AP Psychology Chapter 7 (Human Memory)

cognition

another term for thinking, knowing, & remembering

belief perseverance

clinging to your initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

repression

- "unconscious forgetting" - Sigmund Freud believed that this of painful memories occurs as a defense mechanism to protect out self-concepts & minimize anxiety

working memory

- Alan Baddeley developed this memory model, which consists of 4 components: 1. phonological loop - represented all of short-term memory in earlier models - this component is at work when you use recitation to temporarily hold onto a phone number 2. visuospatial sketchpad - permits people to temporarily hold & manipulate visual images - this element is at work when you try to mentally rearrange the furniture in your bedroom or to map out a route to travel somewhere 3. central executive system - controls the deployment of attention, switching the focus of attention & dividing attention as needed - coordinates the actions of the other modules 4. episodic buffer - a temporary, limited- capacity store that allows the various components of working memory to integrate information - serves as the interface between working memory & long-term memory - along with short-term memory, it lasts less than a minute - apart of short-term memory - examples: - remembering a phone umber as you dial it - tying your shoe

overlearning effect

- Ebbinghaus found that if he continued to practice a list after memorizing it well, the information was more resistant to forgetting

relearning

- a measure of retention of memory that assesses the time saved compared to learning the first time when learning information again - if learning takes as much time as initial learning, then our memory of the information has decayed

algorithm

- a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem - example: - a math formula

parallel processing

- a natural mode of information processing that involves several information streams simultaneously - this emphasizes the simultaneous processing of information, which occurs automatically & without our awareness

representativeness heuristic

- a rule of thumb of judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they match our prototype - this can cause us to ignore important information

heuristic

- a rule-of-thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgements & solve problems efficiently - a short cut that can also be prone to errors

script

- a schema for an event - for example, because we have a script for elementary school, even if we've never been to a particular elementary school, we expect it to have teachers, young students, a principal, classrooms with desks & chairs, etc.

insight

- a sudden & often novel realization of the solution to a problem - there is no real strategy involved

mental set

- a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially if it has worked in the past - this may or may not be good thing

divergent thinking

- a type of creative thinking in which one generates new solutions to problems - example: - using an object for many uses other than its typical/common use

explicit memory

- also called "declarative memory" - this type of LTM is responsible for facts & experiences that we consciously know & can actually verbalize - this type of LTM is further divided into semantic memory & episodic memory

implicit memory

- also called "non-declarative" - this type of LTM is responsible for skills & procedures to do things affected by previous experience without that experience being consciously recalled - this type of LTM is further divided into procedural memory as well as classing & operant conditioning

echoic memory

- also known as "auditory memory" - this type of sensory memory lasts for about 4 seconds, just long enough for us to to hear a flow of information

iconic memory

- also known as "visual memory" - this type of sensory memory completely represents a visual stimulus that lasts for less than a second

misattribution effect

- also referred to as "source amnesia"

method of loci

- another mnemonic - this uses association of words on a list with visualization of places on a familiar path (example: "The Memory Palace")

operant conditioning

- behaviors one chooses to do - example: - giving someone candy after he or she does chores, to increase the likelihood of them completing their chores

information processing model

- compares our mind to a computer - consists of encoding, storing, & retrieving

nonsense syllables

- consonant-vowel-consonat arrangements that do not correspond to words - Ebbinghaus invented these

massed practice

- cramming the memorization of information of the learning of skills into one session

effortful processing

- encoding that requires our focused attention & conscious effort

availability heuristic

- estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in our memory - if it comes to mind easily (maybe a vivid event) we presume it is common

George Miller

- experiments done by him demonstrated that the capacity of short-term memory is approximately seven (plus or minus two)

chunking

- grouping information into meaningful units - for example, this can be a word rather than individual letters, or a date rather than individual numbers

Hermann Ebbinghaus

- he experimentally investigated the properties of human memory using lists of meaningless syllables - he practiced lists by repeating the syllables & keeping records of his attempts at mastering them - he drew a learning curve - he also drew a forgetting curve - he found that recognition was sometimes easier than recall to measure forgetting

recognition

- identification of learned items when they are presented

amygdala

- involved with emotional memory

source monitoring

- involves making attributions about the origin of memories

destination memory

- involves recalling to whom has told you what

concepts

- mental representations of related things - these may represent physical objects, events, organisms, attributes, or even abstractions - these can be simple or complex - many these have prototypes - a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people - these are similar to Piaget's idea of schemas

