate depression

Lawrence Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

moral thinking develops in stages as cognitive abilities develop, with 3 levels divided into 6 sequential stages

gestures

motions of a speaker's hands or arms during a speech -vary from culture to culture. (i.e. the American "A-OK" hand signal is insulting in places like Brazil)

drives

motivations that are inborn not learned, such as hunger, thirst, fear, and need for sleep. Also known as instincts.

Does correlation equal causation?

nope. Correlation suggests a possible cause-effect relationship but doesn't prove it.

dysfunctional

not operating normally or properly -a key element of the emotions, thoughts, or behaviors of someone who has a psychological disorder

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

Self-fulfilling prophecy

occurs when one person's belief about others leads one to act in ways that induce the others to appear to confirm the belief

halo error

occurs when one positive performance characteristic causes the manager to rate all other aspects of performance positively in a biased fashion

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness

foresight bias

occurs when people have been studying for a future exam and they are overconfident about how they will perform on this exam

Self-esteem

one's feelings of high or low self-worth

self-esteem

one's feelings of high or low self-worth

ideal self

one's perception of whom one should be or would like to be

Self-efficacy

one's sense of competence and effectiveness

self-efficacy

one's sense of competence and effectiveness

What are the big five personality traits?

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

Big Five Personality Traits

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism (OCEAN)

opiates

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

sexual orientation

our enduring sexual attraction, usually toward members of our own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation); variations include attraction toward both sexes (bisexual orientation)

kinesthesia

our movement sense-- our system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

gender identity

our sense of being male or female, or some combination of the two

personal control

our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless

identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

adaption-level phenomenon

our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list

Spotlight effect

overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)

spotlight effect

overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)

Nocireceptors

pain receptors in your skin, muscles, and organs that detect hurtful temperatures, pressure, or chemicals

Person-centered perspective

people are basically good and are endowed with self-actualizing tendencies

anxious attachment

people constantly crave acceptance but remain vigilant to signs of possible rejection

avoidant attachment

people experience discomfort getting close to others and use avoidant strategies to maintain distance from others

Dunning-Kruger Effect

people who are least skilled at a task suffer from the most overconfidence

attributions

people's explanations for why events or actions occur

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

feel-good, do-good phenomenon

people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood

effort justification

people's tendency to reduce dissonance by justifying the time, effort, or money they have devoted to something that has turned out to be unpleasant or disappointing

clairvoyance

perceiving remote events, such as sensing that a friend's house is on fire in another state. A form of ESP

illusory correlation

perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists

sleep

periodic, natural loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial disproportions

mallows hierarchy of needs

physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization, and self-transcendence

Aaron Beck

pioneer in Cognitive Therapy. Suggested negative beliefs cause depression.

Albert Ellis

pioneer in Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET), focuses on altering client's patterns of irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive behavior and emotions

Albert Bandura

pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play

Cerebellum

plays a key role in forming and storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning

posttraumatic growth

positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crises

positive herding

positive ratings generate more positive ratings

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

Body dsymorphic disorder (BDD)

preoccupation with perceived body defects - an OCD-related disorder

biomedical therapy

prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person's physiology

motivated reasoning

processing information in a way that allows consumers to reach the conclusion that they want to reach

Albert Bandura

proposed that social-cognitive perspective emphasizes the interaction of our traits with our situations

Alan Baddeley

proposed the concept of a working memory that underlies human thought processes

group identifications

provide a sense of belonging, a set of values, and an assurance of security in collectivist cultures

hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

Sublimation

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people re-channel their unacceptable impulses into socially approved activities

Denial

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people refuse to believe or even to perceive painful realities

Rationalization

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions

Displacement

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet

somatic symptom disorder/ somatoform pain disorder

psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause

anxiety disorder

psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety

Joseph LeDoux

psychologist who believed that some of our emotional reactions involve no deliberate thinking and cognition is not always necessary for emotion

Lev Vygotsky

psychologist who studied how children think and rivaled Jean Piaget's theories -Vyogtsky emphasized that a child's mind grows through their social environment

Robert McCrae and Paul Costa

psychologists who came up with the Big Five personality factors

Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman

psychologists who researched heuristics and their effects on decision making. Found that intuitive mental short-cuts can lead even the smartest people into dumb decisions

moral intuition

quick gut feelings that precede moral reasoning

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

leniency and severity errors

reflect evaluators' tendencies to be either too easy or too harsh on everyone

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

faith factor

religiously active people tend to live longer than those who are not religiously active. This could be attributed to the fact that religion often promotes... -Heathy behaviors (religion promotes self control) -Social support (faith is often a communal experience) -Positive emotions (religious people benefit from a stable, coherent worldview)

prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future -both young children and older people aren't good at this

