AP Review Key Concepts - Period 2 A (1648-1815)

After the Austrian defeat of the Turks in 1683 at the Battle of Vienna, the Ottomans ceased their westward expansion.

- After 1683, Ottoman Empire began to slowly recede back down the Balkan peninsula -- by the 1800s it was the "Sick Man of Europe"

Labor and trade in commodities were increasingly freed from traditional restrictions imposed by governments and corporate entities.

- British and French law initially outlawed labor unions and sought to curtail power of guilds - "Laissez-faire!" (or keep the government out of the economy) was the primary mindset in the early Industrial Revolution

European states followed mercantilist policies by exploiting colonies in the New World and elsewhere.

- Colonies served as markets and sources of raw materials, reducing dependence on other countries (now they wouldn't have to buy their raw materials from their competitors and import more goods)

The importation and transplantation of agricultural products from the Americas contributed to an increase in the food supply in Europe.

- Corn and potatoes! - Sugar from New World improved diets and better allowed for the preservation of food (like fruit!)

After the defeat of Napoleon by a coalition of European powers, the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) attempted to restore the balance of power in Europe and contain the danger of revolutionary or nationalistic upheavals in the future.

- Created buffer states around France (Piedmont, Kingdom of Netherlands, enlarged Prussia) - Restored Bourbons to French throne - Concert of Europe established to contain liberal and nationalist movements

While many were inspired by the revolution's emphasis on equality and human rights, others condemned its violence and disregard for traditional authority.

- Danton turned against violence of Revolution (after initially supporting it) - Edmund Burke (a CONSERVATIVE) condemned radical changes of Revolution and its destruction of traditional institutions in essay Reflections on the French Revolution

After the execution of Louis XVI, the radical Jacobin Republic led by Robespierre responded to opposition at home and war abroad by instituting the Reign of Terror, fixing prices and wages, and pursuing a policy of de-Christianization.

- Danton: Charismatic advocate of radical revolution (until he turned against it) - Marat publishes radical newspaper (& is eventually killed in his bathtub) - Robespierre led Committee of Public Safety, which used guillotine to ruthlessly protect the radical revolution against perceived enemies - Jacobin = supporter of radical revolution (republic, dechristianization, controls on wages and prices)

The Dutch Republic, established by a Protestant revolt against the Habsburg monarchy, developed an oligarchy of urban gentry and rural landholders to promote trade and protect traditional rights.

- Dutch Republic (the Netherlands) enjoyed great wealth and power due to its dominance of international trade and shipping - Dutch ships (fluyts) were the best cargo ships in Europe -- fast w/ big holds - Dutch Republic dominated by merchant elite - Netherlands had most powerful, reliable bank in Europe (Bank of Amsterdam)

Napoleon's new military tactics allowed him to exert direct or indirect control over much of the European continent, spreading the ideals of the French Revolution across Europe.

- Effective use of artillery - Rapid movement of troops - Had advantage of large number of troops because of levee en masse (the drafting of all available men)

Napoleon's expanding empire created nationalist responses throughout Europe.

- Esp. among German peoples, who began agitating for greater unity - Burschenschaften: German nationalist student organizations - Carbonari & Young Italy Movement: Italian nationalist organizations

The outcome of the English Civil War and the Glorious Revolution protected the rights of gentry (i.e. wealthy landowners) and aristocracy from absolutism through assertions of the rights of Parliament.

- Glorious Revolution: William & Mary invited to overthrow James II, securing constitutional govt in England - Bill of Rights protected Parliament's "power of the purse" and individual rights, making Parliament the sovereign authority in England (NOT the king) --> Provided basis for constitutional government

The French Revolution resulted from a combination of long-term social and political causes, as well as Enlightenment ideas, exacerbated by short-term fiscal and economic crises.

- Impending bankruptcy of French monarchy because of years of war debt --> Louis XVI summoned the Estates-General to deal with the crisis through tax - France's 3rd Estate (peasantry, bourgeoisie, urban workers) resented the tax exemptions of the 1st (clergy) and 2nd (nobles) Estates - During Enlightenment, ideas of philosophes like Locke (life, liberty, and PROPERTY), Rousseau (general will), and Voltaire (religious toleration) promoted desire for change

Louis XIV's nearly continuous wars, pursuing both dynastic and state interests, provoked a coalition of European powers opposing him.

- In War of the Spanish Succession (1702-13), France was opposed by a coalition of powers that sought to prevent the union of the French and Spanish thrones (and thereby maintain the balance of power) -- Louis XIV's grandson got to keep throne of Spain, but could never unite Spanish and French thrones

The putting-out system, or cottage industry, expanded as increasing numbers of laborers in homes or workshops produced for markets through merchant intermediaries or workshop owners.

- In early industrial revolution (circa 1700) , over 1/2 of English production done in private homes under putting-out system

Rivalry between Britain and France resulted in world wars fought both in Europe and in the colonies, with Britain supplanting France as the greatest European power.

- In the Seven Years War (1758-63) Britain stripped France of many of its overseas territories in the Americas and India - An embittered France would be eager for revenge against English -- would get its chance in the American Revolution!

Foreign lands provided raw materials, finished goods, laborers, and markets for the commercial and industrial enterprises in Europe.

- India served primarily as source of cotton for British industry and bought finished textiles from England - British and France colonies in Canada provided raw materials like timber and fur to European industry

The development of the market economy led to new financial practices and institutions.

- Insurance companies protected businessmen against risk - Banks provided loans (esp. in England) to finance industry - Joint-stock companies enabled businessmen to raise capital more easily (and reduce their risk)

Revolutionary armies, raised by mass conscription, sought to bring the changes initiated in France to the rest of Europe.

- Levee en masse required all French citizens to contribute to war effort as soldiers, weapons makers, etc. -- Believed necessary to defend Revolution against its many enemies, both inside the country (Vendee revolt) and outside (war against Austria, France, and Britain)

The transatlantic slave-labor system expanded in the 17th and 18th centuries as demand for New World products increased.

- Middle Passage -- brutal transport of Africans in slave ships across the Atlantic to the New World TRIANGULAR TRADE - Europe sends manufactured goods to Africa - Africa sends slaves to New World - New World sends raw materials to Europe

As first consul and emperor, Napoleon undertook a number of enduring domestic reforms while often curtailing some rights and manipulating popular impulses behind a façade of representative institutions.

- Napoleonic Code protected property and legal equality of men -- rights of women and children curtailed - In Concordat of 1801 Napoleon restored relations w/ Catholic Church but maintained freedom of religion for non-Catholics - Established office of prefect to govern each French department (greate govt efficiency and control) - Secret police - Censorship of newspapers

Absolute monarchies limited the nobility's participation in governance but preserved the aristocracy's social position and legal privileges.

- Nobles of Sword v. Nobles of Robe in France -- only Nobles of Robe like Colbert entrusted with positions of authority in Louis XIV's govt (except in the military, where Nobles of Sword could be officers) - Table of Ranks in Peter the Great's Russia allowed non-nobles to become nobles

Women enthusiastically participated in the early phases of the revolution; however, while there were brief improvements in the legal status of women, citizenship in the republic was soon restricted to men.

- Olympe de Gouges unsuccessfully fought for women's political equality during Revolution -- Wrote Declaration of the Rights of Women

Peter the Great "westernized" the Russian state and society, transforming political, religious, and cultural institutions; Catherine the Great continued this process.

- Peter's tour of Western Europe to acquire Western technology and expertise (worked in shipyard!) - Imposed Western clothes and hairstyles on Russian elites (beard tax!) - Peter took control of Russian Orthodox Church after patriarch died

The inability of the Polish monarchy to consolidate its authority over the nobility led to Poland's partition by Prussia, Russia, and Austria, and its disappearance from the map of Europe

- Polish nobles kept their monarch weak (elected!) and any one could disband legislature (the Sejm) at will -- Govt unable to levy taxes to support army, therefore... - In the late 1700s Poland ceased to exist after it was partitioned by Austria, Russia, and Prussia -- it would not be recreated until after the end of World War I

As a result of the Holy Roman Empire's limitation of sovereignty in the Peace of Westphalia, Prussia rose to power and the Habsburgs, centered in Austria, shifted their empire eastward.

- Prussian power boosted by Frederick William I's expansion of the government bureaucracy and increase of the size of the army - Frederick II (the Great) increased Prussian power by seizing Silesia from Austria in the War of the Austrian Succession

Overseas products and influences contributed to the development of a consumer culture in Europe.

- Sugar - Tea - Silk - Tobacco - Rum - Coffee

The first, or liberal, phase of the French Revolution established a constitutional monarchy, increased popular participation, nationalized the Catholic Church, and abolished hereditary privileges.

- Tennis Court Oath: National Assembly demands constitution, vowing not to disband until it gets one - Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen - men were all equal, freedom of speech and religion, etc - Evening of Sacrifices (nobles and clergy give up privileges) - Seizure of Catholic Church lands to help pay govt debt - Civil Constitution of Clergy makes clergy employees of French state -- the treatment of the church was most unpopular policy of revolutionary govt. - Constitution of 1791 establishes constitutional monarchy

Louis XIV and his finance minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, extended the administrative, financial, military, and religious control of the central state over the French population.

Colbert pursued mercantilist policies - High tariffs to discourage imports - Built up navy and merchant marine to facilitate exports - Promoted domestic industries to replace foreign imports - Sought colonies (e.g. Quebec) as sources of raw materials and markets Intendants were introduced to carry out royal policies in French provinces French army was enlarged and modernized

In the 18th century, a number of states in eastern and central Europe experimented with enlightened absolutism.

Enlightened monarchs (or despots), inspired by the Enlightenment philosophes, introduced reforms like religious toleration, agricultural improvements, and more rational law codes - Frederick II's Prussia - Joseph II's Austria -- MOST ENLIGHTENED - Catherine II's Russia -- LEAST ENLIGHTENED

The French Revolution posed a fundamental challenge to Europe's existing political and social order

First serious threat to power of absolute monarchs on the continent -- many non-French countries (e.g. Prussia and Austria) would get involved to try to contain it

In much of Europe, absolute monarchy was established over the course of the 17th and 18th centuries

Louis XIV of France is BEST EXAMPLE of absolute monarchy - Versailles -- used to control nobility - Intendants appointed from Nobles of Robe - Mercantilist policies of finance minister Colbert - Rituals and decor of Versailles promoted Louis' exceptional nature - Revoked Edict of Nantes w/ Edict of Fontainebleau (eliminating religious toleration) ALSO - Peter the Great of Russia - James I and Charles I of England (they tried)

The Agricultural Revolution raised productivity and increased the supply of food and other agricultural products.

New technology and methods - Nitrogen-restoring crops (clover) eliminate need for fallow - Selective breeding of livestock - New crops like corn and potato - Seed drill - Enclosure movement permitted more innovation