semantic networks

- more irregular & distorted systems than strict hierarchies, with multiple links from one concept to others - elements of these are not limited to particular aspects of items - for example, the concept of bird ca be linked to fly, feathers, wings, animals, vertebrate, robin, canary, & others, which can be linked to many other concepts

source-monitoring error

- occurs when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source

context-dependent memory

- our recall is often better when we try to recall information in the same physical setting in which we encoded it, possibly because along with the information, the environment is part of the memory trace

illusory correlation

- perceiving a relationship between variables (typically people, events, or behaviors) even when no such relationship exists

classical conditioning

- physiological response to a response - example: - flinching after your little brother yells "Titanic!" when he has repeatedly splashed you with water on previous occasions of saying this

reality monitoring

- refers to the process of deciding whether memories are biased on external sources (one's perceptions of actual events) or internal sources (one's thoughts & imaginations)

reconstruction

- retrieval of memories that can be distorted by adding, dropping, or changing details to fit a schema

recall

- retrieval of previously learned information

Dr. Loftus

- she emphasizes how memory is very important, especially when investigating crimes & during questioning - she showed how easy it was to create false memories

distributed practice

- spreading out the memorization of information or the learning skills over several sessions - this facilitates remembering better than massed practice

hierarchies

- systems in which concepts are arranged from more general to more specific classes

overlearning

- the additional rehearsal

imagery

- the creation of visual images to represent words - Allan Paivio has pointed out that it is easier to form images of concrete objects rather than abstract concepts

fixation

- the inability to see a problem from a new perspective

retention interval

- the length of time between the presentation of materials to be remembered & the measurement of forgetting

prototypes

- the most typical examples of the concept - a mental image of best example of a category

elaboration

- the process of linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding - semantic encoding can often be enhanced through this process

rehearsal

- the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information

long-term memory (LTM)

- the relatively permanent & practically unlimited capacity memory system into which information from short-term memory may pass - this type of memory is subdivided into explicit memory & implicit memory

thalamus

- the role of this part of the brain in memory seems to involve the encoding of sensory memory into short-term memory - STM seems to be located primarily in the prefrontal cortex & temporal lobes

belief bias

- the tendency for one's preexisting belies to distort logical reasoning - this sometimes makes invalid conclusions valid or vice-versa

overconfidence

- the tendency to be more confident than correct - to oversestimat the accuracy of your beliefs & judgements

framing

- the way in which an issue is posed - how are phrase is worded - this can have drastic effects on your decisions & judgements

schemas

- these are preexisting mental frameworks that start as basic organizations & then get more and more complex as we gain additional information - these frameworks enable us to organize & interpret new information, & can be easily expanded - these large knowledge structures influence the way we encode, make inferences about, & recall information

retrieval cues

- these are reminders associated with information that we are trying to get out of memory - these aid us in remembering - these can be other words or phrases in a specific hierarchy or semantic network, context, & mood or emotions - these prime our memories

mnemonic devices

- these devices will help us retrieve concepts

priming

- this activates specific associations in memory either consciously or unconsciously - this creates the likelihood to remember something - framing - example: - being fast to recognize the name of a famous artist when you had only recently heard the name in-passing

mood congruence

- this aids retrieval - we recall experiences better that are consistent with our mood at retrieval - we remember information of other happy times when we are happy, & information other sad times when we are unhappy

forgetting curve

- this diagram graphs retention & forgetting overtime - most forgetting occurs very rapidly after learning something

primacy effect

- this effect refers to better recall of the first items

recency effect

- this effect refers to better recall of the last items

attention

- this involves focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events - is likened/compared to a "filter" that screens out most potential stimuli while allowing a select few to pass through into conscious awareness - the location of this "filter" may be flexible, rather than fixed - studies show that multi-tasking conveys results where large reductions in memory are seen

retrograde amnesia

- this involves memory loss for a segment of the past, usually around the time of an accident, such as blow to the head - this may result from disruption of the process of long-term potentiation

conditioning

- this is a learned stimulus that leads to a specific response - this is divided into classical conditioning & operant conditioning

flashbulb memory

- this is a vivid memory of an emotionally arousing event - this is associated with an increase of adrenal hormones triggering the release of energy for neural processes & the activation of the amygdala & hippocampus, which are involved in emotional memories

hippocampus

- this is involved in explicit long-term memory - this is highly involved with getting short-term memory to long-term memory (long-term memory consolidation) - this involved with encoding new information

cerebellum

- this is involved with the implicit memory of skills (muscle memory, or procedural memory)

savings method

- this is the amount of repetitions required to relearn the list compared to the amount of repetitions it took to learn the list originally - Ebbinghaus used this method to measure retention of information