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Possible selves

representations of what we could become, what we would like to become, and what we are afraid of becoming

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

cross-sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

Konrad Lorenz

researcher who focused on critical attachment periods in baby birds, a concept he called imprinting

Wolfgang Kohler

researcher who studied insight learning in chimps

randomized clinical trials

researchers randomly assign people on a waiting list to therapy or no therapy and later evaluate everyone, using tests and the reports of people who don't know whether therapy was given

explicit memory

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" (also called declarative memory)

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection -ex: how to ride a bike, or tensing up when you hear a dog bark after being attacked by a dog

cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

tinnitus

ringing or buzzing in the ears that's accompanied by auditory brain activity

Applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors)

selectively inhibits serotonin reuptake from synaptic gap and results in potentiation of serotonergic neurotransmissions. Examples: Luvox, Paxilo, Prozac, Zoloft

subjective well-being

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life

olfaction

sense of smell

gustation

sense of taste

sensory receptors

sensory nerve endings that responds to stimuli

Biological influences on sex

sexual maturity, sex hormones (especially testosterone), sexual orientation

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

mood linkage

sharing ups and downs with the type of people around them

gene-environment interaction

situation in which the effects of genes depend on the environment in which they are expressed

ecology of eating

situations control our eating Ex: -watching an intense movie increases snacking -you eat more when you're with others because our our natural behavior tendencies are amplified around others -the serving size affects how much we eat (bigger serving size= eating more, and vice versa) -food variety stimulates eating -how food is presented to you influences how much you eat (when carrots were put at the beginning of a lunch line at an elementary school, kids took four times more carrots)

successive approximations

small steps in behavior, one after the other, that lead to a particular goal behavior

John Darley

social psychologist, studied diffusion of responibility and bystander effect

mental operations

solving problems by manipulating images in one's mind -we cannot preform mental operations before the age of 6-7

What particular issues do behavioral conditioning therapies combat?

specific behavior problems, such as bed-wetting, phobias, compulsions, marital problems, and sexual dysfunctions

popout

stimuli that draw our eye and demand our attention

glucocorticoid

stress hormone from the adrenal cortex that raises blood sugar and reduces inflammation

acculturative stress

stress resulting from the need to change and adapt a person's ways to the majority culture -declines over time, especially when people engage in meaningful activities and connect socially

Lloyd and Margaret Peterson

studied short-term memory; tested individuals by having them remember 3-consonant groups and prevent rehearsal by having them count backwards from 100 in groups of 3; their findings were that without active rehearsal, short term memories have a short and limited life

seasonal pattern

subtype of depression in which a person experiences the symptoms of major depressive disorder only during a particular time of year

psychosurgery

surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior

sex reassignment surgery

surgical procedures to alter a person's physical anatomy to conform to that person's psychological gender identity

aerobic exercise

sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; may also alleviate depression and anxiety. It does so by... -Strengthening the heart (increasing blood flow, keeping blood vessels open, lowering blood pressure) -Improving mood -Fostering neurogenesis (excursive causes brain to produce a molecule that stimulates the production of new, stress-resistant neurons)

inoculation training

teaching people to restructure their thinking in stressful situations

anchoring effect

tendency to be influenced by a suggested reference point, pulling our response toward that point -The power of "Free"

self-reference effect

tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves

negative explanatory style

tendency to blame unfortunate circumstances on self and see problems as enduring -often feeds depression

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

germinal stage

the 2-week period of prenatal development that begins at conception

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)

the American Psychiatric Association's widely-used system for classifying psychological disorders -Used to guide medical diagnoses and prescribe treatment

two-factor theory

the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal

self-control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

competence

the ability to do something successfully or efficiently -a basic psychological need

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions -lower in those with antisocial personality disorder

empathy

the ability to understand and share the feelings of another -women are often more empathetic than men

negative symptoms of schizophrenia

the absence of appropriate behaviors -ex: expressionless faces, rigid bodies

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

Cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

self-disclosure

the act of revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response -Ex: seeing or hearing the word rabbit activates the concept of a rabbit, and makes people more likely to spell the spoken word "hair" as "hare"

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

Intensity

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude

industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

industrial-organizational psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

psychodynamic perspective

the approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control

Mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Reality principal

the attempt by the ego to find safe realistic ways of meeting the needs of the id

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived -young infants in the sensorimotor stage (specifically, from birth to about 8 months) don't have this awareness

