AP psych units 1,2,3 vocab

William James

Author of "The Principles of Psychology," which had a profound influence on the early development of psychology, along with his theory of emotions (emotions are the result of bodily reactions rather than the reverse) with Carl Lange. As a functionalist, he encouraged explorations of emotions, memories, willpower, habits, and streams of consciousness

Ivan Pavlov

Awarded a Nobel Prize for work in the area of digestion. Discovered that animals could learn to respond to completely arbitrary stimuli (classical conditioning)

Carl Rogers

Developed a form of therapy called client-centered therapy, which stresses humanistic ideals such as positive personal growth. Found Freudian psychology too limiting

Jean Piaget

Developed a four stage theory of cognitive (intellectual) development in children. Last century's most influential observer of children

G. Stanley Hall

Established the first American psychology research lab (at Johns Hopkins in 1883). Established the first professional journal in psychology (the American Journal of Psychology in 1887). Founded the American Psychological Association (in 1882)

Wilhelm Wundt

Established the first psychology lab in Leipzig Germany in 1879. He was seeking to measure "atoms of the mind"- the fastest and simplest mental processes (testing reaction time)

Sigmund Freud

Founder of the of the psychoanalytic school of psychology through his development of the id, ego, and superego. Emphasized the ways emotional responses to childhood experiences and our unconscious thought processes affect our behavior

Dorothea Dix

Led the way to humane treatment of those with psychological disorders

tabula rasa

Locke argued that the mind at birth is a "blank slate"

B.F. Skinner

One of the most influential psychologists in the late 20th century who advocated the idea that behavior is controlled by its consequences. Dismissed introspection and redefined psychology as "the scientific study of observable behavior"

endorphins

"morphine within" - natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

normal curve

(normal distribution) a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes

Margaret Floy Washburn

The first woman to hold a Ph.D. in psychology (in 1894). Synthesized animal behavior in "The Animal Mind." Second female president of the APA

Charles Darwin

The naturalist whose research and writings on the origin of species had a direct influence on the early school of psychology known as functionalism. His principle of natural selection has been called "the single best idea anyone has ever had". He believed his theory explained not only animal structures, but also animal behaviors

John B. Watson

Worked with Rayner and championed psychology as the science of behavior and demonstrated conditioned responses on a baby who became famous as "little Albert." Dismissed introspection and redefined psychology as "the scientific study of observable behavior"

placebo

[latin for "I shall please"] effect experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distrution

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

community psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

psychodynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal prinicples

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons. Enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one sausage-like node to the next. Multiple sclerosis results if degenerated

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correction)

humanistic psychology

a historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people; rather than focusing on the meaning of early childhood memories or the learning of conditioned responses, they drew attention to ways that current environmental influences can nurture or limit our growth potential, and to the importance of having our needs for love and acceptance satisfied

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other

agonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

neuron

a nerve cell. The basic building block of the nervous system

action potential

a neural impulse. A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

all-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired. Neuron pumps the positively charged sodium ions back outside

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). by random assignment or participants, the experimenter aims ti control other relevant variables

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1.0 to +1.0)

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population)

human factors psychologists

an I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. commonly used in drug-evaluation

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether the neuron will generate a neural impulse

functionalism

early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

structuralism

early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchner; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

control group

in en experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize - to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic findings extends to other participants and circumstanses

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

levels of analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

median

the middle score in a distribution;half the scores are above it and half are below it

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distriubtuion

axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

dependent variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulation of the independent variable

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its particpants

natural selection

the principe that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

cognitive psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

positive psychology

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

behavioral psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. These psychologists announce discoveries about the interplay of our biology and our behavior and mind at an exhilarating pace

psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

personality psychology

the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

experimental psychology

the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method

educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

social-cultural psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would of foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should rely on observation and experimentation

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

critical thinking

thing that doe blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather,it examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

Mary Whiton Calkins

Admitted into Harvard and earned degree but did not receive it b/c of discrimination. APA's first female president in 1905