retroactive interference

- this is the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information - this is backward-acting

confabulation

- this is the filling of gaps in memory by combining & substituting memories from events other than the one we are trying to remember

procedural memory

- this is the memory of "knowing how" - apart of long-term memory - examples: - tying your shoe - riding a bike - figuring out a tip for your waiter

semantic memory

- this is the memory of general knowledge - uses recall over recognition - apart of long-term memory - examples: - knowing all of the words of the National Anthem - knowing/remembering all of the parts of the limbic system

episodic memory

- this is the memory of personally experienced events - apart of long-term memory - example: - remembering your best friend's birthday party that happened last month

prospective memory

- this is the memory of remembrance for the prospective future - examples: - remembering that you have to buy a gift for your friend's birthday tonight

anterograde amnesia

- this is the result of destruction of the hippocampus - this is the inability to put new information into explicit memory; therefore, no new semantic memories are formed

state-dependent

- this is when the things we learn in one internal state are more easily recalled when in the same state again

long-term potentiation (LTP)

- this is where learning involves strengthening of neural connections at the synapses - this involves an increase in the efficiency with which signals are sent across the synapses within neural networks of long-term memories - this requires fewer neurotransmitter molecules to make neurons fire & increase in receptor sites

semantic encoding

- this level of processing emphasizes the meaning of verbal input - this involves thinking about the objects & actions in which the words represent

phonemic encoding

- this level of processing emphasizes what a word sounds like - this involves naming or saying (perhaps silently) the words

structural encoding

- this level of processing is relatively shallow, which emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus - for example, if words are flashed on a screen, this level of processing would register such things as how the words are printed (capital, lowercase, etc.) or the length go the words (how many letters)

Atkinson-Shriffin three-stage model memory

- this model describes three different memory systems by time frames: - sensory memory - short-term memory (STM) - long-term memory (LTM)

interference

- this occurs when learning some things may prevent retrieving others, especially when the items are similar

proactive interference

- this occurs when something we learned earlier disrupts recall of something we experience later - for example, trying to remember a new phone number may be disrupted by the memory of an old phone number - this is forward-acting

misinformation effect

- this occurs when we incorporate misleading information into our memory of an event - forgetting what really happened, or distortion of information at retrieval, can result when we confuse the source of information

encoding

- this process of memory is involved with getting information into storage - this process involves forming a memory code - for example, when you form a memory code for a word, you might emphasize how it looks, how it sounds, or what it means

retrieval

- this process of memory is involved with getting the information out of storage - this process recovers information from memory stores

storage

- this process of memory is involved with maintaining information - this process maintains encoded information overtime

peg word mnemonic

- this requires us to first memorize a scheme such as "One is a bun, two is a shoe," & so on, then mentally picture using the chicken in the bun, the corn in the shoe, etc. - these images help to both encode items into LTM & then later to retrieve them back into our working memory

connectionism

- this theory states that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections between neurons, many of which work together to process a single memory

selective attention

- this type of attention focuses awareness on a specific stimulus in sensory memory - this determines which very small fraction of information perceived in sensory memory is encoded

self-referent encoding

- this type of encoding involves deciding how or whether information is personally relevant

short-term memory (STM)

- this type of memory can hold a limited amount of information for about 30 seconds unless it is processed further - "rehearsal" can be used to maintain information in one's short-term memory indefinitely

sensory memory

- this type of memory results from touch, hearing, vision, smell, & taste - attention is important with this type of memory - allows the sensation of a visual pattern, sound, or touch to linger for a brief moment after the sensory stimulation is over with - in this case, people really perceive an "afterimage" rather than the actual stimulus - this type of memory lasts less than a second - apart of short-term memory - example: - when one sees a word flash on a screen & tries to remember it - when a student is sitting through a lecture & tries to recall what the teacher had said a few seconds before

automatic processing

- unconscious encoding of information about space, time, & frequency that occurs without inferring with our thinking about other things

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

- when we know that we know something but cannot pull it out of memory

serial position effect

- when we try to retrieve long list of words, we usually recall the last words & the first words best, forgetting the words in the middle

three key processes involved in memory

1. encoding 2. storage 3. retrieval - these basic process explain WHY people forget

four major models which account for the organization of LTM

1. hierarchies 2. semantic networks 3. schemas 4. connectionist networks

three levels of processing

1. structural encoding 2. phonemic encoding 3. semantic encoding - Fergus Craik & Robert Lockhart (1972) proposed that incoming information can be processed at different levels - they maintained that in dealing verbal information, people engage in these - their theory proposes that deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that confirms one's perconceptions

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions