AP World Terms Project

Seljuks

(11th-12th C.E) Nomadic Turks from Asia who conquered Baghdad (Persia and present-day Iraq) in 1055. - In the process began to adopt the Islam religion. Also spread the religion to previously non-Muslim areas as well. - Began to claim the Muslim title sultan; exercised real power. - Abbasid caliphs remained as figureheads.

Sui Dynasty

(589-618) reunified China. -Steppe culture influenced the parts of northern China that were ruled frequently by nomads.Founders of Sui dynasty were of mixed blood. -Sui rulers vastly extended the canal system, but their ruthlessness and failure to conquer Korea alienated people, exhausted the state's resources. -Sui emperor Wendi (r. 581-604) lowered taxes and set-up granaries (storehouses for grain, silos) throughout the empire. -Had monasteries built at base of China's five sacred mountains. Used Buddhism to justify his military campaigns. Monasteries became very wealthy and Buddhism was dependent from state authorities. - The dynasty was overthrown, but state didn't disintegrate.

Tang Dynasty

(618-907) was built on Sui foundations. -Established patterns of Chinese life that lasted into twentieth century. -Regarded as a "golden age" of arts and literature. Poetry, landscape painting, ceramics of high order. -In politics, six major ministries were created, along with the Censorate for surveillance over government. -Examination system revived to staff the bureaucracy. Encouraged by first printing of books. Proliferation of schools and colleges. -A large share of official positions went to sons of the elite. Large landowners continued to be powerful, despite state efforts to redistribute land to the peasants. -Steppe culture influenced the parts of northern China that were ruled frequently by nomads.Founders of Tang dynasty were of mixed blood (Chinese/Turkic). -Elite women in the north had had greater freedom (influence of steppe nomads). Fad among northern Chinese elites for anything connected to "western barbarians." -Uighurs (a Turkic ethnic group) rescued Tang dynasty from an internal revolt in the 750s. -Foreign merchant settlements in southern Chinese ports by Tang era in the Indian Ocean trade. Sometimes brought violence, e.g., massive massacre of foreigners in Canton in the 870s. Transformation of southern China to production for export instead of subsistence. -Early Tang dynasty gave state support to Buddhism.

Umayyad Caliphate

(661-750) was a time of great expansion. - Caliphs became hereditary rulers, and capital moved to Damascus. - Arab military aristocracy ruled. - Decadent rulers and unequal treatment of non-Arab Muslims caused unrest.

Song Dynasty

(960-1279) dynasty built on Sui foundations. -Regarded as a "golden age" of arts and literature. -Constantly struggled against nomadic peoples. -Dynasty is responsible for fully reviving Confucian thought. Not as large as the Tang Empire (always under attack from the north). -Empire had no ambition to absorb nomadic societies into China (elitism and lack of farmable land). -Song Economic Revolution; rapid population growth, urbanization, economic specialization, the development of an immense network of internal waterways, and a great increase in industrial production and innovation. -The era wasn't very "golden" for women. Tightening of patriarchal restrictions on women. Literature highlighted the subjection of women. -Foot binding started in tenth or eleventh century c.e. Was associated with images of female beauty and eroticism. Kept women restricted to the house. -Textile production became larger scale, displacing women from their traditional role in the industry. -Women found other roles in cities. Prosperity of the elite created demand for concubines, entertainers, courtesans, and prostitutes. -In some ways the position of women improved. Property rights expanded. More women were educated, in order to raise sons better.

Delhi Sultanates (Calicut)

(founded 1206) became more systematic. - Emergence of Muslim communities in India: Buddhists and low-caste Hindus found Islam attractive, newly agrarian people also liked Islam, subjects of Muslim rulers converted to lighten tax burden, Sufis fit mold of Indian holy men, encouraged conversion, developed a "popular Islam" with Hindu overlap. - At height, 20-25 percent of Indian population converted to Islam: Muslim communities concentrated in northwest and eastern India. - Deep Muslim/Hindu cultural divide: monotheism vs. polytheism; equality of believers vs. caste system; sexual modesty vs. open eroticism. - Interaction of Hindus and Muslims: many Hindus served Muslim rulers; mystics blurred the line between the two religions. - Sikhism developed in early sixteenth century; syncretic religion with elements of both Islam and Hinduism founded by Guru Nanak (1469-1539). - Muslims remained as a distinctive minority.

Tokugawa Japan

- Increasingly regarded Europeans as a threat to unity. Expulsion of missionaries, massive persecution of Christians. - Japanese were barred from travel abroad. Europeans were banned, except the Dutch at a single site. Japan became closed off from Europe from 1650 to 1850. - Import of Western books was allowed, starting in 1720. - Japanese government profited more from silver production than did Spain. - Tokugawa shoguns used silver revenues to defeat rivals and unify the country. Worked with the merchant class to develop a market-based economy. - Heavy investment in agriculture and industry. Averted ecological crisis, and limited population growth. Science became the most widely desired product of European culture, but early modern Asia was only modestly interested.

Southeast Asian City-states (Melaka/ Malacca)

- Malay sailors opened an all-sea route between India and China through the Straits of Malacca ca. 350 c.e.: led many small ports to compete to attract traders. - Malay kingdom of Srivijaya emerged from competition, dominated trade from 670 to 1025 c.e.:gold, access to spices, and taxes on ships provided resources to create a state; local belief: chiefs possessed magical powers;also used Indian political ideas and Buddhism; multitude of Indian merchants and teachers settled; Srivijaya became a major Buddhist center. - Sailendras kingdom (central Java) was also influenced by India: massive building of Hindu and Buddhist centers (eighth-tenth centuries); shows Buddhist cultural grounding in Javanese custom. - Burma, the Khmer state of Angkor, etc. also show Indian culture. Islam penetrated later

Feudal Japan

- The first (unsuccessful) Mongol invasion of Japan in 1274 made the decentralized local lords of Kamakura Japan develop a greater sense of unity as the shogun took steps to centralize planning and preparation for the expected second assault. - The second Mongol invasion (1281) was defeated by a combination of Japanese defensive preparations and a typhoon. - Kamakura regime continued to prepare for further invasions. Warrior elite consolidated their position in Japanese society, and trade and communication within Japan increased, but the Kamakura government found its resources strained by the expense of defense preparations.

American City-states (Mayan or Teotihuacan)

- Toltecs replaced many of the areas that the Mayans once dominated. They built impressive cities, participated in wars, and had complex religious ceremonies and beliefs. They were invaded by other tribes and were eventually displaced. - Aztecs (Mexica) were able to defeat the Toltecs and secured their land in Central Mexico. - Major aspects of Aztec civilization included: strong military-based society; absolute rulers; priestly class; human sacrifice; Teotihuacan (capital city) had over 150,000 people. Empire was about 12 million inhabitants. - Later, Cortez conquered the Aztecs.

Qing China/ Manchus

1644-1912; launched enormous imperial expansion to the north and west. - Qing rulers were Manchu nomads who conquered China. Nomads of the north and west were very familiar to the Chinese. - With an 80-year-long Chinese conquest (1680-1760) motivated by security fears; reaction to Zunghar state. China evolved into a Central Asian empire. - Conquered territory was ruled separately from the rest of China through the Court of Colonial Affairs. - Considerable use of local elites to govern. Officials often imitated Chinese ways, but government did not try to assimilate conquered peoples. There was little Chinese settlement in the conquered regions. - Russian and Chinese rule impoverished Central Asia, and turned it into backward region; nomadic society was largely destroyed. Confucian culture didn't spread widely in early modern period, but didn't remained static. - Still operated within a Confucian framework and embraced the Confucian tradition. - Addition of Buddhist and Daoist thought led to creation of Neo-Confucianism. - Considerable amount of debate and new thinking in China. Wang Yangmin (1472-1529): anyone can achieve a virtuous life by introspection, without Confucian education. Critics later argued that this individualism contributed to the Manchu conquest of China. - Chinese Buddhists also tried to make religion more accessible to commoners—withdrawal from the world not necessary for enlightenment. - Similar to Martin Luther's argument that individuals could seek salvation without help from a priestly hierarchy. - Kaozheng ("research based on evidence") was a new direction in Chinese elite culture. Emphasized need for analysis, instead of unsupported speculation. Led to new works on agriculture, medicine, etc. Included critical analysis of ancient historical documents. - Had a scientific approach to knowledge (applied more to the past than to the natural world). - Lively popular culture among the less well educated. - Production of plays, paintings, and literature: great age of novels, such as Cao Xueqin's The Dream of the Red Chamber (mid-eighteenth century).

Belgium/ Belgian Empire - Congo

A new player in the second, distinct phase of European colonial conquest; focused on Asia and Africa; affected by the Industrial Revolution. - Was not demographically catastrophic like the first phase. Original European military advantage lay in organization, drill, and command structure. - Establishment of the second-wave European empires was based on military force or the threat of using it. - Over the nineteenth century, Europeans developed an enormous firepower advantage. Conducted numerous wars of conquest: the Westerners almost always won. - Demanded unpaid labor on public projects, worst abuses were especially in the Congo Free State. - Was personally governed by Leopold II of Belgium; his reign of terror killed millions with labor demands. - Forced labor caused widespread starvation, as people couldn't grow their own crops. - Belgium finally stepped in and took control of the Congo (1908) to stop abuses.

Moche

A regional Andean Civilization that flourished between about 100 and 800 c.e. along 250 miles of Peru's north coast. - Agriculture based on complex irrigation system. - Ruled by warrior-priests, and rulers had elaborate burials. - Rituals mediated between humans and gods. - Used hallucinogenic drugs, and did human sacrifice. - Superb craftsmanship of elite objects. - Ecological disruption in sixth century c.e. undermined the civilization.

Dahomey

Aja-speaking peoples to the west of Benin. - Slave trade disrupted several small, weak states, but not to the inland kingdom of Dahomey. - Rose in the early eighteenth century. Was a highly authoritarian state. - Turned to deep involvement in the slave trade, but under royal control. - Conducted annual slave raids by the army. - Government depended on slave trade for revenue.

