APES 8

37. Explain the connections among low-sulfur coal, atmospheric warming and toxic mercury.

-Lowering SO2 emissions by switching from high sulfur to low sulfur coals increases CO2 emissions that contribute to atmospheric warming and projected climate change -This occurs because low sulfur coal has a lower hear value, which means that more coal must be burned to generate a given amount of electricity -Low sulfur coal also has higher levels of toxic mercury and other trace metals, so burning it emits more hazardous chemicals to the atmosphere

47. What has the world done to reduce the threat of ozone depletion in the stratosphere?

-Montreal Protocol: Treaty to cut emissions of CFCs -Copenhagen Amendment: Accelerated the phaseout of key ozone-depleting chemicals

69. Briefly describe the possible effects of a warmer atmosphere on sea ice and land-based ice, permafrost, and sea levels.

-More ice melting in summer months -Volume of Arctic sea ice has declined -Positive feedback Loop: accelerating melting of Arctic ice, causes further warming, which speeds up the melting -Permafrost is being thawed out -Rise in sea levels leading to disruption of coastal fisheries, degradation of 1/3 of wetlands, coral reefs, and deltas where rice is grown

32. What is the equation for Photochemical Smog?

-Photo chemical smog is a mixture of primary and secondary pollutants formed under the influence of UV radiation from the sun VOCs + NOx + Heat + Sunlight = Ground level ozone (O3), other photochemcial oxidants, alehydes, other secondary pollutants

42. Using Figure 18-25, what are some solution to Air Pollution?

-Prevention: Burn low sulfur coal or remove sulfur from coal, convert coal to a liquid or gaseous fuel, switch from coal to natural gas and renewables -Reduction of dispersal: Disperse emissions which increase downwind pollution using tall smokestacks, remove pollutants from smokestack gases, tax each unit of pollution produced

36. Using Figure 18-15, what are the solutions to Acid Deposition?

-Prevention: Reduce coal use and burn only low sulfur coal, use natural gas and renewable energy resources, remove SO2 and NOx from smokestack gases and remove NOx from motor vehicular exhaust -Cleanup: Add lime to neutralize acidified lakes, add phosphate fertilizer to neutralize acidified lakes, add lime to neutralize acidified soils

62. What are greenhouse gases and how do they affect the atmosphere?

-Primarily water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous acid -Heat radiated into the atmosphere by the earth causes molecules of these gases to vibrate and release infrared radiation with longer wavelengths into the lower atmosphere -Warms lower atmosphere and earth's surface

1. acid deposition

The falling of acids and acid-forming compounds from the atmosphere to the earth's surface. Acid deposition is commonly known as acid rain, a term that refers to the wet deposition of droplets of acids and acid-forming compounds

51. ocean acidification

Increasing levels of acid in world's oceans due to their absorption of much of the emitted into the atmosphere by human activities, especially the burning of carbon-containing fossil fuels. The reacts with ocean water to form a weak acid and decreases the levels of carbonate ions needed to form coral and the shells and skeletons of organisms such as crabs, oysters, and some phytoplankton.

38. What is the major indoor air pollutant in developing countries?

Indoor burning of wood, charcoal, dung, crop residues, coal, and other fuels in open fires or in unvented or poorly vented stoves exposes people to dangerous levels of particulate air pollution

28. troposphere

Innermost layer of the atmosphere. It contains about 75% of the mass of earth's air and extends about 17 kilometers (11 miles) above sea level.

27. temperature inversion

Layer of dense, cool air trapped under a layer of less dense, warm air. It prevents upward-flowing air currents from developing. In a prolonged inversion, air pollution in the trapped layer may build up to harmful levels.

18. ozone layer

Layer of gaseous ozone in the stratosphere that protects life on earth by filtering out most harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

59. Summarize the trends in atmospheric warming and cooling over the past 900,000 years and during the last century.

-Alternating cycles of freezing and thawing known as glacial and interglacial periods -Atmosphere has been experiencing prolonged periods of global cooling and warming -Interglacial period: Stable climate based mostly on steady global average surface temperature

71. What are the possible effects of climate disruption on biodiversity, food production, and human health and economies?