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

sex

the biological distinction between females and males

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

basal metabolic rate

the body's resting rate of energy expenditure

minority influence

the case where a minority of group members influences the behavior or beliefs of the majority

middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

Psychosexual stages

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones

coronary heart disease

the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries

medical model

the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital

gender dysphoria

the condition of feeling one's emotional and psychological identity as male or female to be opposite to one's biological sex

companionate love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

generativity

the desire, in middle age, to use one's accumulated wisdom to guide future generations -according to Erik Erikson, this is very important in adulthood

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth

tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

wavelength

the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

cornea

the eye's clear, protective layer, covering the pupil and iris

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

menarche

the first occurrence of menstruation

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect -people with schizophrenia are easily distracted by tiny unrelated stimuli and, thus, have difficulty with selective attention

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events -may cause self-defeating beliefs

Sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Egocentrism

the inability to see the world through anyone else's eyes

embodied cognition

the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgements -example: when people are socially excluded from others, they judge a room to be colder than those who had been treated warmly

inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

Reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with the deep sleep of NREM-3

Ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality -the ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

THC

the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests -originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.

Rorschach inkblot test

the most widely used projective test -a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach -seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

affiliation need

the need to build relationships and to feel part of a group

auditory nerve

the nerve that carries impulses from the inner ear to the brain, resulting in the perception of sound

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

Memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory

frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time

figure ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

Superego

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms -When the sympathetic division is aroused, we often see symptoms of tension and apprehension that are indicative of generalized anxiety disorder

central executive

the part of working memory that directs attention and processing

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.

internal locus of control

the perception that one controls one's own fate

relative deprivation

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

resilience

the personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

stress reaction

the physical response to stress, consisting mainly of bodily changes related to autonomic nervous system arousal

set point

the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there

debreifing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

behavior control

the power to change another's behavior

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects -children below the age of 6 lack the ability to comprehend conservation

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

Weber's Law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

Sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

stress

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

Identification

the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos

Learning

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

Conditioning

the process of learning associations

storage

the process of maintaining information in memory over time

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision.

Person-situation controversy

the question of whether behavior is caused more by personality or by situational factors

Spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

photoreceptors

the rods and cones that serve as light receptors in the eye

Social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

positive psychology

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

positive psychology

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive -Pushed forward by psychologist Martin Seligman

vestibular sense

the sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance

audition

the sense or act of hearing

Y chromosome

the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

Personality psychology

the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

epigenetic

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

Educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

parapsychology

the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis

psychophysics

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

psychopharmacology

the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.

diffusion of responsibility

the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

The Hawthorne effect

the tendency for people to behave differently when they know they are being observed

self-serving bias

the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

behavior feedback effect

the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions

facial feedback effect

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

instinctive drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

Barnum effect

the tendency to accept certain information as true, such as character assessments or horoscopes, even when the information is so vague as to be worthless

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

Hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it -Also known as the "I-knew-it-all-along" phenomenon

in-group bias

the tendency to favor our own group

size constancy

the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance

shape constancy

the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant, even when its shape changes on the retina

outgroup homogeneity

the tendency to perceive members of an outgrop as all alike or homogenous, while viewing members of the in-group as "different as snowflakes" ex. -"They all look alike"

brightness constancy

the tendency to perceive the apparent brightness of an object as the same even when the light conditions change

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

Other-Race Effect

the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias

stimulus generalization

the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response -Ex: someone's phobia of a certain object or event may be generalized after a terrifying or painful experience in relation to their phobia

Cannon-Bard Theory

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion -Ex: This theory was proved in real life by interviewing 25 WW2 soldiers who had sustained injuries to their spinal cords. Those with lower-spine injuries, who had just lost sensation only in their legs, reported little change in their emotions' intensity. Rather, those with high spinal cord injuries, who could feel nothing below the neck, did report changes. For example, the emotions coupled with body areas above the neck, such as weeping, lumps in the throat, and getting choked up, were expressed more intensely. Thus, it is believed that emotions are "mostly shadows" of our bodily responses.