United States

American Revolution was a conservative political movement. Aimed to preserve colonial liberties, rather than gain new ones. - For most of seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the British North American colonies had much local autonomy. - Colonists regarded autonomy as their birthright. Few thought of breaking away from Britain before 1750. - Colonial society was far more egalitarian than in Europe. In manners, they were republican well before the revolution. - Britain made a new drive to control the colonies and get more revenue from them in the 1760s. - Needed money for its global war with France. Imposed a number of new taxes and tariffs on the colonies. - Colonists were not represented in the British parliament who appeared to deny the colonists' identity as true Englishmen. Challenged colonial economic interests, and attacked established traditions of local autonomy. - Was revolutionary for the society that had already emerged, not for the revolution itself. - No significant social transformation came with independence from Britain. - Accelerated democratic tendencies that were already established. - Political power remained in the hands of existing elites. - Property requirements for voting were lowered, and property rights remained intact. - Many Americans thought they were creating a new world order. Some acclaimed the United States as "the hope and model of the human race." Declaration of the "right to revolution" inspired other colonies around the world. - The U.S. Constitution was one of the first lasting efforts to put Enlightenment political ideas into practice. - American industrialization began with New England textiles (1820s). - Explosive growth after the Civil War. - By 1914, the United States was the world's leading industrial power. - Closely linked to European industrialization; Europeans provided around one-third of the capital investment. - U.S. government played an important role through tax breaks, land grants to railroads, laws making formation of corporations easy, absence of clear regulation, and encouraged development of very large enterprises. - Pioneered mass production techniques. - Creation of a "culture of consumption" through advertising, catalogs, and department stores. - Self-made industrialists became cultural heroes (Ford, Carnegie, Rockefeller). - Serious social divisions rose; growing gap between rich and poor, constant labor of the working class, creation of vast slums, and growing labor protest. - Sometimes erupted in violence,but no major political party emerged to represent the working class. - Socialism (especially Marxism) didn't have great appeal for Americans. Even in the Great Depression (1930s), no major socialist movement emerged. - Socialism was labeled fundamentally "un-American" and didn't appeal to American workers because: U.S. union organizations were relatively conservative, the American Federation of Labor focused on skilled workers, the population was extremely heterogeneous, workers had a higher standard of living than did their European counterparts, and the middle-class dreamed of white-collar workers. - "Populists" denounced corporate interests, but populism had little appeal in growing industrial areas. - "Progressives" were more successful, especially after 1900, and aimed to remedy the ills of industrialization. As industrialization enriched and empowered the United States in the late 19th century, the country also began to experiment with imperialism. - Began with the purchase of Alaska from Russia, and followed with a coup of the native government in Hawaii, a plot sponsored by American planters and growers in the Hawaiian Islands. - Both Alaska and Hawaii became territories. Many questioned the wisdom of the Alaska purchase, whereas the Hawaii takeover clearly had an economic motive. - After a quarrel over Cuban independence, the United States easily defeated Spain in the Spanish American War in 1898. Peace treaty gave the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and the Pacific island of Guam to the United States as protectorates, as well as considerable economic control of Cuba. - To keep their new empire intact, President Theodore Roosevelt advocated the building of a powerful American navy, and the United States sponsored the building of the Panama Canal to allow the new Great White Fleet access to both east and west coasts of the country.

British Empire in Africa - Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, East Africa, W. Africa/ Gold Coast, Southern Africa - S. Africa & Rhodesia

Angelo-Egyptian Sudan: Napoleon's French Campaign in Egypt and Syria (1798-1801) was supposedly to protect French trade interests, undermine Britain's access to India, and to establish scientific enterprise in the region. - Revealed the Middle East as an area of immense strategic importance to the European powers, thus inaugurating the Anglo-French rivalry for further combat. - Was the primary purpose of the Mediterranean campaign of 1798, a series of naval engagements that included the capture of Malta. An economic and political crisis between 1875-1882 led to the sudden British conquest of Egypt. - After binging on debt driven modernization projects, Egypt went bankrupt in 1875. - By 1882, much of the Ottoman revenue system was controlled by foreigners. The British invaded and conquered Egypt to put down a revolt of Egyptian army officers. - As the terms of the bankruptcy settlement, European bankers then took control of Egypt financially. Two thirds of the yearly revenue—mostly taxes collected from peasant farmers—would now go to paying European banks for past Egyptian debts. - During British occupation and later control, Egypt developed into a regional commercial and trading destination. East Africa: Before the arrival of Europeans, Africans did recognize tribal distinctions but did not always separate themselves by use of political boundaries. -Stateless or decentralized societies saw the greatest destruction.During the 1800's, Africa was being heavily colonized in coastal areas. -Europeans often found allies in Africa due to long-standing tribal warfare . -By 1914, all areas of Africa were colonized (except Ethiopia because they had weaponry/ modern military technologies and were Christian). - Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia successfully tricked Italians, French, and British against each other on who gets control of Ethiopia. - Built modern weapons to destroy them. After Menelik in 1924, Haile Selassie became king and kept Ethiopia independent with the help of the British who didn't want to lose their nearby territory of Somaliland, during World War II. West Africa: African farmers took the initiative to develop export agriculture. - Leading supplier of cocoa by 1911. - Created a hybrid peasant-capitalist society, but labor shortages led to exploitation of former slaves, men marrying women for their labor power, and influx of migrants. South Africa: Whites attempted to industrialize based on cheap African labor, but without social and political integration. - Racism was especially pronounced in areas with a large number of European settlers (e.g., South Africa). - Imposed deep changes in people's daily lives. - Colonizers were fascinated with counting and classifying their new subjects; identified or invented distinct "tribes." - Africans moved to European farms/plantations because they had lost their own land. In contrast, European communities obtained vast amounts of land. - South Africa in 1913: 88 percent of the land belonged to whites. - Many former farmers were sent to "native reserves." - Diamond mines created a huge pattern of worker migration. African miners were exploited; kept on short-term contracts.

Muslim al-Andalus

Arab and Berber forces conquered most of Spain (called al-Andalus by Muslims) in the early 8th CE. Islam didn't overwhelm Christianity there and there was a high degree of interaction between Muslims, Christians, and Jews. -Muslim Spain was prosperous, culturally dynamic, and cosmopolitan. It was also a time of tolerance with special taxes for Jews and Christians but general acceptance of them in society. The city of Cordoba was the center of this golden age. -Al-Andalus was a major center of learning. A number of Greek and Arabic books were collected and translated in the libraries. -Some Christians converted to Islam. Christian Mozarabs adopted Arabic culture but not religion. -Religious toleration started breaking down by late tenth century. -Increasing war with Christian states of northern Spain. Completed Christian reconquest in 1492. -More puritanical forms of Islam entered Spain from North Africa. -In Muslim-ruled regions, increasing limitations placed on Christians. -Many Muslims were forced out of Christian-conquered regions or kept from public practice of their faith.

Berbers

As Islam spread around 640, many African rulers converted to the new religion, and centralized states began to form. - The primary agents of trade, the Berbers of the Sahara, became Muslims, although they retained their identities and tribal loyalties. - As a result, Islam mixed with native cultures to create a synthesis that took different forms in different places in northern Africa. - This gradual, nonviolent spread of Islam was very conducive to trade, especially since people south of the Sahara had gold.

British Empire in Australia, and New Zealand

Australia: Once the American Revolution began in 1776, the English government needed a new place to send its prisoners, since the American colonies would no longer take them. - So in 1788, England sent a crew to Australia, then known as New South Wales, and began building prisons. - English forced the Aborigines off their land. Many were beaten and killed. New Zealand: In 1642, Dutch navigator Abel Tasman became the first European to discover the South Pacific island group that later became known as New Zealand. - The islands, which were named after the Dutch province of Zeeland, did not attract much additional European attention until the late 18th century, when English explorer Captain James Cook traveled through the area and wrote detailed accounts of New Zealand. - Whalers, missionaries, and traders followed, and in 1840 Britain formally annexed the islands and established New Zealand's first permanent European settlement at Wellington. - The Maori signed the Treaty of Waitangi (1840), by which they recognized British sovereignty in exchange for guaranteed possession of their land. However, armed territorial conflict between the Maori and white settlers continued until 1870, when there were few Maori left to resist the European encroachment. - Massive European settlement and diseases killed off most of the native population.

Teotihuacan

Aztecs named the place Teotihuacán: "city of the gods." City was begun ca. 150 b.c.e.. By 550 c.e., population was 100,000-200,000. - Much about Teotihuacán is unknown. City was centrally planned on a gridlike pattern. Had specialized artisans - Little evidence of rulers or of tradition of public inscriptions. May have been ruled by an oligarchy. - Deep influence on Mesoamerica, especially in 300-600 c.e.: directly administered perhaps 10,000 square miles; influence of Teotihuacán armies spread further; apparently also had diplomatic connections with other areas; trade. There is copying of Teotihuacán art and architecture. - Mysteriously collapse ca. 650 c.e.

Kongo

Based on agriculture, formed on lower Congo River by late 15th century; capital at Mbanza Kongo; ruled by hereditary monarchy. - Permanently disrupted by the Portuguese, mainly because of slave trade and slave raids from their neighbors. - Some African slave traders were themselves enslaved by unscrupulous Europeans. - Between 1450 and 1600, fewer than 4,000 slaves were shipped annually. African religious elements accompanied slaves to the Americas. - Development of Africanized forms of Christianity in the Americas, with divination, dream interpretation, visions, and spirit possession. - Europeans often tried to suppress African elements as sorcery. - Persistence of syncretic religions (Vodou, Santeria, Candomble, and Macumba).

Huns or Germanic

Began to enter Roman empire in fourth century c.e. - Establishment of independent kingdoms after western empire's imperial collapse. - Only partially adopted Roman culture; creation of Latin/Germanic hybrid culture. - Decline of urban life; population decline;reduction of international trade; and vast insecurity.

Italian Empire - Italian Libya, Somaliland, Eritrea

By the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Italy had annexed Eritrea and Somalia, and had wrested control of portions of the Ottoman Empire, including Libya, though it was defeated in its attempt to conquer Ethiopia. - Fascist government under Mussolini which came to power in 1922 sought to increase the size of the empire further, which it did via force or threat of force. - Ethiopia was successfully taken, four decades after the previous failure, and Italy's European borders were expanded at the expense of its neighbors. - Like the French empire in Africa, the Italian empire dropped South across the Mediterranean, known as "Our Sea" and was to some degree regarded as a natural territorial extension of the mother-land, rather than as "overseas colonies." - Libyans resisted and fighting broke out, but the British brokered a truce after Italy joined the Allies in World War I (1915). - After the Great War (WWI), fighting broke out again leading to a prolonged colonial war. - Italy continued efforts to colonize Libya. Mussolini with his dreams of reconstituting the Roman Empire would wage a merciless campaign to end Libyan resistance to Italian rule. - Italians seized control of the coast cities, but have great difficulty maintaining control of the interior. Unified Tripolitania and Cyrenaica as the colony of Libya (1929). - Mussolini employing brutal tactics, including poison gas, finally suceeded in crushing Libyan resistance. Saw Libya as offering the possibility of colonization by Italy's burgoning population. - Sanusis finally surrender to the Italians (1931). One of the goals of Italian colonism was the concern with overpopulation. - Italy called Libya "The Fourt Shore" and promoted Italian settlement there. Several projects with Italian colonists were launched.

Central Asian Pastoral Groups (e.g. Turks)

Byzantine Empire territory shrank after 1085, as western Europeans and Turks attacked. - 1453: Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople, ended Byzantine empire. - Turkic and Mongol invasions were more important in Islamic history as they had more lasting political or religious impact in the Middle East than the Crusades.

German Empire - Cameroon, SW. Africa

Cameroon: In spite of the predominant role of the British along the coast, in 1884 the Germans claimed the region as Kamerun. - Explorer Gustav Nachtigal arrived in July 1884 to annex the Douala coast. Germans moved inland over the years, extending their control and their claims. - Initially, their major dealings were with African traders, but direct trade with the interior promised greater profits, and colonial power was used to break the African monopoly. - Plantation agriculture was another major German economic activity. Large estates were established in southwestern Kamerun to provide tropical produce for Germany. - Traders, plantation owners, and government officials competed for labour, and force was used to obtain it. The system established was harsh, and many workers died serving German interests. SW. Africa: (1884-1919) Now the nation of Namibia. - In 1883 Franz Adolf Lüderitz, a merchant from Bremen, Germany, established a trading post in southwest Africa at Angra Pequena, which he renamed Lüderitzbucht. He also acquired the adjacent coastal area, which he named Lüderitzland. - These areas were constituted the first German colony under German protection on April 24, 1884. The German occupation subsequently extended inland. - By the latter 1880s the German Colonial Company for the South realized that it was incapable of administering the territory, and the German government immediately took over the colony's administration. - As a result of the Zanzibar Treaty (1890) between Germany and Great Britain, German South West Africa acquired the Caprivi Strip (named after the German chancellor Graf Leo von Caprivi), a tract of land 280 miles (450 km) long in the extreme northeast of the territory; the colony thus gained access to the Zambezi River.

Ming China

China had been badly disrupted by Mongol rule and the plague. Underwent recovery under the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). - Initially mounted huge trade expeditions to southern Asia and elsewhere, but later concentrated efforts on internal development within China. - Effort to eliminate all signs of foreign rule. - Promotion of Confucian learning. - Emperor Yongle (r. 1402-1422) sponsored an 11,000-volume Encyclopedia summarizing all the wisdom of the past. - Reestablished the civil service examination system and created a highly centralized government. Great power was given to court eunuchs. - State restored land to cultivation, constructed waterworks, planted perhaps a billion trees. - Was perhaps the best-governed and most prosperous civilization of the fifteenth century - Maritime ventures; Chinese sailors and traders had become important in the South China Sea and in Southeast Asian ports in the eleventh century. - Emperor Yongle commissioned a massive fleet; launched in 1405 and twenty-eight years of maritime expeditions. - Admiral Zheng He tried to enroll distant peoples in the Chinese tribute system. - Dozens of rulers took part with no intention of conquering new territories, establishing Chinese settlements, or spreading culture. - Chinese government abruptly stopped the voyages in 1433. Many had regarded them as waste of resources and saw voyages as project of hated court eunuchs. - Chinese merchants and craftsmen continued to settle and trade in Japan, Philippines, Taiwan, and Southeast Asia,but without government support. Christianity reached China; called for a different missionary strategy; needed government permission for operation. - Jesuits especially targeted the official Chinese elite. Like Matteo Ricci (in China 1582-1610), they dressed like Chinese scholars, emphasized exchange of ideas. Were respectful of Chinese culture, tried to accommodate it. - No mass conversion in China. Some scholars and officials converted. Jesuits were appreciated for mathematical, astronomical, technological, and cartographical skills. - Missionary efforts only gained 200,000-300,000 converts in 250 years. Didn't offer much that the Chinese needed. - Christianity was unappealing as an "all or nothing" religion that would call for rejection of much Chinese culture. - Early eighteenth century: papacy and other missionary orders opposed Jesuit accommodation policy. Was regarded as an affront to Chinese culture and the emperor's authority.

White Huns or Xiongnu

China had dealt with Xiongnu for centuries. - As state weakened, nomadic peoples breached frontier defenses. - Establishment of "barbarian states" in north and gradual adoption of Chinese culture.

Shang in the Yellow River or Huang He Valley

China was defined by the ideal of a centralized state. The Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties enlarged the Chinese state. - Ruler was the "Son of Heaven," an intermediary between heaven and earth. - Had early written language with oracle bones as early documents . - Has maintained impressive cultural continuity into modern times. - City of Sanxingdui in China arose separately from the more well-known Shang Dynasty

Han Empire (Chang'an)

Chinese emperor(s) were the Son of Heaven: ruled by Mandate of Heaven; dependent on just rule; and had heavy ritual duties to maintain relationship between earth and heaven. - Moral government was spelled out by writings of Confucius and his followers. - Introduction of Buddhism into China by traders; not very popular until collapse of Han dynasty. - Had temporary state support under Sui dynasty, and never dominated in China. - Ethnic Chinese had much larger cultural heartland; active assimilation of "barbarians." - Chinese characters (represented words or ideas) could not be transferred easily to other languages, but all literate people could understand written Chinese. - Bureaucracy was much more elaborate: Chinese emperor Wudi (r. 141-87 b.c.e.) established an academy to train officials based on works of Confucius; developed into civil service system which lasted until twentieth century. - Major body of law was applicable equally to all people of the realm. - Ended in 220 c.e due to: excessive size, overextension, too expensive for available resources; no great technological breakthrough to enlarge resources; tax evasion by large landowning families; and tax burden fell heavily onto the poor (provoked the Yellow Turban Rebellion, peasant revolt in China in 184 c.e); rivalry between elite factions created instability; epidemic disease; and threat from nomadic or semi-agricultural peoples on frontier.

Classical Civilizations

Comprised of empires: political systems with coercive power. - More typical: larger, more aggressive states who conquered other states, and used their resources. - Usually included multiple peoples and cultures under a single political system. - Had no clear line between empires and small multiethnic states. - Can have a common culture without a unified political system. - Majority of humans before twentieth century lived in empires. - Stimulated exchange of ideas, cultures, and values. - Peace and security encouraged development, commerce, and cultural mixing.

Babylonian Empires

Conquered most of old Sumeria but also spread to north into Syria today. Were similar to Sumarians. - King Hammurabi wrote the first legal written code. Had harsh punishments. - Conquered by Hittites in 1595 b.c.e. - Defeated the Assyrians c. 612 b.c.e. - King Nebuchadnezzar (605-562 b.c.e.) expanded the city, built Hanging Gardens for his Persian queen, and conquered the Hebrews.

Ilkhanate

Conquest of Persia: first invasion led by Genghis Khan 1219-1221 and second assault under his grandson Hulegu 1251-1258. - Hulegu became first il-khan (subordinate khan) of Persia. - Massive impact of invasion was very destructive. - Sacking of Baghdad in 1258 ended the Abbasid caliphate with more than 200,000 people massacred/ - Profound damage to Persian/Iraqi agriculture. Peasants were driven from land by massive taxation. Much agricultural land was turned to pasture (or desert). - Neglected fragile irrigation systems. Increased wine and silk production. - Ghazan (r. 1295-1304) tried to repair some of their earlier damage. - Mongols were transformed far more in Persia than in China. - Extensive use of Persian bureaucracy. Converted to Islam on a large scale. Mongol elites learned some Persian. Some Mongols took up agriculture. - Ilkhanate collapsed in 1330s as Mongols were assimilated, not driven out.

Qin Empire

Creation was regarded as a restoration; Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties had created a Chinese state, but the system fell apart by 500 b.c.e during the age of warring states: seven competing kingdoms with multiple states who were regarded as unnatural. - Unification made possible by Shihuangdi, ruler of Qin (r. 221-210 b.c.e.) - Adopted Legalism as political philosophy: clear rules and harsh punishments to enforce state authority. - Expanded empire into northern Vietnam, Korea and into steppes to the northwest. - Creation of empire was brutal: military force; execution of scholars; book burning; hundreds of thousands of laborers built Great Wall and Shihuangdi's monumental tomb, with about 7,500 life-size ceramic statues. - Standardized weights, measures, currency, written Chinese, and even axle lengths for carts. - Collapsed in 206 b.c.e.; followed by Han dynasty (206 b.c.e.-220 c.e.) who kept Qin centralization and were less harsh.

French/ France

Demographic recovery, consolidation, cultural flowering, and European expansion took place in Western Europe. - European population began to rise again ca. 1450. -State building, but fragmented, with many independent and competitive states. -Much of state building was driven by the needs of war, e.g., England and France in the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453). - Curbed the power of the nobility and built strong centralized regimes. - The new monarchs came up with new means of financing their ambitions, such as imposing new taxes, fines, and fees, and amassing large armies too powerful for individual nobles to match. Established an East Indies company in Asia alongside the English and Dutch. - Created French colonies extended along St. Lawrence River and Great Lakes and down Mississippi River valley system with its goal of obtaining valuable North American furs. Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) made the French society torn by violence between Catholics and the Protestant minority known as Huguenots. - French King Henry IV granted considerable religious toleration to French Protestants and ended the French Wars of Religion. - Promised that Protestants could live in peace in France and could set up houses of worship in some French cities, later repealed by Louis XIV.

East African/ Swahili City-states

Developed from blend of Bantu with commercial life of the Indian Ocean (especially Islamic). - Growing demand for East African products (gold, ivory, quartz, leopard skins, some slaves, iron, wood products). African merchant class developed, with towns and kingships. - Swahili civilization flourished on East African coast between 1000 and 1500 c.e.: very urban, with cities of 15,000-18,000 people; each city was politically independent, ruled by a king; accumulated goods from the interior and traded for Asian goods; sharp class distinctions. - Most of trade was in Arab ships; Swahili craft traveled coastal waterways. - Regular visits by Arab and Indian (perhaps Persian) merchants; some settled. Many ruling families claimed Arab or Persian origins. - Swahili was written in Arabic script, with Arabic loan words; widespread conversion to Islam and society was heavily Islamicized (account of Ibn Battuta). - Islam and Swahili culture didn't reach much beyond coast until the nineteenth century, but Swahili region traded with the interior, had an impact. Trade with interior for gold led to emergence of Great Zimbabwe (flourished in 1250-1350 c.e.)

Neolithic Societies

Discovery of agriculture and the domestication of animals around 12,000 years ago brought an end to the slow development of the hunting societies of the Paleolithic period. - Deliberately cultivated plants and domesticated animals . Transformed human life across the planet; is the basis for almost all human developments since. - Brought about a new relationship between humans and other living things: actively changing what they found in nature rather than just using it; shaped the landscape, and selectively breed animals. - "Domestication" of nature created new mutual dependence: many domesticated plants and animals came to rely on humans. Humans lost gathering and hunting skills . - Population increase: too many humans to live by gathering and hunting. - "Intensification" of living: getting more food and resources from much less land. - More food led to more people, and more people led to greater need for intensive exploitation. - Women were probably the agricultural innovators, and men perhaps led in domesticating animals. - Gathering and hunting peoples started to establish more permanent villages, especially in resource-rich areas. - Population growth perhaps led to a "food crisis"; led to motivation to increase the food supply. - Agriculture developed in a number of regions, but with variation depending on the plants and animals that were available. - Only a few hundred plant species have been domesticated. Five (wheat, corn, rice, barley, sorghum) supply over half the calories that sustain humans. - Only 14 large mammal species were domesticated.

Egypt in the Nile River Valley

Emerged around 3100 b.c.e., several earlier states or chiefdoms merged into a unified territory that stretched some 1,000 miles along the Nile. - For 3,000 years, Egypt maintained its unity and independence with few interruptions. Unity was reinforced by ease of travel along Nile. - Nile flooded more predictably and less destructively and Egypt was usually protected from external attack. Egyptian worldview reflected the more stable, predictable, and beneficent environment in which it took shape. - Built a more sustainable agricultural system that contributed to the remarkable continuity of its civilization. Most Egyptians lived in agricultural villages, perhaps because of greater security . - The pharaoh, a god in human form, was the focus of the Egyptian state. Ensured the annual flooding of the Nile, defined the law of the land, and access to the afterlife was linked to proximity to the pharaoh. - "Divine kingship" seems to have been derived from central or eastern Sudan. - Pharaohs were most powerful before 2400 b.c.e. before local officials gained in power over time. They were discredited by Nile's failure to flood around 2200 b.c.e. - From 2200 to 2000 b.c.e., anarchy; when state was restored, pharaohs never regained their old power. - Egyptian patriarchy gave women greater opportunities than in most First Civilizations, including ability to: own property and slaves, administer and sell land, make their own wills, sign their own marriage contracts, initiate divorce, and royal women occasionally wielded political power as regents for their sons or, more rarely, as queens in their own right. - Egyptian statues and love poetry suggest affection between sexes. - Traded in the Mediterranean,Middle East,Nubia and along the East African coast. - Egyptian influence can be seen in Minoan art (emerged in Crete around 2500 b.c.e.) Martin Bernal: the Greeks drew heavily upon both Egyptian and Mesopotamian precedents in art,religion, philosophy, and language. - By 1500 b.c.e., Egypt had become an imperial state: ruled over non-Egyptian peoples in both Africa and Asia and had regular diplomatic correspondence with Middle Eastern empires.

Chavin in Andean South America (also Caral)

Emerged between 3000 and 1800 b.c.e. in central costal Peru. - Had twenty-five urban centers, and smaller cities without walls or signs of pervasive warfare. - Little evidence of economic specialization, and wasn't grain-based agriculture. - Did not develop certain technologies like pottery. - Developed an accounting system based on the quipu (a series of knotted cords) but no writing system. - Unusually self-contained; only import was maize, derived from Mesoamerica.

Greek City-states and Colonies (Athens)

Emerged ca. 750 b.c.e., flourished for about 400 years with a very distinct culture. - Geography of mountains, valleys encouraged development of hundreds of city-states and small settlements. Between 750 and 500 b.c.e., colonization happened around Mediterranean basin and Black Sea. Population was 2 million to 3 million people. Most city-states had 500-5,000 male citizens. - Filled with fierce independence, and frequent conflict with neighbors. But shared common language, gods, and participation in Olympic Games (founded 776 b.c.e.). - Most distinctive feature was popular participation in political life of city- states: equality of all citizens before the law and the extent of citizenship varied depending on time and city. - Early Greek history: only wealthy and well-born were citizens; gradually expanded to middle- and lower-class men. - An important element was ability to afford armor and weapons to fight as hoplites for the city-state. - Tyrants (dictators) emerged in many areas, supported by the poorer classes against the rich. - Sparta gave most political authority to Council of Elders. Athens had the most distinctive expression of political participation (direct democracy; not representative), but women, slaves, and foreigners were excluded. - Period of intense class conflict led to Solon's reforms began in 594 b.c.e.; extension of citizens' rights by Cleisthenes and Pericles; by 450 b.c.e., holders of public office chosen by lot, paid; the Assembly was open for participation by all citizens, and was the center of political life. - The Greco-Persian Wars' point of collision was Ionia (Greek settlements on Anatolian seacoast) in 499 b.c.e., some Ionian Greeks revolted against Persia. Were supported by Athens. Persia responded with expeditions against Greeks in 490 and 480 b.c.e. - Greeks astonishingly defeated Persians on land and sea; believed they won Battle of Marathon (490 b.c.e.) because they were motivated by Greek freedoms. Victory radicalized Athenian democracy: poor rowers received full citizenship. - Fifty-year Golden Age of Greek culture after Persian Wars: construction of Parthenon; birth of Greek theatre (Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides); and early career of philosopher Socrates. - Beginnings of imperialism: Athenian naval power led to dominance over allies. - Peloponnesian War (431-404 b.c.e.): Sparta led resistance to Athenian imperialism; Athens defeated; and Greek states were exhausted, distrusted each other. - Opened the way to takeover by Macedonia (frontier region on northern edge of Greece).

Mali (Timbuktu)

Empire (1200-1400 c.e.) was created from a portion of Ghana's Malinke people by indigenous Muslims. -Was a bigger kingdom than Ghana. Famous for its role in the trans-Saharan gold trade .

Feudal (decentralized) Europe (e.g. England, France, Holy Roman Empire)

England: Catholic Church was a major element of stability and had considerable cultural accommodation. - Pope Gregory's instructed missionaries in England to attempt to free the Church from interference of feudal lords; quarreled with Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV over practice of lay investiture. France: Great trading fairs (especially in Champagne area of France) enabled exchange between northern and southern European merchants. Holy Roman Empire: Second revival of Roman Empire with imperial coronation of Otto I of Saxony (r. 936-973). His realm was later known as the Holy Roman Empire. - Largely limited to Germany. Loose federation of mostly German states and principalities, headed by an emperor elected by the princes. It lasted from 962 to 1806. - Highly fragmented, decentralized society. - Great local variation. - Landowning warrior elite exercised power. Lesser lords and knights became vassals of kings or great lords. - Serfdom displaced slavery. They owed services and goods to lords, and lived on their own small farms. - Catholic Church was a major element of stability. - Hierarchy was modeled on that of the Roman Empire and became very rich.

Seleucid Empire

Established after Alexander the Great died suddenly. - Generals divided the empire; most went to Seleucus (r. 305-281 BCE). - Retained the Achaemenid system of administration. - Opposition from native Persians and lost control over northern India and Iran. - Were attacked by rebellion in India and invasion of Parthians.

British Empire - India

European takeover was often traumatic for the colonized peoples; the loss of life and property could be devastating. Disrupted natural harmonies of life. - Some groups and individuals cooperated willingly with their new masters; employment in the armed forces, elite often kept much of their status and privileges, and shortage of European administrators made it necessary to rely on them. - Governments and missionaries promoted European education; growth of a small class with Western education, and governments relied on them increasingly over time. - However there were periodic rebellions such as the Indian Rebellion (1857-1858), based on a series of grievances. - Indian Rebellion began as a mutiny among Indian troops. Rebel leaders advocated revival of the Mughal Empire. - Widened India's racial divide; the British were less tolerant of natives. - Led the British government to assume direct control over India. - Race was a prominent point distinguishing rulers from the ruled. - Education for colonial subjects was limited and emphasized practical matters, suitable for "primitive minds." Even the best-educated natives rarely made it into the upper ranks of the civil service. - Fascinated with counting and classifying their new subjects; in India, appropriated an idealized caste system. - Wage labor in European enterprises was common, hundreds of thousands of workers came to work on Southeast Asian plantations. Millions of Indians migrated to work elsewhere in the British Empire. Low pay, bad conditions, high death rate. - Introduce some modernizing elements; administrative and bureaucratic structures, communication and transportation infrastructure, schools, and health care. - Didn't lead to breakthroughs to modern industrial societies; when India won independence, it was one of the poorest developing countries. - British rule certainly did not help overcome poverty.

Polynesia

Extended kinship-based societies, and were linguistically similar. - Had contact via canoes - for marriage, etc. - Socially stratified with chiefs at the head, but less restrictive for women, some slavery practiced. - New global established exchange and communication networks were not dramatically affected because of infrequent European reconnaissance in the Pacific Ocean.

Paleolithic/ Hunter-forager Societies

First 200,000 years of human experience. Settled the planet, created the earliest human societies, and they were the first to reflect on issues of life and death. - Means of life was gathering and hunting (food collection than food production). - Were seasonally mobile or nomadic; moved in regular patterns to exploit wild plants and animals, and couldn't accumulate goods. - Societies were highly egalitarian (perhaps the most free people in human existence): no formal chiefs, kings, bureaucrats, soldiers, priests; did not have specialists, so most people had the same skills; male and female tasks often differed sharply; relationships between women and men were far more equal than in later societies. - Women as gatherers provided the bulk of family food, perhaps 70 percent of diet. - Had clearly defined rules: men hunted, women gathered; rules about distribution of meat from a kill; and rules about incest and adultery. - Deliberately set fires to encourage growth of certain plants and there was the extinction of many large animals shortly after humans arrived. - Had a rich ceremonial life led by part-time shamans and frequently used psychoactive drugs to contact spirits.

Olmecs in Mesoamerica

First Civilization produced much later (around 1200 b.c.e.) on coast of Gulf of Mexico, near present-day Veracruz. - Cities arose from competing chiefdoms and produced elaborate ceremonial centers. - Created the first written language in the Americas by about 900 b.c.e. - Culture influenced later civilizations in Mesoamerica, including the Maya and Teotihuacán.

Portuguese/ Portugal

First country to venture into the Atlantic Ocean looking for a route to Asia. - Prince Henry the Navigator paid for explorers' expeditions 1st one to suggest sailing to India by going around Africa. Later, 1497-1498: Vasco da Gama sailed around Africa to India. - Had superior weapons such as ships were armed with cannons that they used skillfully. Their relatively small ships could overpower almost any other type of vessel. - Were intent on converting all that they met to Christianity, although they often did more harm than good, infuriating the natives by burning down mosques and/or forcing conversions. Indian Ocean commerce was highly rich and diverse. - The Portuguese did not have goods of a quality for effective competition, thus they took to piracy on the sea lanes. - They established fortified bases at key locations (Mombasa, Hormuz, Goa, Malacca, Macao). All but Macao were taken by force. - Portugal created a "trading post empire". Its goal was to control commerce, not territories or populations. - Operated by force of arms, not economic competition. Portuguese ships were more maneuverable, carried cannons. - At height, they controlled about half of the spice trade to Europe. - The Portuguese gradually assimilated to Indian Ocean trade patterns, carried Asian goods to Asian ports. - Many Portuguese settled in Asian or African ports. - Their trading post empire was in steep decline by 1600.

Ghana

First known kingdom in sub-Saharan West Africa between 6th-13th centuries C.E. - Islam was mainly used to reinforce the concept of kingship(A Royal Cult), and much of the population never converted. -Wealth gained through taxation on goods traveling through the Trans Sub-Saharan Trade network. -Powerful army took over neighboring villages and groups.

Dutch Empire - Indonesia/ Dutch East Indies

Founded the Dutch East Indies Company in the early 17th century in order to establish and direct trade throughout Asia. - Richer and more powerful than England's company. Drove out the English and established dominance over the region. - After abusing the natives, government takes over from Dutch East India Company. - Ended up going bankrupt and being bought out by the British.

Germany

German lands were composed of approximately 300 individual principalities and city-states that largely operated in independence of one another. - 17th century early modern Germany's two greatest powers, Prussia and Austria, began to expand and incorporate more and more German territory under their respective flags. - Early 19th century, Napoleon's conquest of the German lands ended the Holy Roman Empire. After Napoleon's defeat, the German states created the loosely-associated German Confederation in 1815, containing all territories of the former Empire with majority German speakers. - Power within the Confederation was dominated by Prussia and Austria. Later dominated by Prussia as Prussian chancellor Bismarck used conflicts/war with Prussia's neighbors as a way to unify the German people into one state under Prussian rule; not Austria. - Socialist ideas were very attractive among more radical trade, unionists, and some middle-class intellectuals in the late nineteenth century. - Focused at first on heavy industry. - Was far more concentrated in huge companies - Generated a more militant and Marxist-oriented labor movement.

Holland/ the Netherlands

Grew from interaction with European trading firms. - Assisted by existence of many small and rival states. - "Cultivation system" caused a loss in food production and famines because peasants now had a double burden of obligations to the state and the landlords many became indebted.

Bantu

Group of people and associated language which originated in Nigeria; migrated south over much of the African continent and spread their language and culture. -Beginning in about 2000 BC and ending about 1000 AD, the Bantu migration occurred because of an increase in population, a result of the introduction of new crops, such as the banana (native to south Asia), which allowed for more efficient food production. -Brought farming and iron working into eastern Africa.

Gupta Empires (Pataliputra)

Gupta Empire (320-550 c.e.) and other short-lived empires followed after the Mauryan Empire. - States failed to command loyalty, had great cultural diversity, frequent invasions from Central Asia, and the caste system encouraged local loyalties. - Indian trade flourished despite the lack of unity. Merchants and artisans patronized public buildings and festivals. - Hinduism and Buddhism spread through much of Asia. - Indian mathematics and astronomy flourished.

Byzantine Empire

Had no clear starting point. Some scholars date its beginning to 330 c.e., with foundation of Constantinople. - Formal division of Roman Empire into eastern and western halves was in late fourth century c.e. Contained ancient civilizations: Egypt, Greece, Syria, and Anatolia. -Survived additional 1,000 years than the collapse of western half in the 5th century . - Continued late Roman infrastructure and had conscious effort to preserve ancient Roman ways. There were many differences between the two empires. - Byzantine Empire was wealthier and more urbanized, had a more defensible capital (Constantinople), and shorter frontier. Had access to the Black Sea; command of eastern Mediterranean. Stronger army, navy, and merchant marine. - Was much smaller than the Roman Empire, but it remained a major force in eastern Mediterranean until around 1200. - Reformed administrative system: generals had civil authority in the provinces, raised armies from peasants, and political authority was tightly centralized in Constantinople. Majestic grandeur of court (based on ancient Persian style). Mostly concerned with tax collection and keeping order. - Western church was much more rural than Byzantium. Roman Catholic Church of the West established independence from political authorities; Eastern Orthodox Church did not.Eastern Orthodox Church was closely tied to the state: caesaropapism. Byzantine emperor was head of both the state and the Church. Appointed the patriarch, sometimes made doctrinal decisions, called church councils. - Orthodox Christianity legitimated imperial rule, provided cultural identity, pervasiveness of churches, icons, and even common people engaged in theological disputes. - Central player in long-distance Eurasian trade. Byzantine gold coins (bezants) were a major Mediterranean currency for over 500 years, and Byzantine crafts (jewelry, textiles, purple dyes, silk) were in high demand. - Continuation of long Roman fight with Persian Empire. Weakened both states, left them open to Islamic conquests. -Territory shrank after 1085, as western Europeans and Turks attacked. Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople, ended empire in 1453.

Hebrews/ Jewish States

Hebrews migrated from Mesopotamia to Palestine and Egypt early in their history. - Mesopotamia influenced Hebrew laws and flood story. - Emerging conception of a merciful and single deity, Yahweh, who demanded an ethical life from his people, was unique.

Persian Empires - Achaemenid

In 500 b.c.e., it was the largest and most impressive empire. Persians were Indo-Europeans, homeland on the Iranian plateau. - Imperial system drew on Mesopotamian prototypes. Were much larger and more splendid. - Cyrus (r. 557-530 b.c.e.) and Darius (r. 522-486 b.c.e.) expanded the empire from Egypt to India . - Was a diverse empire with population of around 35 million people. - Had an elaborate cult of kingship. Rule by will of the god Ahura Mazda. - Was an absolute monarchy; held the empire together from violent punishments by the king, and its effective administrative system: satraps governed the empire's 23 provinces,lower-level officials were local, and the system of imperial spies ("eyes and ears of the King"). - Had respect for non-Persian cultural traditions: Cyrus allowed Jews to return from Babylonian exile and rebuild Jerusalem temple. - Herodotus: Persians adopt foreign customs readily. - Standardized coinage, predictable taxes. - Encouraged communication and commerce: dug a canal between Nile and Red Sea; had a "royal road" 1,700 miles long across empire; and an imperial courier service. - Had immense wealth and power with elaborate imperial centers (especially Susa, and Persepolis).

Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa in the Indus River Valley

In Indus and Saraswati river valleys of present-day Pakistan arose between 3000 and 2000 b.c.e. - Had elaborately planned cities and standardized weights, measures,architectural styles, and brick sizes. - Written script that remains thus far undeciphered. - Unlike other civilizations, it generated no palaces, temples, elaborate graves, kings, or warrior classes. - Scholars remain uncertain as to how society was organized; theories include a series of small republics, rule by priests, or an early form of the caste system . - Environmental degradation led to the collapse of this civilization by about 1700 b.c.e., but several aspects of its culture shaped later Indian societies.

France

In the mid-1850s, while the Qing government was embroiled in trying to quell the Taiping Rebellion (1850-64), the British seek to extend their trading rights in China and found an excuse to renew hostilities. - The French decided to join the British military expedition, using as their excuse the murder of a French missionary in the interior of China in early 1856. - Began military operations in late 1857. Quickly captured Canton, deposed the city's intransigent governor, and installed a more-compliant official.

Hittites

Indo-Europeans brought horse-and-chariot-based armies to Mesopotamia. - Invaded using chariot-based armies and ruled Egypt between 1650 and 1535 b.c.e. Mesopotamians and Egyptians also adopted chariot technology. - Arrival of the Hyksos (Hittites) spurred further innovations in Egypt: new armor and weaponry; new methods of spinning and weaving; new musical instruments; olive and pomegranate trees.

Arabs

Introduced scientific, philosophical, and mathematical concepts to Europeans. - Europeans were happy to exchange with/borrow from more advanced civilizations to the east. Reconnected with the Eurasian trading system. - Classical Greek texts (especially Aristotle) were found in Byzantium and the Arab world. - Twelfth-thirteenth centuries: access to ancient Greek and Arab scholarship. Aristotle's deep impact of his writings were the basis of university education. Dominated Western European thought between 1200 and 1700. Islamic world had deep interaction with classical Greek thought. - Massive amount of translation in ninth-tenth centuries. - Encouraged a flowering of Arab scholarship between 800 and 1200. - Caused a debate among Muslim thinkers on faith and reason. - Islamic world eventually turned against natural philosophy.

Shogunate in Japan

Japan at the time was divided by constant conflict among feudal lords (daimyo), supported by samurai. - At first, Europeans were welcome. Around 300,000 Japanese converted to Christianity. - But Japan unified politically under the Tokugawa shogun in the early seventeenth century.

Ottoman Empire

Lasted from fourteenth to early twentieth century. - Huge territory: Anatolia, eastern Europe, much of Middle East, North African coast, lands around Black Sea. - Sultans claimed the title "caliph" and the legacy of the Abbasids. - Effort to bring new unity to the Islamic world. Had aggression toward Christian lands. - Roman capital Constantinople fell in 1453. - 1529 Ottoman Empire seized Vienna, Austria. The siege signaled the pinnacle of the Ottoman Empire's power and the maximum extent of Ottoman expansion in central Europe. Was the Islamic world's most important empire in the early modern period. Had long conflict (1534-1639) between Sunni Ottomans and Shia Safavids. - Was the site of a significant cross-cultural encounter. In Anatolia, most of the conquered Christians converted to Islam. In the Balkans, Christian subjects mostly remained Christian, and many Christians welcomed Ottoman conquest. - Few Turkish settled in the region. Ottomans accommodated the Christian churches,taxed less and were less oppressive. Christian churches received considerable autonomy - Balkan elites were accepted among the Ottoman elite without conversion. - Jewish refugees from Spain had more opportunities in the Ottoman Empire. - The Ottoman state threatened Christendom. Europeans worried about a Muslim takeover of all Europe. Some Europeans admired Ottoman rule. - Philosopher Jean Bodin (sixteenth century) praised Ottoman religious tolerance. -European merchants evaded papal bans on selling firearms to the Turks. - Ottoman women enjoyed relative freedom. In 1500, Christianity was mostly limited to Europe. - Small communities in Egypt, Ethiopia, southern India, and Central Asia had serious divisions within Christianity (Roman Catholic vs. Eastern Orthodox). - Islam was attacked, resulted in loss of the Holy Land by 1300, the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453, and the Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1529 . - Ottoman Empire chose not to translate major European scientific works. - Scholars were only interested in ideas of practical utility (e.g., maps, calendars). - Islamic educational system was conservative, made it hard for theoretical science to do well.

Songhay

Major Islamic state of West Africa that formed in the second half of the 15th century.

British/ Britain

Major conflict between France and England over rival claims to territory in France; the two states' need to finance the war helped encourage their administrative development. - British settlers were more numerous in the Americas; by 1750, they outnumbered Spaniards in New World by five to one by 1776. A different sort of colonial society emerged in British colonies of New England, New York, and Pennsylvania. - British society was changing more rapidly than Catholic Spain. There was Catholic/Protestant conflict, the rise of a merchant capitalist class, a major cloth industry, and the development of Parliament, breakdown of feudalism. - Many British colonists were trying to escape elements of European society. By 1776, 90 percent of population of North American colonies was European. - Indians were killed off by disease and military policy. Small-scale farming didn't need slaves - England was mostly Protestant; didn't proselytize like the Catholics. Protestant Bible-reading led to higher literacy among colonists. - British colonies developed traditions of local self-government. and didn't impose an elaborate bureaucracy like Spain. The British civil war (seventeenth century) distracted government from involvement in the colonies. - North America gradually became dominant, more developed than South America. Had a private trading company chartered by the government of England around 1600. - Given monopolies on Indian Ocean trade, including the right to make war and to rule conquered peoples. - Charters granted the English trading monopolies and the power to make war and to govern conquered peoples. - Established their own parallel and competing trading post empires, with the English on India. - Was not as well financed or as commercially sophisticated as the Dutch; couldn't break into the Spice Islands. - Established three major trade settlements in India (seventeenth century): Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras. - British navy gained control of Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf. Could not compete with the Mughal Empire on land. - Negotiated with local rulers for peaceful establishment of trade bases. - Britons traded pepper and other spices, but cotton textiles became more important. English King Henry VIII whose request to divorce Catherine of Aragon was denied by the pope. His response was to start the Protestant Church of England, of which he was the head. - A dispute between Charles I of England and Parliament when Charles refused to call Parliament into session commenced the English Civil War. Cavaliers supported the King, and Round-heads supported the Parliament. Charles I is beheaded; the new monarchs William and Mary sign the English Bill of Rights, future model for American ideas of government.

Maya City-states

Maya ceremonial centers developed as early as 2000 b.c.e. in present-day Guatemala and Yucatan. - Classical phase of Maya civilization: 250-900 c.e. in which came the development of advanced mathematical system, elaborate calendars, creation of most elaborate writing system in the Americas, and large amount of monumental architecture (temples, pyramids, palaces, public plazas). - Agriculture had large-scale human engineering (swamp drainage, terracing, water management system) Supported a substantial elite and artisan class. - Political system of city-states and regional kingdoms was highly fragmented: frequent warfare; capture and sacrifice of prisoners; densely populated urban and ceremonial centers; ruled by "state shamans" who could mediate with divine; Tikal's population was around 50,000 people, with 50,000 more in hinterland; no city-state ever succeeded in creating a unified empire. - Rapid collapse in the century after a long-term drought began in 840; population dropped by at least 85 percent; elements of Maya culture survived, but not the great cities. Collapsed due to: extremely rapid population growth after 600 c.e. outstripped resources; political disunity and rivalry prevented a coordinated response to climatic catastrophe; and warfare became more frequent.

Meiji Japan

Meiji era of industrialization in Japan brought upon foreign influences and social, governmental, and economic reforms. - Was all done under one group of Meiji leaders to strengthen into an economical point to were it became a superpower such as the US and Western Europe. - Once it achieved that point it showed its power in military victories over Chinese empire (1894-1895) and Russian empire (1904-1905). - Japanese people who left Japan after the Meiji Restoration worked on sugar plantations in Hawaii and guano mines in Peru. They helped the plantation owners strengthen their work force because they replaced the slaves that the owners were losing. U.S. sent Commodore Perry in 1853 to demand better treatment for castaways, right to refuel and buy provisions, and the opening of trade ports. - The shogun gave in to Perry's demands. His spinelessness triggered a civil war. - In 1868, a group of young samurai from the south took over. They claimed to be restoring the 15-year-old emperor Meiji to power. - Aimed to save Japan from the foreigners by transformation of Japanese society rather than by resistance. - The West wasn't as interested in Japan as it was in China. - Modernization Japanese Style: First task was creating national unity. Attacked power and privileges of the daimyo and the samurai. Dismantled the Confucian-based social order. Almost all Japanese became legally equal. - Widespread interest in many aspects of the West, from science to hairstyles. Official missions were sent to the West, hundreds of students studied abroad, many translations of Western books into Japanese, eventually settled down to more selective borrowing from the West, and combined foreign and Japanese elements, e.g., in the 1889 constitution. - Feminism and Christianity made little progress. Shinto was raised to the level of a state cult. - State-guided industrialization program: established model factories, opened mines, built railroads, created postal, telegraph, and banking systems. - Many state enterprises were then sold to private investors. Accomplished modernization without acquiring foreign debt. - Society paid a heavy price. Many peasant families were impoverished. Countryside suffered infanticide, sale of daughters, and famine. Early urban workers received harsh treatment. - Efforts to organize unions were repressed. Nascent labor movement was crushed by end of 1901. - Authorities emphasized theme of service to the state and ideas of the enterprise as a family. - By the early twentieth century, Western powers readjusted treaties in Japan's favor. Anglo-Japanese Treaty of 1902 recognized Japan as an equal. - Japanese empire building: wars against China (1894-1895) and Russia (1904-1905). Gained colonial control of Taiwan and Korea, and won a foothold in Manchuria. Japan's rise was widely admired and their colonial policies were at least as brutal as European ones.

Yuan

Mongols didn't know how to govern an agricultural society, so they used many Chinese practices. - Gave themselves a Chinese dynastic title, the Yuan ("great beginnings"). Built a new capital—Khanbalik ("city of the khan"; now Beijing). - Founder Khubilai Khan (r. 1271-1294) had a set of ancestral tablets made. Much of his reign was in the model of a benevolent Chinese emperor. - Still, Mongol rule was harsh, exploitative, and foreign. - "Forbidden City" in the capital was set up like the steppes. Relied heavily on foreigners for administration, rather than the traditional administrative system. - Mongols did not become Chinese and only a few learned Chinese. Mongol law discriminated against the Chinese and Mongol women were shockingly free by Chinese standards.

French Empire - Morocco, Algeria, Indochina, French West Africa

Morocco: Tensions such as France and Germany fighting over Morocco and the Balkan Wars further strained European diplomatic relations. Public opinion supported national rivalries; attitudes of patriotism present among European citizens Algeria: Using Napoleon's 1808 contingency plan for the invasion of Algeria, 34,000 French soldiers landed twenty-seven kilometers west of Algiers, at Sidi Ferruch, on June 12, 1830. - To face the French, a Muslim-based resistance movement of 7,000 janissaries, 19,000 troops from the beys of Constantine and Oran, and about 17,000 Kabyles were sent. - The French established a strong beachhead and pushed toward Algiers, thanks in part to superior artillery and better organization. - Algiers was captured after a three-week campaign, and Hussein Dey fled into exile. Indochina: A French colony that included Vietnam , Laos, and Cambodia. 1879-1859 - pressured Nguyen dynasty to accept foreign rule. - Most profitable natural resources - tin, rubber, chrome, oil, bauxite. Local elite of upper-class were westernized natives. - Exploited economy - a la British. La mission civilisatrice - modern technology and science to the colonies. - More willing to resort to repression and violence to maintain order West Africa: In Senegal in West Africa, the French began to establish trading posts along the coast in 1624. - In 1664, the French East India Company was established to compete for trade in the east. - With the decay of the Ottoman Empire, in 1830 the French seized Algiers, thus beginning the colonization of French North Africa. - Used direct control - brought in own bureaucrats, tried to Frenchify locals. - Established a highly centralized administrative system that was influenced by their ideology of colonialism and their national tradition of extreme administrative centralism. Colonial ideology explicitly claimed that they were on a "civilizing mission" to lift the benighted "natives" out of backwardness to the new status of civilized French Africans.

Italy

Movement to unite Italy into one cultural and political entity was known as the Risorgimento (literally, "resurgence"). - Giuseppe Mazzini and his leading pupil, Giuseppe Garibaldi, failed in their attempt to create an Italy united by democracy. - Garibaldi, supported by his legion of Red Shirts-- mostly young Italian democrats who used the 1848 revolutions as a opportunity for democratic uprising--failed in the face of the resurgence of conservative power in Europe. - However, it was the aristocratic politician named Camillo di Cavour who finally, using the tools of realpolitik (notion that politics must be conducted in terms of the realistic assessment of power and the self-interest of individual nation-states), united Italy under the crown of Sardinia. - Italian migrants who crossed the Atlantic to Argentina and Brazil were paid by the Brazilian government where they worked for coffee growers. - Emphasized the effect of the abolition of slavery because there was a labor shortage which was the reason the Italians came.

Mexico

Native-born elites (creoles) in Spanish colonies of Latin America were offended at the Spanish monarchy's efforts to control them in the eighteenth century. - Were only scattered and uncoordinated protests initially. Had little tradition of local self-government. - Society was more authoritarian, with stricter class divisions. Whites were vastly outnumbered. - Creole elites had revolution thrust upon them by events in Europe. 1808: Napoleon invaded Spain and Portugal, put royal authority in disarray. - Forced to take action and most of Latin America was independent by 1826. - Move toward independence began with a peasant revolt (1810) led by priests Miguel Hidalgo and José Morelos. Creole elites and clergy raised an army, crushed revolt. Rapid population increase and urbanization. Actively sought European immigrants. - Few people benefited from the export boom. Upper-class landowners did very well. Middle class grew some, but over 90 percent of the population was still lower-class. - Industrial workers made up a modest segment of the lower class. Attempted unions and strikes. were harshly repressed, and most of the poor remained rural. Many farmers were forced off their land, became dependent laborers. - Conditions provoke a nationwide revolution: overthrow of the dictator Porfirio Díaz (1876-1911), major, bloody conflict (1910-1920), rise of huge peasant armies. and transformed Mexico. - New constitution (1917) proclaimed universal suffrage, land redistribution, disestablishment of the Catholic Church, minimum wage, eight-hour workday, etc. - However, the export boom did not cause a thorough Industrial Revolution. There was little internal market for manufactured goods. - Rich landowners and cattlemen had little incentive to invest in manufacturing. - Governments supported free trade, so cheaper and higher-quality foreign goods were available than could be made at home.

Phoenicia and its Colonies (Carthage)

Occupied eastern coast of Mediterranean, modern-day Syria and Lebanon. - Primarily interested in trade as a form of government, which was facilitated by the expanse of the Mediterranean to the west. - Developed an advanced economy (timber export), skilled traders and sailors, world's first alphabet, and improved egyptian numbering system. - Established many colonies along the coast of North Africa, most important colony was Carthage. - Carthage was one of the largest cities during that time period with power lied mainly in its navy and the fact that it controlled trade in the middle of the Mediterranean.

Mesopotamia in the Tigris and Euphrates River Valleys

One of the earliest civilizations emerged in Sumer (in southern Mesopotamia) between 3500 and 3000 b.c.e. and had the first written language. - Depended on rivers, but had erratic and destructive flooding. Was also less geographically isolated than Egypt. - Was vulnerable to external attack, and had a more negative worldview which reflected its precarious and violent environment. - Deforestation, soil erosion, and salinization of the soil weakened Sumerian city-states, leading to foreign conquest and the northward shift of Mesopotamia's cultural centers. - Its first thousand years was organized into a dozen or more separate city-states. Each city-state was ruled by a king. 80 percent of the population lived in city-states for protection. - Environmental devastation and endemic warfare ultimately led to conquest by outside forces after about 2350 b.c.e. These outside powers built large territorial states or bureaucratic empires encompassing all or most of Mesopotamia. - Mesopotamian models may have influenced Egypt's step pyramids and system of writing . - Carried on extensive long-distance trade: Mesopotamian sea trade with the Indus Valley civilization as early as 2300 b.c.e. Also traded with Anatolia, Egypt, Iran, and Afghanistan. - Phoenicians (in present-day Lebanon) were commercially active in the Mediterranean basin. Adopted the Mesopotamian fertility goddess, and Mesopotamian writing into simpler alphabetic system. - Some Indo-European peoples settled in north-central Anatolia. Adopted deities, bronze metallurgy, and the wheel from Mesopotamia. Spread them with further migrations. - Gerda Lerner: emergence of patriarchy in Mesopotamia. Written law codes codified patriarchal family life. Regulation of female sexuality was central , women in Mesopotamia were sometimes divided into two sharply distinguished categories, depending on protection of one man. Powerful goddesses of Mesopotamia were gradually replaced by male deities

Mughal Empire

One of the most successful empires of India; a state founded by Muslim Turks who invaded India in 1526. - Their rule was noted for efforts to create a partnership between Hindus and Muslims. - Over the sixteenth century, Mughals gained control of most of India. - The most important divide was religious. Some 20 percent of the population was Muslim; most of the rest were Hindu. - Emperor Akbar (r. 1556-1605) attempted serious accommodation of the Hindu majority. Many Hindus were brought into the political-military elite. He imposed a policy of toleration and abolished payment of jizya by non-Muslims. Also he created a state cult that stressed loyalty to the emperor. - Akbar and his successors encouraged a hybrid Indian-Persian-Turkic culture. - Mughal toleration provoked reaction among some Muslims. Emperor Aurangzeb (r. 1658-1707) reversed Mughal policy,tried to impose Islamic supremacy. - He banned sati (widow burning), music and dance at court, various vices, destruction of some Hindu temples, and reimposition of jizya. This policy provoked Hindu reaction. - Opposition movements fatally weakened the Mughal Empire after 1707. Several movements brought Hindus and Muslims together in new forms of religious expression. - Bhakti movement was especially important with devotional Hinduism, and effort to achieve union with the divine through songs, prayers, dances, poetry, and rituals. - Appealed especially to women. Often set aside caste distinctions. - Much common ground with Sufism, helped to blur the line between Islam and Hinduism in India. - High-caste woman who refused to commit sati when her husband died took an untouchable as her guru. - Poetry of yearning for union with Krishna; Mirabai (1498-1547), one of the best-loved bhakti poets. - Growth of Sikhism, a religion that blended Islam and Hinduism. - Founder Guru Nanak (1469-1539) had been part of the bhakti movement; came to believe that Islam and Hinduism were one. - Nanak and his successors set aside caste distinctions and proclaimed essential equality of men and women. - Gradually developed as a new religion of the Punjab. Developed a Sikh holy book, the Guru Granth (teacher book). Created a central shrine, the Golden Temple of Amritsar. Mandated distinctive dress for men. - Evolved into a militant community in response to hostility.

Assyrian Empires

Originally Aryans from central Asia, but conquered Asia Minor in 2000 BC. Was an large empire with good trade roads. - Used strong army with chariots and were the first to use iron weapons. - Conquered Babylon from 1595 BC until about 1200 BC. - Started to gain strength about 900 BC. - Its powerful army conquered Babylon once again, Hebrews and Egypt. Treated conquered people cruelly. - Collapsed about 612 BC.

Abbasid Caliphate (Baghdad)

Overthrew Umayyads in 750 CE. - Founded new capital at Baghdad, and gave a much larger role to non-Arabs. - Began steep decline in mid-ninth century. - Caliph gradually became a figurehead to a number of de facto independent states (sultanates)

Parthian Empire

Parthians (seminomadic people based in Iran who extended to wealthy Mesopotamia) drove Seleucus out of Iran. - Federated governmental structure. Didn't have a centralized government, but was organized through a federation of leaders who portrayed themselves as restorers of Persian traditions. - Had well-trained forces of heavily armed cavalry. - Weakened by their ongoing wars with the Romans and fell to internal rebellion.

Hellenistic Empires (Alexandria)

Philip II of Macedon completed conquest of Greece by 338 b.c.e.; politically unified of Greece by force and planned for great Greek expedition against Persia. - Alexander's expedition against Persia (333-323 b.c.e.) created a massive Greek empire that reached from Egypt and Anatolia to Afghanistan and India: defeat of Persian Empire; destruction of Persepolis; appointed as pharaoh of Egypt, declared to be "son of the gods." - Alexander died in 323 b.c.e.; empire divided into three kingdoms, ruled by Macedonian generals. - Alexander's conquests were most important in world history terms for creation of the Hellenistic era (323-30 b.c.e.): dissemination of Greek culture through much of Asia and Egypt. - Role of cities in spread of Greek culture: Alexander and successors established many cities; many thousands of Greek settlers; Greek public centers and government. Alexandria (Egypt) was a great cosmopolitan center: a library of 700,000 volumes and the Museum: sponsorship of scholars. - A simplified form of Greek was widely spoken from Mediterranean to India: Indian monarch Ashoka published some of his decrees in Greek; many Jews were attracted to Greek culture; Pharisees developed their own school system to counter the influence. - Hellenistic cities were much more culturally diverse than original Greek city-states; were not independent, but part of conquest states. - Macedonians and Greeks formed the elite; efforts to remain separate from the natives; periodic rebellions against Greek exploitation. - Cultural interaction and blending were still possible; Alexander encouraged intermarriage; Greek rulers supported native cults; many natives became Greek citizens by adopting Greek education and culture; in India, Greeks became part of Ksatriya (warrior) caste; some Bactrian Greeks converted to Buddhism, including King Menander; depiction of the Buddha in human form, Greek style. - Roman rule replaced that of Greeks in western part of Hellenistic world; continued to spread Greek culture and ideas.

Scandinavian Vikings

Raiders from Sweden, Denmark, and Norway who disrupted coastal areas of western Europe from the 8th to the 11th centuries. - Raided and pillaged communities along the coasts and rivers of Europe. - Also engaged in trade and exploration in northern Europe, the Mediterranean, and even North America. -Used trade route from Scandinavia to Byzantium through Russia, creating the first Russian "state." - Leif Erikson lands in Canada (1000 CE) where they briefly established a colony. Also colonized Iceland and Greenland. Established kingdoms in France and Sicily. Style in parts of England, Scotland and Ireland.

Chagatai Khanate

Ruled by Genghis Kahn's second son Chagatai in Central Asia between the Il-khanate in Persia & the Yuan Dynasty in China.

Golden Horde

Russia was integrated into Mongol Empire as the Kipchak Khanate founded by Genghis Khan's grandson Batu. - Mongol rulers of Russia were far less assimilated or influenced. Were gradually Islamized and assimilated by the Kipchaks of the steppes. - But, the Mongols did not occupy Russia. Remained on steppes north of Black and Caspian seas. Collected tribute and heavy taxes; also raided for slaves. - Some Russian princes and the Russian Orthodox Church flourished. Princes adopted Mongol weapons, diplomatic rituals, court practices, tax system, and military draft. - Moscow became primary tribute-collector for Mongols as the Mongol mounted courier service. Soon the city became the core of a new Russian State. - Russians broke free of Mongol rule by the end of the fifteenth century.

Safavid

Safavid Empire emerged in Persia from a Sufi religious order shortly after 1500. - Imposed Shia Islam as the official religion of the state. - Shia Safavids believed that the successor of Muhummad must be a male child from lineage of Ali from Fatimah. - In contrast, the Sunni Ottomans believed anyone practicing Muslim can be chosen by agreement of the authorities of the muslim populace (ummah). - Sunni Ottoman Empire and Shia Safavid Empire fought periodically between 1534 and 1639. - Developed relatively independently from western influence, and to some extent the empire counterbalanced the growth of European power and colonization. - Had huge land armies armed with guns; noted as a gunpowder empire. Was able conquest most nomadic groups. Since the nomads had less access to guns, the empires were finally able to conquer and subjugate them.

Sassanid (Persepolis)

Sasanids from Persia, toppled the Parthians. Claimed descent from the Achaemenids. - Had continual conflicts and standoffs with Rome, Byzantium in the west, and Kush in the east. - Were overwhelmed by an Arab conquest in 651 BCE. Empire was incorporated into the Islamic empire. - Merchants brought in various crops from India and China. - Shapur I (239-272 CE) created buffer states between the Sasanids and the Roman empire.

Great Britain

Slavery was largely ended around the world between 1780 and 1890. - Three major slave rebellions in the British West Indies showed that slaves were discontent; brutality of suppression appalled people. - Abolitionist movements were most powerful in Britain. - 1807: Britain forbade the sale of slaves within its empire. - 1834: Britain emancipated all slaves. - Other nations followed suit, under growing international pressure. By the 1870s, movements focused above all on women's suffrage. - Became a middle-class, not just elite, movement. - Most worked through peaceful protest and persuasion, but one British group had a campaign of violence. Foreign traders (primarily British) had been illegally exporting opium mainly from India to China since the 18th century, but that trade grew dramatically from about 1820. - Opium Wars arose from China's attempts to suppress the opium trade. The resulting widespread addiction in China was causing serious social and economic disruption there. - In March 1839 the Chinese government confiscated and destroyed more than 20,000 chests of opium—some 1,400 tons of the drug—that were warehoused at Canton (Guangzhou) by British merchants. - Antagonism between the two sides increased. Subsequent British campaigns over the next year were likewise successful against the inferior Qing forces. - Peace negotiations proceeded quickly, resulting in the Treaty of Nanjing, signed on August 29. - By its provisions, China was required to pay Britain a large indemnity, cede Hong Kong Island to the British, and increase the number of treaty ports where the British could trade and reside from one (Canton) to five. - Among the four additional designated ports was Shanghai, and the new access to foreigners there marked the beginning of the city's transformation into one of China's major commercial entrepôts.

Pastoral Societies

Some regions relied much more heavily on animals, because farming was difficult or impossible there. - Pastoral nomads emerged in central Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, the Sahara desert, parts of eastern and southern Africa . No pastoral societies emerged in the Americas - Relied on different animals in different regions . - Horses were domesticated by 4000 b.c.e. and encouraged the spread of pastoral peoples on Central Asian steppes. - Domesticated camels allowed human life in the inner Asian, Arabian, and Saharan deserts.

Spanish/ Spain

Spanish conquered the Aztec and Inca empires (early sixteenth century) as they were the most wealthy, urbanized, and populous regions of the Western Hemisphere. - Within a century, the Spaniards established major cities, universities, and a religious and bureaucratic infrastructure. - Accommodated Indians, Africans, and racially mixed people. Spaniards were at the top, increasingly wanted a large measure of self-government from the Spanish Crown, but the Spaniard minority was also divided. - Many Indians adopted Spanish practices, but much of native tradition survived and there was more racial fluidity than in North America. - Economic basis of the colonial society was commercial agriculture and mining (gold and silver). - Native people provided forced labor and there was the rise of a distinctive social order replicated some of the Spanish class hierarchy. - Gross abuse and exploitation of the Indians. Massive death rates, attacks on their religion, and forced relocations. - Church authorities often fought for better treatment of the native peoples. - Soon was the emergence of mestizo (mixed-race) population who became a majority of the Mexican population by the nineteenth century. Hispanic in culture, but often looked down on. was the first to challenge Portugal's control of Asian trade. - They first encountered the Philippines when Ferdinand Magellan circumnavigated the globe (1519-1521). - Established a Spanish base there and soon full colonial rule there (takeover occurred 1565-1650). - Spaniards introduced forced relocation, tribute, taxes, unpaid labor. - Gave large estates for Spanish settlers, religious orders, and Filipino elite. - Silver vastly enriched the Spanish monarchy. Caused inflation, not real economic growth in Spain. - The Spanish economy was too rigid. Spanish aristocrats were against economic enterprise. - Lost its dominance when the value of silver fell ca. 1600. Series of revolutions in Latin America colonies of Latin (1810-1826) established the independence of new states from Spanish rule. Mostly part retained the privileges of the elites despite efforts at more radical social rebellion by lower classes. - Native-born elites in Spanish colonies were offended by Spanish monarchy and the heavy taxes that were being imposed upon them. - Creoles had become familiar with ideas of the European Enlightenment, such as personal liberty and republican government. However, this only resulted in scattered and uncoordinated protest. - Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin led independence movements that were backed by armed forces. However, too many leaders made promises of freedom that did not follow through. Only extended the revolution even longer. - Latin American women were excluded from political life and were under firm legal control of the men in their families. - Almost impossible to unite the Spanish colonies. Distances between them were too great, and geographical obstacles did not help.

Roman Empires (Rome)

Started as small, unimportant city-state in central Italy in eighth century b.c.e. - Overthrew monarchy and established a republic ca. 509 b.c.e. Ruled by two consuls, with advice from Senate - Dominated by wealthy patricians. Conflicts with plebeians (poorer classes) developed into political role for the plebeians. Tribunes represented plebeians, and could veto legislation. - Pride in republican values: rule of law, citizens' rights, lack of pretension, morality—"the way of the ancestors" - Creation of the empire began in 490s b.c.e. with wars to control Italian peninsula. - 264-146 b.c.e.: Punic Wars with Carthage gave Rome control over western Mediterranean; made Rome a naval power; conquest of Greece, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and present-day Spain, France, and Britain; reached greatest geographical extent in early second century c.e.; gradual, unplanned pursuit of opportunities; skill and brutality of Roman army; and usually generous treatment of conquered peoples. - Political crisis of first century b.c.e. led to rise of military leaders (Marius, Sulla, Pompey, Julius Caesar); decline of republican values. - Caesar Augustus (r. 27 b.c.e.-14 c.e.) was first emperor: maintained republican forms; reality: emperor was sole authority; establishment of pax Romana (Roman peace with security and relative prosperity). - Deceased Roman emperors as gods; persecuted Christians for nonparticipation in cult development of Christianity in Roman Empire. Eventually became dominant religion of Europe. - Gradual expansion of Roman citizenship; was granted to nearly all free people of empire in 212 c.e.; did not imply cultural assimilation; some Roman culture was attractive to western Europeans. - Latin (alphabetic language) gave rise to Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, Romanian. - Roman administration relied on regional elites and army.

Russian City-states (e.g. Kievan Rus (Novgorod))

State that emerged around the city of Kiev in the 9th century; a culturally diverse region that included vikings as well as Finnic and Baltic peoples. - Grand prince Vladimir's conversion to Orthodox Christianity in 988 had long-term implications for Russia.

Maurya Empire

Stimulated by Persian and Greek penetration of northwest. - Ruled all but the southern tip of India, had a population of around 50 million, a large military and civilian bureaucracy, and state-operated industries. - Ashoka (r. 268-232 b.c.e.) is best-known emperor, thanks to edicts: conversion to Buddhism, effort to rule empire peacefully, and to develop a moral code for whole empire. - Mauryan Empire broke apart after Ashoka's death.

Nubia

Sustained contact between Nubia and Egypt: Nubians built Egyptian-style pyramids, worshipped Egyptian gods and goddesses, and used Egyptian hieroglyphic writing. - But Nubia maintained its distinctiveness: developed an alphabetic script, retained many of its own gods, developed a major ironworking industry by 500 b.c.e., and asserted political independence whenever possible.

Early River Valley Civilizations (in general)

The Emergence of Civilizations was a global phenomenon. Six major civilizations and some smaller manifestations were scattered around world, developed after 3500 b.c.e. - Had cities with monumental architecture and populations in the tens of thousands. - Powerful states could compel obedience and wage large-scale warfare . - Much greater inequality in economic function, wealth, and social status. - Tended to develop from earlier, competing chiefdoms that already had some social rank and economic specialization. Process was gradual and evolutionary. - Relied on highly productive agriculture. Tensions sparked innovations such as irrigation and plows and also intense competition that led to repeated warfare. Winners absorbed losing populations into their societies as subordinated workers. - Cities lay at the heart of all First Civilizations because they were: political/administrative capitals; centers of cultural production—art, architecture, literature, ritual, and ceremony; places of local and long-distance exchange; centers of manufacturing activity; and produced new societies with greater specialization and inequality.

Polynesian

The indigenous Polynesian people share the same language, culture, and beliefs. - Experienced sailors used celestial navigation and other coordinated voyages when traveling. -Cultivated transplanted foods and domesticated animals as they moved to new islands -Traveled to Middle Asia where they traveled west and east. West they voyaged the I.O. from Madagascar.

Mexica/ Aztecs Empire (Tenochtitlan)

The metropolitan capital of the Aztec Empire with a population of 150,000 to 200,000. - Semi-nomadic people of northern Mexico who by 1325 had established themselves on a small island in Lake. - Major state that developed in what is now Mexico in the 14th and 15th centuries. Dominated by the semi nomadic Mexica who had migrated into the region from northern Mexico. - The region Texcoco, where they built their capital, Tenochitlán. - 1428 agreement between the Mexica and two other nearby city-states launched the Aztec Empire.

Inca Empire

The western hemisphere's largest imperial state in the 15th and early 16th centuries, built by a relatively small community of Quechua speaking people. The Empire stretched some 2,500 miles along the Andes Mountains, which run nearly the entire length of the west coast of South America and contained perhaps 10 million subjects. - Inca Empire was more bureaucratic, centralized than the Aztecs. Had around 80 provinces, each with an Inca governor. Subjects were grouped into hierarchical units of people. - Incas attempted cultural integration. Did human sacrifice, but on much smaller scale than Aztecs. - Both the Inca and Aztec civilizations practiced "gender parallelism;" parallel hierarchies of female and male political officials.

Dutch/Holland/ the Netherlands

Treaty of Westphalia ended the Thirty Years War in 1648; granted right of individual rulers and cities to choose their own religion for their people; the Netherlands gained independence. - The economic system of mercantilism was developed most effectively by the British and the Dutch, with private companies under charter from the governments carrying out trade. Dutch and English both entered Indian Ocean commerce in the early seventeenth century. - Soon displaced the Portuguese, and competed with each other. - ca. 1600: both the Dutch and the English organized private trading companies to handle Indian Ocean trade. Merchants invested, and shared the risks. - Dutch and British East India companies were chartered by their respective governments. - Had power to make war and govern conquered peoples. Established their own trading post empires. - Dutch empire was focused on Indonesia. Controlled both shipping and production of cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, and mace. - Seized small spice-producing islands and forced people to sell only to the Dutch. - Dutch killed or enslaved almost the entire population of the Banda Islands (15,000 people); replaced them with Dutch planters and slaves. - Destroyed the local economy of the Spice Islands; made the Dutch rich.

Mamlukes/ Mamelukes

Turkic military slaves who formed an important part of the armed forces of the Abbasid Caliphate of 9th-10th C.E. - Mamluks eventually founded their own state, ruling Egypt and Syria (1250-1517). - Defeated the Mongols at Ain Jalut in 1260 and halted Mongol advance.

Moscow/ Russia/ Tsarist Russian Empire

Turkic warrior Timur (Tamerlane) tried to restore the Mongol Empire ca. 1400. - In the following centuries, the steppe nomads' homeland was swallowed up in the expanding Russian empire. The process of expansion occurred at the same time that a distinctive state was taking shape. A small Russian state centered on Moscow began to emerge ca. 1500. - Moscow began to conquer neighboring cities and over three centuries grew into a massive empire. - Early expansion into the grasslands to south and east was for security against nomads. Conquest was made possible by modern weapons and organization. - Defeated peoples swore allegiance to the tsar, paid tribute, and were pressured to convert to Christianity. There were some tolerance of Islamic subjects (e.g., Catherine the Great). - With imperial expansion, Russians became a smaller proportion of the overall population. Rich agricultural lands, furs, and minerals helped make Russia a great power by the eighteenth century. - Became an Asian power as well as a European one. Expansion made Russia a very militarized state, reinforced autocracy, and colonization experience was different from the Americas. - Profits of fur trade were the chief incentive for Russian expansion. - Had a similar toll on native Siberians as it had on Indians; fur animal depletion and reliance on Russia goods. - Russians didn't have competition, so they forced Siberians to provide furs instead of negotiating commercial agreements. - Private Russian hunters and trappers competed directly with Siberians. Christianity motivated and benefited from European expansion. Russian Orthodox missionaries worked in Siberia. - Poles and the Ukrainians became more aware of their oppression within the Russian Empire, sparking nationalist movements. - Russian tsar freed serfs in his country in part because of fear of rebellion and moral concerns. Concerns similar to those that drove the abolition of slavery in the Atlantic world, including uprisings, morality, and economic inefficiency.

Italian City-states (e.g. Venice, Genoa)

Venice, Milan, Florence, Papal Sates, Naples, each Italian "power" had their own monarch. - Competition among city-states meant that Italy did not unify politically. Political disunity lead to their downfall in the late 15th century. Major City States in Italy Republic of Florence (included Genoa) were the center of the Renaissance. - Rome, the Papal States: popes served both as religious and political leaders; controlled much of central Itlay - Venice, Venetian Republic: longest lasting of the Italian states (did not succumb to foreign powers until Napoleon conquered it in the early 1800s).Greatest maritime power in Italy and one of the world's great naval and trading powers. - Naples, Kingdom of the Two sicilies: Included southern Italian region of Sicily. Only Italian city-state to have a king. Controlled by France between 1266-1435 and later controlled by Spain after 1435.

Haiti

Was a French Caribbean colony, regarded as the richest colony in the world. - Vast majority of population were slaves. Around 500,000 slaves, 40,000 whites, 30,000 "free people of color." - Example of the French Revolution sparked a spiral of violence, but revolution meant different things to different people. - Massive slave revolt began in 1791. Became a war between a number of factions. - Power gradually shifted to the slaves, who were led by former slave Toussaint Louverture. - Result was a unique revolution—the only completely successful slave revolt in world history. - Renamed Saint Domingue into the country Haiti ("mountainous" in Taino.) - Identified themselves with the original native inhabitants. Declared equality for all races. - Divided up plantations among small farmers. - Haiti's success generated great hope and great fear. - Created new "insolence" among slaves elsewhere, inspired other slave rebellions. - Caused horror among whites, led to social conservatism. - Increased slavery elsewhere, as plantations claimed Haiti's market share. - Napoleon's defeat in Haiti convinced him to sell Louisiana Territory to the United States.

Amerindians (Huron, Algonquians, Iroquois)

Were almost completely subjugated by the Spanish, and were placed at bottom of social structure. - After many Amerindians died from disease transmitted by contact with Europeans, a vigorous slave trade from Africa began and continued throughout most of the era. Huron: Europeans usually traded with Indians for furs or skins, rather than hunting or trapping animals themselves. - Beaver and other furry animals were driven to near extinction. By the 1760s, hunters in the southeastern British colonies took around 500,000 deer every year. - Trade was profitable for the Indians. Received many goods of real value. - Huron chiefs enhanced their authority with control of European goods. - Took side with the French in the century-long (1664-1763) French-British rivalry for North America. Algonquians: Became dependent on European trade goods: iron tools and cooking pots, gunpowder weapons, and European textiles. As a result, many traditional crafts were lost. - Fur trade generated much higher levels of inter-Indian warfare. Many animal species were depleted through over-hunting. - Fell prey to European diseases. Held "mourning wars" to get captives to replenish societies devastated by disease.. - Deeply destructive power of alcohol ruined Indian societies. Iroquois: Central New York State; Iroquois speakers had become fully agricultural (maize and beans) by around 1300. - Population grew, emergence of distinct peoples. - Rise of warfare as key to male prestige (perhaps since women did the farming, so males were no longer needed for getting food). - Warfare triggered the creation of the Iroquois confederation by an agreement (the Great Law of Peace) to adjudicate disputes. - The Iroquois League of Five Nations ended blood feuds and tribal conflicts; coordinated Iroquois relations with outsiders. - Some European colonists appreciated Iroquois values of social equality and personal freedom (even for women). - Descent was matrilineal. Married couples lived with the wife's family. - Women selected and could depose officeholders. Also controlled agriculture.

Yoruba Kingdoms (Igbo, Ife, Oyo, Benin, Hausa)

Yoruba created city-states, each ruled by a king (oba), many of whom were women and who performed both religious and political functions. - Peoples traded among themselves and beyond. Mostly avoided oppressive authority, class inequalities, and seclusion of women typical of other civilizations. - Igbo: Dense population and trade, but purposely rejected kingship and state building. Relied on other institutions to maintain social cohesion. System was made famous in Chinua Achebe's novel Things Fall Apart. - Ife: Capital of a kingdom with a lot of sculptures in the West African rain forest. Seen as the birthplace of the Yoruba, the holiest city. Was an agricultural society dominated by a ruling family and an aristocracy. - Oyo: Had a king who used nobles in provinces. Secret society of Ogboni checked the king's power. - Benin: Centralized territorial state ruled by a warrior king named Ewuare. He patronized artists who created brass sculptures. - Hausa: Peoples of northern Nigeria; formed states following the demise of Songhay empire that combined Muslim and pagan traditions. Largest City state at Kano. - All shifted from matrilineal to patrilineal system.