-Biodiversity: Forest loss, rain forests dry out and become more prone to burning causing 30% of the land-based plant and animal species assesed to disappear increase populations of insects and fungi that damage trees -Food production: heat waves and droughts destroyed wheat crop, corn harvest was down 13% -Health: raise number of deaths and illnesses hinder fight against childhood mortality and malnutrition Favor insects, microbes, toxic molds, and fungi that make us sick

84. Using Figure 19-28, how can you reduce your CO2 Emissions?

-Calculate carbon footprint -Drive fuel efficient car, walk, bike, carpool, mass transit -Reduce garbage by reducing consumption, recycling, and reusing more items -Eat less meat -Plant trees -LED lightbulbs

40. Using Figure 18-17, what are some major Indoor Air Pollutants in your home?

-Carbon monoxide -Abestos -Particulates -Nitrogen oxides -Trichloroethane -Styrene -Radon-222 -Formaldehyde

44. What gases are responsible for ozone depletion in the stratosphere?

-Chloroflucarbon (CFC) known as Freon -Halons -Hydrobromoflurocarbons (HBFCs) -Methyl bromide -Hydrogen chloride -Cleaning solvents: Carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, n-propylbromide

67. How do scientists use models to make projections about future temperature changes?

-Climate models project that rising CO2 emissions and atmospheric temperatures could bring out significant changes in the earth's climate that are likely to cause major ecological and economic disruption in the latter half of this century

17. ozone (pollutant)

-Colorless and highly reactive gas -Major ingredient of photochemical smog -Can cause coughing and breathing problems, aggravate lung and heart diseases, reduce resistance to colds and pneumonia, and irritate the eyes, nose, and throat -Damages plants, rubber in tires, fabrics, and paints -Good in stratosphere, bad in troposphere

15. nitrous oxide

-Colorless gas that forms when nitrogen and oxygen gas in the air react under high combustion temperatures in automobile engines and coal burning power and industrial plants

5. carbon dioxide

-Colorless, odorless gas -Results from natural carbon cycle and human activities like burning fossil fuels -Contribute to climate change

6. carbon monoxide

-Colorless, odorless, and highly toxic gas that forms during the incomplete combustion of carbon containing materials -Sources include motor vehicle exhaust, burning of forests and grasslands, smokestacks of fossil fuel-burning power plants and industries, tobacco smoke, and open fires and inefficient stoves used for cooking

85. Using Figure 19-29, what can be done to prepare for Climate Disruption?

-Connect wildlife reserves with corridors -Waste less water -Develop crops that need less water -Expand existing wildlife reserves towards poles

34. Using Figure 18-12, what are the sources of the chemicals that lead to acid deposition?

-Consists of rain, snow, dust, or gas with a pH lower than 5.6 -Factories produce sulfur dioxide and NO -Cars produce acid fog which leads to Nitric oxide which transforms to sulfuric acid and nitric acid

35. What are the major environmental impacts from acid deposition on vegetation, lakes, human-built structures and human health?

-Damages statues and buildings, contributes to human respiratory diseases, and can leach toxic metals such as lead and mercury from soils and rocks into lakes used as sources of drinking water -Toxic metals released can accumulate in tissues of fish eaten by people -Harms aquatic ecosystems because fish cannot survive in water with pH less than 4.5, and acid precipitation can release aluminum ions attached to minerals in the soils that leads to the suffocation of many kinds of fish by stimulating excessive mucus formation, which clogs their gills -Low pH reduces plant productivity and the ability of soils to buffer acidic inputs -In forests, it leaches essential plant nutrients such as calcium and magnesium and it releases ions of aluminum, lead, cadmium, and mercury which are toxic to the trees

16. nitric acid

-Formed when NO2 reacts with water vapor

61. List five pieces of evidence that indicate that the atmosphere has been warming since 1975.

-Global surface temperature has rise by about 0.8 degrees Celcius -First decade in this century was the warmest decade since 1881, and 2012 was the warmest year on record -Glaciers are melting at increasing rates -Floating Arctic sea ice is shrinking -Worlds average sea level rose by 19 centimeters during the 20th century

41. Describe the human body's defenses against air pollution, how they can be overwhelmed, and the illnesses that can result.

-Respiratory system protects from air pollution: hairs in nose filter out large particles, sticky mucus captures smaller particles and dissolves gaseous pollutants, sneezing and couching expel contaminated air -Cilia transports mucus and the pollutants it traps to be expelled -Prolonged or acute exposure to air pollutants can overload or break down these natural defenses -Particulates in lungs contribute to lung cancer, asthma, heart attack and stroke -Smoking or breathing polluted air for years can lead to chronic bronchitis and emphysema

39. What are the top three indoor air pollutants in the United States?

-Smokers -Pesticide residues and lead particulates collect in carpets and furnishings -Living organisms and their excrement exposes to dust mites and cockroach droppings

12. lead (Pb)

-Soft gray metal used to make various products including lead-acid batteries and bullets, and it was once a common ingredient of gasoline and paints -Indestructible and potent neurotoxin that can harm the nervous system

46. Using Figure 18-22, what are some ways to reduce your UV Exposure?

-Stay out of the sun -Do not use tanning parlors or sunlamps -Wear clothing and sunglasses that protect against UV-A and UV-B radiation -Be aware overcast skies do not protect you -No exposure to sun on antibiotics or BC pills -Pf of at least 15

64. What is the role of water vapor in the atmosphere and how does it relate to other greenhouse gases in the warming process?

-Stays in the atmosphere for only 1 to 3 weeks on average compared to years for other gases -Accounts for 66% of the earth's greenhouse effect

30. Using the Core Case Study, describe the nature, origin, and harmful effects of the massive South Asian Brown Clouds.

-The clouds contain small particles of dust, smoke, and ash resulting from drought and from the clearing and burning of forests for planting crops -Contain soot from diesel engine exhaust and burning of biomass, particles of toxic metals such as mercury and lead -Instead of blue skies, people living under this cloud could see brown or gray polluted skies much of the year

33. How does a temperature inversion affect air pollution levels?

-Under certain atmospheric conditions, a layer of warm air can temporarily lie atop the cooler air nearer the ground -Because the cooler air is denser than the warmer air above it, the air surface does not rise and mix with the air above -This causes pollutants to build up to harmful and even lethal concentrations in the stagnant layer of cool air near the ground

19. particulates

-Variety of solid particles and liquid droplets that are small and light enough to remain suspended in the air for long periods

58. Explain why weather and climate are not the same.

-Weather consists of short-term changes in atmospheric variables such as the temperature, precipitation, wind, and barometric pressure in a given area over a period of hours or days -Climate is determined by the average weather conditions of the earth or a particular area, especially temperature and precipitation, over periods of at lease three decades to thousands of years

63. What are three key greenhouse gases and how do they differ in atmospheric lifetimes and warming potentials?

1. CO2: 100 years 2. CH4: 12 years 3. N2O: 114 years

82. Give two examples of what some countries are doing on their own to deal with climate change.

1. Costa Rica aims to be the first country to become carbon neutral by cutting its net carbon emissions to zero by 2030 2. China and India are shifting toward more sustainable, low carbon economic development by leapfrogging over the traditional forms of economic development

78. Using Figure 19-22, what are some ways to Slow Climate Disruption?

1. Improve energy efficiency to reduce fossil fuel use, especially the use of coal 2. Shift from carbon based fossil fuels to low carbon renewable energy resources based on local and regional avalability 3. Stop cutting down tropical forests and plant trees to help remove CO2 from atmosphere 4. Shift to more sustainable and climate friendly agriculture

81. What are three ways in which governments can cooperate internationally to deal with projected climate change?

1. Kyoto Protocol: International agreement 2. Technology transfer 3. Efforts to protect large forests, especially tropical rainforests

77. What are two basic approaches to dealing with the projected harmful effects of global climate disruption?

1. Mitigation: act to slow it and avoid climate change tipping points 2. Adaptation: Recognize that some climate change is unavoidable and try to reduce some of its harmful effects

76. Whay are five factors that make it difficult to deal with the problem of projected climate disruption?

1. Problem is global 2. Long-term political issue 3. Harmful and beneficial impacts of climate disruption are not spread evenly 4. Proposed solutions are controversial 5. Humans are not "hard wired" to respond to long-term threats

31. Using Figure 18-2, list Earth's atmospheric layers in order from the surface outward, be sure to include the change in temperature.

1. Trophosphere: Temperature decreases 2. Stratosphere: Temperature rises 3. Mesosphere: Temperature decreases 4. Thermosphere: Temperature rises

25. sulfur dioxide

A colorless pungent toxic gas formed by burning sulfur in air

22. radon

A radioactive element that is formed, as a gas, during the breakdown of radium. Radon exposure is the second leading cause of lung cancer

80. Using Figure 19-25, what are the trade-off of Cap-and-Trade Policies?

Advantages: -Clear legal limit on emissions -Rewards cuts in emissions -Record of success -Low expense for consumers Disadvantages: -Revenues not predictable -Vulnerable to cheating -Rich polluters can keep polluting -Puts variable price on carbon

79. Using Figure 19-24, what are the trade-offs of Carbon & Energy Taxes?

Advantages: -Simple to administer -Clear price on carbon -Covers all emitters -Predictable revenues Disadvantages: -Tax laws can get complex -Vulnerable to loopholes -Doesn't guarantee lower emissions -Politically unpopular

65. Using Figure 19-8, describe the Atmospheric Temp & CO2 levels.

As the CO2 levels have risen, the temperature has also risen

66. List the major human activities that add CO2, CH4, and N2O to the atmosphere.

Burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and agriculture

21. primary pollutants

Chemical that has been added directly to the air by natural events or human activities and occurs in a harmful concentration

83. Give two examples of what some companies are doing and two examples of what some colleges and universities have done to reduce their carbon footprints.

Companies: 1. Climate Action Partnership have enacted strong national climate change legislation 2. Dupont slashed its energy usage and cut greenhouse emissions Colleges: 1. ASU has largest collection of solar panels of any American University 2. EARTH University in Costa Rica has a mssion to promote more sustainable development in tropical countries

20. photochemical smog

Complex mixture of air pollutants produced in the lower atmosphere by the reaction of hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides under the influence of sunlight. Especially harmful components include ozone, peroxyacyl nitrates (PANs), and various aldehydes.

54. drought

Condition in which an area does not get enough water because of lower-than-normal precipitation or higher-than-normal temperatures that increase evaporation

52. positive feedback loop

Feedback loop that causes a system to change further in the same direction

53. negative feedback loop

Feedback loop that causes a system to change in the opposite direction from which is it moving

11. industrial smog

Type of air pollution consisting mostly of a mixture of sulfur dioxide, suspended droplets of sulfuric acid formed from some of the sulfur dioxide, and suspended solid particles

23. secondary pollutants

Harmful chemical formed in the atmosphere when a primary air pollutant reacts with normal air components or other air pollutants

70. Explain how atmospheric warming, global drought, extreme weather, and an intensified water cycle are related.

Higher temperatures due to atmospheric warming are intensifying the water cycle and adding more water vapor to the atmosphere

45. Using Figure 18-31, what are the effects of Ozone Depletion?

Human Health : -Worse sunburns -More eye cataracts and skin cancers -Immune system suppression Food and forests: -Reduced yields for crops -Decreased forest productivity for UV sensitive tree species -Smaller phytoplankton pops Air Pollution and climate change: -Increased acid deposition -Increased photochemical smog Wildlife: -Disruption of aquatic food webs -Shrinking populations

60. How do scientists get information about past temperatures and climates?

Ice cores are extracted by drilling deep holes in ancient glaciers at various sites, analysis of ice cores yields information about the past composition of the lower atmopshere

56. greenhouse effect

Natural effect that releases heat in the atmosphere near the earth's surface. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, and other gases in the lower atmosphere (troposphere) absorb some of the infrared radiation (heat) radiated by the earth's surface. Their molecules vibrate and transform the absorbed energy into longer-wavelength infrared radiation in the troposphere. If the atmospheric concentrations of these greenhouse gases increase and other natural processes do not remove them, the average temperature of the lower atmosphere will increase

14. nitrogen oxide

Nitric Oxide and Nitrogen dioxide

2. air pollution

One or more chemicals in high enough concentrations in the air to harm humans, other animals, vegetation, or materials. Excess heat is also considered a form of air pollution. Such chemicals or physical conditions are called air pollutants

49. climate

Physical properties of the troposphere of an area based on analysis of its weather records over a long period (at least 30 years). The two main factors determining an area's climate are its average temperature, with its seasonal variations, and the average amount and distribution of precipitation.

50. climate change tipping points

Point at which an environmental problem reaches a threshold level where scientists fear it could cause irreversible climate disruption

43. Using Figure 18-27, what are some solutions to Indoor Air Pollution?

Prevention: Ban indoor smoking, set stricter formaldehyde emissions standards for carpet, furniture, and building materials, prevent radon infiltration, and use naturally based cleaning agents and paints -Reduction and Dilution: Use adjustable fresh air vents for work spaces, circulate air more frequently, circulate buildings air through rooftop greenhouses, and use solar cookers and efficient, vented woodburning stoves

57. carbon capture and storage

Process of removing carbon dioxide gas from coal-burning power and industrial plants and storing it somewhere (usually underground or under the seabed) so that it is not released into the atmosphere, essentially forever

24. stratosphere

Second layer of the atmosphere, extending about 17-48 kilometers (11-30 miles) above the earth's surface. It contains small amounts of gaseous ozone , which filters out about 95% of the incoming harmful ultraviolet radiation emitted by the sun

68. Explain how each of the following might contribute to projected atmospheric warming and resulting global climate: disruption, a hotter sun, the oceans, cloud cover, air pollution

Sun: -Atmosphere is heating from the bottom up -Earths surface play the more important role in atmospheric warming Oceans: -Absorb heat and CO2 -Ability for oceans to absorb CO2 decreases as water temperatures rise, so it is released into the lower atmosphere -More acidic Cloud cover: Increase in think cirrus clouds cause more warming of atmosphere by preventing heat from escaping into space Ait pollution: -Temporarily slow atmospheric warming depending on size and reflectivity

7. Clean Air Act

United States federal law designed to control air pollution on a national level. It is one of the United States' first and most influential modern environmental laws, and one of the most comprehensive air quality laws in the world

3. atmosphere

Whole mass of air surrounding the earth

8. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

any of a class of compounds of carbon, hydrogen, chlorine, and fluorine, typically gases used in refrigerants and aerosol propellants. They are harmful to the ozone layer in the earth's atmosphere owing to the release of chlorine atoms from exposure to ultraviolet radiation

29. volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

chemicals used to manufacture and maintain building materials, interior furnishing, cleaning products and personal care products

26. sulfuric acid

dark brown depending on its purity and used to manufacture a wide variety of chemicals and materials including fertilizers, paints, detergents, and explosives

55. geoengineering

he deliberate large-scale manipulation of an environmental process that affects the earth's climate, in an attempt to counteract the effects of global warming

9. Kyoto Protocol

international treaty among industrialized nations that sets mandatory limits on greenhouse gas emissions

13. Montreal Protocol

international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion

48. albedo

the fraction of incident radiation (such as light) that is reflected by a surface or body (such as the moon or a cloud)

4. atmospheric pressure

the pressure exerted by the earth's atmosphere at any given point, being the product of the mass of the atmospheric column of the unit area above the given point and of the gravitational acceleration at the given point

10. indoor air pollution

toxic contaminants that we encounter in our daily lives in our homes, schools and workplaces