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

James-Lange Theory

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli - stimulus, then arousal, then emotion

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

gate-control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

reward theory of attraction

the theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events

moral reasoning

the thinking that occurs as we consider right and wrong

exhaustion stage

the third stage of the GAS, characterized by weakened resistance and possible deterioration -you become more vulnerable to illness, or even possibly collapse and death

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Behaviorism

the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments. -Ex: to entice you to buy a certain product, it might say "75% fat free" instead of "25% fat"

fertile females theory

theory that the same genes that predispose women to be strongly attracted to men (and therefore have a lot of kids) may also dispose some men to be attracted to men

insight therapies

therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person's awareness of underlying motives and defenses -psychodynamic and Humanist therapies are often referred to as insight therapies

counselors

therapists who work with problems arising from family relations, spouse and child abusers and their victims, and substance abusers

group therapy

therapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, permitting therapeutic benefits from group interaction

psychodynamic therapists

therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition that views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and that seeks to enhance self-insight

behavior therapy

therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors

light exposure therapy

therapy that involves a timed daily dose of intense light; used for seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

family therapy

therapy that treats the family as a system. Views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at, other family members

habituate

to become used to -Ex: when repeated exposure to any stimulus, including an erotic stimulus, the emotional response lessens, or habituates. So, watching large amounts of porn can lessen pleasure during sex

counter

to replace (usually a phobia)

Psychotherapy

treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth

individualism

trusting and acting on one's feelings, being true to oneself, fulfilling oneself

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

chameleon effect

unconsciously mimicking others expressions, postures, and voice tones to help us feel what they are feeling

tend and befriend

under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)

tend-and-befriend response

under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)

norms

understood rules for accepted and expected behavior

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

clinical or psychiatric social workers

use knowledge of community agencies and organizations to help people with severe mental disorders receive the services they need

William Masters and Virginia Johnson

used direct observation and experimentation to study sexual response cycle: -excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

mood-stabilizing drugs

used to treat mood instability and bipolar disorders; an example is lithium

Eysenck Personality Questionnaire

uses extroversion,introversion,unstable,stable to organize personality

At what times of life do disorders strike?

usually by early adulthood

Social-cognitive perspective

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context

social-cognitive perspective

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context.

delay of gratification

waiting for an appropriate time and place to engage in a tempting act

positive transfer

when old information facilitates the learning of new information

residual

withdrawal, after hallucinations and delusions have disappeared -a symptom of schizophrenia

community psychologists

work to create social and physical environments that will support psychological health. They aim to empower people and enhance their competence, health, and well-being

physiological need

a basic bodily requirement -create an aroused, motivated state

in-group

"Us"—people with whom we share a common identity.

Mary Cover Jones

"mother of behavior therapy"; used classical conditioning to help "Peter" overcome fear of rabbits (gave Peter a nice snack, and introduced a rabbit into the far corner of the room as he ate. Then, each day, she moved the rabbit closer and closer to him while he ate. Soon, he was petting the rabbit)

out-group

"them"- those perceived as different or apart from our in-group

Hans Selye

(1907-1982) Psychologist who researched a recurring response to stress that he called the general adaptation syndrome

search for identity

(Erik Erikson) Adolescents wonder Who am I as an individual? What do I want to do with my life? What values should I live by? What do I believe in?

alcohol use disorder

(popularly known as alcoholism). Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use.

Environmental triggers for schizophrenia

- A mother whose schizophrenia was severe and long-lasting - Birth complications, often involving oxygen deprivation and low birth weight - Separation from parents - Short attention span and poor muscle coordination - Disruptive or withdrawn behavior - Emotional unpredictability - Poor peer relations and solo play - Childhood physical, sexual, or emotional abuse

biological influences on aggression

- genetic influences - biochemical influences, such as testosterone and alcohol - neural influences, such as a severe head injury

The odds of helping someone are highest when...

- the person appears to need and deserve help - the person is in some way similar to us - the person is a woman - we have just observed someone else being helpful - we are not in a hurry - we are in a small town or rural area - we are feeling guilty - we are focused on others and not preoccupied - we are in a good mood

Oral

-0-18 months -pleasure centers on the mouth- sucking, biting, chewing

Anal

-18-36 months -pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination coping with demands for control

social animal

Aristotle's term for humans, since we are social creatures and have a need to belong

How does age impact emotional stability?

As we age, we often tend to be more accepting, genuine, and empathetic

Martin Seligan

Developed learned helplessness

opponent colors

Pairs of colors that share color channels in the retina (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white)

Medulla

The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

Genes

The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

Endocrine system

The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Nervous system

The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Csikszentmihalyi's concept of flow

The idea that one who has... -low skill and a low challenge will be apathetic -low skill and a high challenge will have anxiety -high skill and a low challenge will be bored -high skill and a high challenge will have flow, and be happy

Cell body

The part of a nerve cell that contains the nucleus; the cell's life-support center

Occipital lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

Lesion

Tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

Therapist-patient privilege

When a person sees a therapist, confidentiality about those sessions is guaranteed

relational aggression

an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

proximity

nearness

myopia

nearsightedness; difficulty seeing distant objects

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair