APES- Chapters 4- 21

population change

(births + immigration) - (deaths + emigration)

decomposers

(mostly bacteria), which break down organic compounds in the dead bodies and wastes of aquatic organisms into nutrients that aquatic primary producers can use

energy efficiency

***IS THE BEST IMMEDIATE ENERGY OPTION AND IS THE CHEAPEST TO OBTAIN*** For the home: -use passive solar energy (most efficient) -lowering the thermostat in winter/ do not use fans/ raise AC in summer -use energy star compliant appliances -use modern super-insulators -use modern insulated windows -use a instant tankless hot water heater -do NOT use electricity for heating purposes -recycle and reuse materials -increase fuel efficiency of cars -switch to LED lights -unplug appliances not being used (eliminate *GHOST LOADS*)

electricity use calculations

*Electricity used + (watts used x time used) -typical incandescent light bulbs use 100 w -cost of electricity : usually people are charged per kWh

Temperate Deciduous Forest

*an example of where we live -warm summers, cold winters -precipitation is abundant -a few broad leaf trees dominate : *oak, hickory, maple, poplar, sycamore; fewer species than tropical* -lose leaves in fall -low rate of decomposition causes a thick layer of leaf litter; stores nutrients -Animals: black bears, wolves, foxes, wildcats, mountain lions, squirrels, rabbits, raccoons, mice *DEER very abundant

-succulent (fleshy) plants (sponge-like)

*found in deserts *vertical orientation of most surfaces *no leaves *store water and synthesize food in expandable, fleshy tissue *less surface area exposed to the sun

coniferous evergreen plants (cone-bearing, all year round)

*polar *cone bearing *cones protect seeds *thin leaves called needles

forest fires usually occur in grassland and forest biomes

*releasing nutrients into the soil *reducing the number of pests and diseases

deciduous plants (loses their leaves )

*temperate : lose leaves to prevent loss of heat in winter *tropical : lose leaves to prevent loss of water during the dry season

broadleaf evergreen plants

*tropical *keep leaves year round *leaves have large surface area; allows more sunlight to be absorbed and to radiate heat when hot

animal feedlots

- Advantages: Increased meat production, higher profits, less land use, reduced overgrazing, reduced soil erosion, help protect biodiversity - Disadvantages: Need large inputs of grain, fish meal, water, and fossil fuels, Concentrate animal wastes that can pollute water, Antibiotics can increase genetic resistance to microbes in humans

transition zone

- as streams merge, channels widen and deepen -water warms -more producers -cool-warm water fish (black bass) -slightly lower oxygen levels

life In the desert (for plants)

- few or no leaves -deep roots to get ground water -widely spread shallow roots to get water after a rainfall, stored in fleshy tissue -spines to protect from herbivores -sagebrush and creosote secrete toxins in the soil to reduce competition

movement of tectonic plates (continents):

- greatly influenced the earth's climate and helped determine where plants and animals can live -allowed species to move and adapt to new environments and form new species through natural selection

age structure

- the number of people in young, middle and older age groups determines how fast populations grow or decline - the number of people younger than age 15 is the major determining a country's population growth

chestnut blight

- was accidentally introduced to north America around 1900-1908, either through imported chestnut lumber or through imported chestnut trees -by 1940, mature American chestnut trees were almost wiped out by the disease

sustainable agriculture

- we are close to our agricultural limit -slowing population growth may help -growing organically-> use more natural interactions to increase yields, use less commercial + industrial processes, no antibiotics for animals - organically raised and free range animals are the most "natural"

africanized honey bees

-"killer bees"- are hybrids of the African honey bee, with various European honey bees -aggressive -small swarms of AHB's are capable of taking over European honey bee hives by invading the hive establishing their own queen

Government Policies

-1972 (amended in 1977) CLEAN WATER ACT - in 1972, 36% of tested rivers and lakes were safe to fish and swim in- by 1998 it rose to 62% -1987 Water Quality Act -1995 EPA: discharge trading policy act: one company sells credits for its reduction to another which can not reduce as cheaply

composition of coal

-25-98% combustible carbon -much smaller amounts of H2O, S, Hg 1)Anthracite coal (metamorphic rock) -longer period of time to form -cleaner 2)Bituminous coal (sedimentary rock) -higher sulfur content -more abundant -"dirty"

conventional natural gas

-50-90% methane -smaller amounts of ethane, propane, butane -hydrogen sulfide -conventional natural gas is found above reservoirs of crude oil -unconventional natural gas (methane hydrate is trapped in bubbles in permafrost- currently too expensive to use)

Chaparral

-A temperate shrub land -coastal areas: South Texas, Pacific NW, NE Mexico -Dense growth of law-growing evergreen shrubs, leathery leaves, large underground root systems -Arizona Chaparral

Kissimmee River, Florida

-After the river channel was straightened (straightened with a bulldozer) and 40,000 acres of floodplains below Lake Kissimmee dried out, reducing the quality of waterfowl (birds) habitats -catches of largemouth boss in the river were consistently worse after the channelization -channelization: inhibits flooding; river flows/ velocity flow; increases water temp; lined with concrete -1970's + the river contributed about 25% of the nitrogen and 20% of the phosphorus flowing into the lake

geothermal

-US is the largest producer -Iceland generates majority of power needs advantages -high efficiency -low land use -lower CO2 emissions than fossil fuels disadvantages -need to be located near magma (for electricity) -high cost -high air pollution -noise and odor -can't be used for transportation

Milwaukee 1993 tap water disaster

-intake was downstream of sewage discharge -thousands sickened with a bacteria (cryptosporidium) -intake was placed farther from share and ozone used as a disinfectant

Oil spills

-more oil Is leaked into the oceans by normal operations than by accident -oil coats the feathers of birds; making it impossible to fly- and the fire of marine mammals, disrupting their insulation and buoyancy

predators methods for helping capture prey

-most likely go for the sick, old and weak prey -this make more resources available for the strong prey; and may improve the genetic stock -ambush by using camouflage

littoral zone (freshwater)

-near the shore and shallow sunlit waters near shore to a water depth where rooted plants stop growing -high biodiversity: phytoplankton, rooted plants, floating plants, decomposers, frogs, snails, insects

Human Interference in mountain biomes

-non native animals, and people are encroaching as humans develop more -tourism and recreation (skiing) -pollution

A more sustainable water future

-not depleting aquifers -preserving ecological health of aquatic systems -preserving water quality -integrated watershed management -wasting less water -slowing population growth -increased subsidies to reduce water waste

use of nuclear power

-nuclear power plants begun development in the late 1950s and 60s ~promises of cheaper and cleaner fuel -government regulates all nuclear power plants (NRC: Nuclear Regulatory Commission)

coevolution

-occurs when 2 species interact over a long period of time -micro evolutionary changes in one species will also occur in other species

habitat fragmentation (human impact on ecosystem)

-occurs when large area of habitat such as forest or grassland is divided, typically by roads, logging operations, crop fields, and urban development- into isolated patches or *habitat islands* -decreases tree cover, inhibits migration and creates smaller isolated groups of a species- this increases the spread of disease, vulnerability to predators, and decreased mating opportunities

Ocean pollution

-ocean can dilute and disperse much more than rivers + lakes -deeps ocean burial is a short term solution -little is known on how the environment would be affected and how the deep ocean works

the oceans

-on a per area basis, the oceans are not a very productive ecosystem -giant reservoir for carbon dioxide -provides habitats to voer 250,000 species -disperses and dilutes human pollution

limnetic zone (freshwater)

-open sunlit layer; away from shore -as deep as sunlight penetrates -contains most photosynthesis + producers; oxygen top

Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977

-required mining companies to restore the land to be used as it was previously -many abandoned mines have not been restored

solutions for sustainable use of nonrenewable minerals

-reuse or recycle metal products whenever possible -redesign manufacturing to use less mineral resources -reduce mining subsidies -increase subsidies for reuse, recycling, and finding substitutions

legislation

1947 (1972) FIFRA Federal Insecticide,Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act -> EPA must approve all pesticides Environmentally Friendly Options: Plant crops during cycles of low infestation Vaccuum up pests Genetically Engineer more resistance crops Introduce the pest's natural predators Radiation-> sterilize pests Use genetically engineered biopesticides that specifically target the pest you want eliminated

coal

1st stage: peat 2nd stage: lignite 3rd stage: bituminous coal 4th stage: anthracite coal

postreproduction ages

45-85+

how do species interact?

5 interactions- interspecific competition, predation, parasitism, mutualism, commensalism

Weathering

A)Parent material (bedrock) is broken down (weathered) by 3 main processes: 1) Biological activity: tree roots, lichens, moss 2)chemical weathering: water, acid 3)Physical weathering: wind, thermal expansion + contraction, water freezing

POISONS

A. Legally, a poison is: A chemical that has an LD50 of 50mg or less per kg of body weight ****LD50 is the median lethal dose: the amount of chemical received in one dose that kills 50% of the animals in a test population of mice and/or rats within a 14 day period****

Pesticides and Pest Control

A. PEST: Any species that competes with us for food, invades lawns & gardens, destroys wood in houses, spreads disease, or is a nuisance B. Pesticide: chemicals to kill organisms we consider undesirable and include: - Insecticide: insect killers - Herbicide: weed killers - Fungicides: fungus killers - Nematocides: round worm killers - Rodenticide: rodent killers C. Problems with pesticides 1.Long persistence: decades to centuries 2. Small percentage reaches target -->some pesticides spayed on fields often blow into surrounding forest, contaminating habitats 3. Harmful to wildlife that ingests food contaminated with the pesticide 4. **Bald Eagle eggs shells were weakened** 5. Wash off into bodies of water 6. Pests develop genetic resistance

Chemical Hazards

A. Toxic Chemical: fatal to more than 50% of test animals- at any time B. Hazardous Chemical: flammable, explosive, irritating, damaging, interfering with oxygen intake, or causing an allergic reaction C.Mutagen: chemicals/ionizing radiation that cause mutations. D.Teratogen: chemicals, radiation, and/or viruses that cause birth defects in an embryo E.Carcinogen: chemicals, radiation, or viruses that cause or promote a malignant tumor.

Shortens average life span in the U.S. by

Hazard Poverty Born male Smoking Overweight (35%) Unmarried Overweight (15%) Spouse smoking Driving Air pollution Alcohol Drug abuse Flu AIDS Drowning Pesticides Fire Natural radiation Medical X rays Oral contraceptives Toxic waste Flying Hurricanes, tornadoes Lifetime near nuclear plant

Who owned Love Canal before it was sold to a School District Housing Development ?

Hooker chemical company

An environmentalist goes to the grocery store. The check-out person asks what kind of bag they would like. The environmentalist says:

I brought my own bag

infant mortality rate

The total number of deaths in a year among infants under one year old for every 1,000 live births in a society.

population curve- overshooting

a population may "overshoot" its carrying capacity due to a reproductive lag time and the population may suffer a die back or population crash

rotation of the earth on its axis-

as the earth rotates around its axis, the equator spins faster than the regions in its north and south as a result heated air masses, that are rising about the equator are being deflected in different ways over different parts of the planet's surface

how much is the worlds population growing

at a rate of 1.2%

Infectious Agents

bacteria. viruses, protozoa, parasitic worms: from human and animal waste

balance of nature

balance between organisms and their environment

life in the desert (keys to survive)

beat the heat and every drop of water counts

perennial crops

crops that do not die at the end of the growing season but live for several years, which means they can be harvested annually without replanting

organic agriculure

in which crops are grown with the use of ecological sound and sustainable methods and without the use of synthetic pesticides , synthetic inorganic fertilizers and genetically engineered plants or animals

different species compete for resources in 2 main ways

interference competition and exploitation competition

Which of the following is most difficult and expensive to recycle?

plastics

facilitation (affect rate of succession)

in which one set of species makes an area suitable for species with different nich requirements and often less suitable for itself ex) lichen and mosses break down rock into soit, making the ground more suitable for herbs and grasses

inhibition

in which some species hinder the establishment and growth of other species ex)plants release toxic chemicals to reduce competition from other organisms

what factors influence climate?

incoming solar energy, the earth's rotation, global patterns of air and water movement, gases in the atmosphere, and the earth's surface features

traditional intensive agriculture

increased human labor, animals, fertilizers and water for higher yields/production for family and to sell for income

Ore

rock containing one or more metallic minerals to be mined profitably -high grade: highly concentrated with desired mineral -low grade: low concentration of desired mineral

sediment

sand, silt, soil from erosion

stability

the ability of a population to maintain a certain size -is maintained only by constant change in response to changing environmental conditions

resilience

the ability of a population to return to its former condition after a period of stress (severe disturbance)

genetic resistance

the ability of one or more organisms in a population to tolerate a chemical designed to kill it

crude death rate

the number of deaths per 1,000 people in a population in a given year

species richness

the number of different species in an given area -high in tropics and declines as you move from the equator

limiting factor principle

too much or too little of any physical or chemical factor can limit or prevent growth of a population, even if all other factors are at or near the optimal range of tolerance

Directional Natural selection

traits at the one end of "normal", now become the "middle" of normal"

Permafrost

underground soil in which captured water stays frozen for more than 2 consecutive years.

fossil records

uneven and incomplete of the entire body of evidence used by drilling in different cores -most forms of life have left no fossils and only 1% of all species have been found

What is phytoremediation

use of plants to detoxify wastes

does specie richness enhance the stability or sustainabilyt of an ecosystem?

yes , the ecosystem will produce more plant biomass and support a greater variety of consumer species

Which of the following can be recovered from solid waste and recycled ?

paper, metal, plastic (all of them)

endemic species

- are vulnerable to extinction -species that are found in only one area such as tropical forests were species have highly standardized roles

extinction notes:

- as environmental conditions change, a species may adapt and cease to exist -there have been about 5 mass extinctions over the last 500 million years -99.9% of all species that have existed, are now extinct **** It takes roughly 10 million years of adaptation to rebuild biodiversity *****

inertia/ persistence

the ability of a living system such as a grassland or a forest to survive moderate disturbances

Boreal/ Evergreen/ Coniferous Forest

-Also known as Taigas -Cone bearing trees -few species; low diversity -pine, spruce, hemlock, fir, cedar -short summers, with 19+ hours of sunlight -winters are cold with 4-6 hours of sunlight -deep layer of needles on floor of forest due to slow decomposition -Moose, Elk, grizzly bear, caribou, reindeer -Summer time bogs form; mosquitos and other insects are abundant

Polar Deserts

-Antartica (largest desert by land area) -little precipitation -Always cold -No vegetation

water exports

-Brazil has the largest freshwater supply per person

Major oil Disasters

-Exxon Valdez: Exxon oil tanker ran into a reef, spilling 11 million gallons in Valdez Harbor, Alaska -Deep Water Horizon: BP Oil Rig Platform (Gulf of Mexico) pipe burst/explosion - considered the worst maritime oil spill -Kuwait from Saudi Arabia to push Iraq out- upon withdrawing from Kuwait, Saddam Hussein orders Iraqi Military oil fields and ignite them- considered the worst land based oil disaster

Point Sources

-Factories -Sewage treatment plants -underground mines (active + abandoned) -oil tankers -landfills -septic systens -dredging dumps ~A point source of pollution that comes from a single, concentrated, identified location ~factories usually have a discharge pipe ~the fluid that comes out of a discharge pipe is *Efficient*

Temperate Cold Deserts

-Gobi- Norther China?mongolia -low rainfall -warm/hot summers; cold in winters -shrubs

Temperate Grasslands

-Great Plains of northern continents -lack trees -have cold/hot seasons -grow back rapidly after a fire -types of temperate grasslands include *U.S. Praires *South American Pampas *African Veldt *European/Asia Steppes

Expanding Rapidly Age Structure Diagram

-Guatemala -nigeria -saudia arabia

energy efficiency/ efficiencies

-Internal combustion engine- 6% efficient -Nuclear power plant- 8-14% efficient -Coal power plant- 30% efficient -Photosynthesis- 1% efficient -Incandescent light bulb: 5% efficient The Gov subsidized portions of the oil and gas industry to making driving and the cost of goods and services more affordable

Burning of fossil fuels

-It's the #1 source of ANTHROPOGENIC (man-made) carbon dioxide

aral sea

-Located in Kazakhstan (Central Asia, Former USSR) -Since 1960s, water diverted from this sea & feeder rivers for irrigation (mostly for cotton) -Has lost 89% of its volume- split into 2 parts -Economic & environmental disaster -Fishing industry collapsed, crop growing season is shorter -Dry lake bottom is now desert, land & water have become saltier, health of human population declined, dust & pollutants carried far away, summers are hotter & winters colder

Biomass

-Logs -charcoal -agricultural waste: - stalks, plant debris -branches, tree tops, wood chips -animal dung -aquatic plants -urban garbage: cardboard, paper advantages: large potential supply moderate cost no net CO2 emissions if used sustainably make use of garbage disadvantages : high environmental impact soil erosions air pollution land use -E85 Ethanol- biodiesel advantages: -high octane -renewable disadvantages: -large duel tanks needed -low MPG -high cost -land use in competition for food (increased food prices) -corrosive

Temperate Warm Deserts

-Mojave -Utah - Nevada -low rainfall - hot summers/ warm winters -succulent plants

Purple Loosestrife

-New Zealand and North America -Infestations result in disruption in water flow in rivers/canals, and a sharp decline in biological diversity of plant species

Surface mining (removing resources)

-Overburden: soils, rocks, undesired surface material -overburden is removed by machines digging as the resources are extracted types of surface mines include: 1)One pit mine 2)Dredging- scraping up underwater deposits 3)Area strip-mining: used on flat terrain- overburden is removed, a power shovel digs out the deposit, and the hole is filled in with the overburden.. a new cut is then made parallel to the previous one; if the land is not restored, the land is left vulnerable to erosion 4)Contour strip mining: used in hilly or mountainous terrain: a power shovel cuts a terrace into the land, the overburden is removed, dumped into the terrace below, and the deposit is removed; land must be restored or it will be left vulnerable to erosion

Removal of Heavy Metals

-The Safe Drinking Water Act has set limits as to the concentration of heavy metals. Such as cadmium which has a limit of 5 ppb -> the greatest use of cadmium is primarily for metal planting and coating operations including transportation equipment, machinery and baking enamels, photography, television phosphors. It is also used in nickel- cadmium batteries, solar batteries and in pigments

bird

-indicator species -indicates environmental changes such as the loss of fragmentation of their habitats and the introduction of chemical pesticides

biotic potential (population size)

-a populations capacity for growth -the natural rate of increase "r" -the rate at which a population would increase if it had unlimited resources -organisms that have a high rate of increase usually reproduce early in life, having short generation times, and have many offspring at once

mutualism

-a relationship between species in which both benefit -by providing each with food, shelter or some other resource

examples of where secondary succession begin

-abandoned farms -burned/cut forests -heavily polluted streams -land which has been dammed or flooded -changes in vegetation living in the area

Tropical Deciduous Forest

-also called TROPICAL MONSOON/ TROPICAL SEASONAL FORESTS -warm year-round -moisture from the monsoons -lose leaves in the dry seasons (due to lack of moisture) -lower canopy layer with mixed deciduous trees -tropical scrub (shrub-like) forests exist where the dry seasons are longer

Coastal wetlands/ Estuaries

-an *estuary* is an ecotone between the marine environment and the land where freshwater mixes with seawater/ where a river meets the sea/ nutrients and pollutants in runoff from the land also mix -the biggest estuary is chesapeake bay -**coastal wetlands*- land covered by water all or part of the year -temperature and salinity vary widely due to: *tides: high tide = more salt *seasonal variation of fresh water flow = less salt -constant water movement stir up nutrients for producers **These areas are some of the most productive ecosystems on the planet

organic pollutants- Volatile Organic Chemicals

-are man-made compounds used for a variety of industrial and manufacturing purposes -among the most common VOCs are chemical used as solvents, degreasers, fumigants, and dry cleaning chemicals -VOCs have detrimental effects on the liver =, kidneys, and nervous system and many pose a cancer risk to humans

intertidal zone

-area between high tide and low tide -organisms in this zone: *may get crushed or swept away by wave action *exposed both to air and water: submerged during high tide; dry during low tide *must tolerate large changes in salinity -immersed in high tides and left high and dry during low tide

How do speciation, extinction, and human activities affect biodiversity?

-as environmental conditions change, the balance between the formation of new species and the extinction of existing species determines the earth's biodiversity -human activities are decreasing biodiversity by causing the extinction of many species and by destroying or degrading habitats needed for the development of new species

septic systems

-as the population grew, it presented health and environmental concerns with so much human waste being added to the ground from outhouses -ground water feeding neighbors homes was contaminated -sewage from the house enters the concrete, fiberglasses, or plastic water proof container -the less dense, oil/grease that floats on top of liquid sewage is called SCUM -anaerobic bacteria breakdown some of the sewage, the rest settles to the bottom, called SLUDGE -liquid waste leaves the tank for the LEACH or ABSORPTION FIELD- a network of pipes under your lawn that drains into the soil -aerobic bacteria further breakdown wastes before reentering the ground water

solutions with reducing irrigation water loss

-avoid growing thirsty crops in dry areas -import water-intensive crops and meat -encourage organic farming and polyculture to retain soil moisture -monitor soil moisture ti add water only when necessary -expand use of drip irrigation and other efficient ditches -irrigate w treated wastewater

species and habitat density

-because of the fluid nature of water, aquatic systems tend to shift in space and time -endemism: the restriction of a species to 1 location; less common in water -it is harder to monitor and study aquatic ecosystems: *shorter life cycles *high reproductive output *habitats shift in short periods of time

2)Secondary or Biological Treatment

-begins with aeration (adding oxygen) and allowing bacteria and algae to grow and consume the organic waste that is in the water -Once the water is cleaned of sludge and scum and organic material, it is passed into the chlorination tanks to kill the bacteria -when chlorine levels drop to acceptable levels, the water is returned to rivers -some cities use ozone or UV light to disinfect water - If not properly treated, waste water will affect rivers + streams by: ->increased dangerous coliform bacteria levels (you want 0 ppm) ->decreasing dissolved oxygen due to the organic wastes (which consume oxygen) ->cause an oxygen sag curve In DO readings -->OXYGEN SAG CURVE SHOWS A DROP IN DO LEVELS AS UNTREATED WASTE ENTERS A BODY OF WATER ->cause massive fish kill

benthic zone (freshwater)

-bottom of the lake -cold/cool, dark -decomposers, clams, snails, crayfish, catfish, insect larvae bottom layer

Marine: oceans and seas

-brackish: 5-35 dissolved salts (.5-3.5%) -saline: 35-50 ppt (3.5-5%) avg. ocean salinity -brine: 50 ppt or more (5% +)

alternatives of nuclear power

-breeder reactors produce more fissionable material than they use -Nuclear Fusion: controlled reactions need a containment vessel able to withstand 10-100 million degree K

Human impact on Grasslands

-burning, plowing, and converting areas to crop land and release carbon dioxide; adds to greenhouse effect -overgrazing by livestock; grasses tramped by hoofed animals, may turn land to semi deserts or deserts -poor farming -> soil erosion -> dust bowl -drilling for oil at the arctic --> pollution

flint, michigan 2014-2016

-city was bankrupt -to save money, the water supply was switched to the Flint river (from Lake Huron) -water piped were not properly treated and lead began to enter water supply -leading poisoning; impaired cognition, behavioral disorders delayed puberty, impaired fetal growth, heart-kidney-nerve damage

removal methods of heavy metals

-coagulation/Filtration: chemicals are added, bonded with the cadmium and precipitated out -ion exchange -lime softening -reverse osmosis ->> These processes are very costly

pollution from coal

-coal burning products toxic emissions. mostly from mercury and sulfur -mercury contaminates fish, which is often eaten by pregnant women -> birth defect -release of particulates (soot) -extremely high greenhouse gas emissions: CO2 and methane -releases more radioactive particles than a properly working nuclear reactor

source zone

-cold, clear water rushes over waterfalls and rapids -high levels of dissolved oxygen -algae and mosses grow on rocks -cold water fish (trout, mackerel, salmon, northern pike)

intermediate disturbance hypothesis

-communities that experience fairly frequent but moderate disturbances and have the greatest species diversity -new spaces are created for new species, while allowing existing species to survive

Mountain Biomes

-contain other biomes, only based upon elevation instead of latitude -are usually found in groups called chains or ranges, although some stand alone -is very cold and windy. The higher the mountain, the colder and windier the environment. There is also less oxygen at high elevations -the animals of this biome have adapted to the cold, the lack of oxygen, and the rugged landscape -they include the mountain goat, ibex (wild goat), sheep, mountain lion, puma, and yak. All of them are excellent climbers; they can move freely in the steep, rocky landscape

Temperate Rain Forest

-cool summers, mild winters of the pacific northwest -ample rainfall from ocean -Canada to Northern California -examples: sitka spruce, Douglas, fir, redwood

Polar Grasslands (Arctic Tundra)

-covered by snow and ice most of the year -little precipitation -thick spongy layers of grasses and mosses; dwarf shrubs -windy summers are 6-8 weeks long -the ground stays frozen most of the time -during the summer the top layer of soil thaws, but deeper layers remain frozen (permafrost) -water doesn't infiltrate very deeply -bogs, marshes, lakes, ponds, and wetlands form -mosquitos and insects are a problem

General properties of water

-covers 71% of the planet -needed for life/most organisms are > 50% water -water is liquid in most climates -high heat capacity (specific heat) -can dissolve a large variety of compound s -water filters out UV radiation -strong capillary -expands when it freezes- ice floats allowing life to exist beneath the ice when lakes freeze over -pH: the measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution -2.6% of all water is freshwater -.014% is available as ground water/moisture, water, water vapor, lakes and streams ***WE DO NOT RUNOUT OF WATER, WE RUN OUTS OF UNUSABLE WATER***

Food production

-croplands: mainly for grains: wheat, rice, corn -rangelands: mainly for meat from overgrazing animals: beef, chicken, pork -oceanic fisheries: fish and shellfish **bycatch- fish/animals unintentionally caught in fishing nets or traps

trout

-indicator species -need clean water with high levels of oxygen- absence of trout indicate poor water quality

increasing the food supply

-cross breeding -genetic modifications/ engineering -alternate food source (insects, rodents) -continue refining existing practices -increases + efficient use of irrigated lands -urban growing -> use rooftops, balconies -Aquaculture -> harvesting fish in controlled conditions -increases size of crop, grazing lands, and increased fishing leads to destruction of habitats + biodiversity -these are large + expensive projects requiring large amounts of fossil fuel to modify the land

human impact on coral reefs

-decomposition of eroded soil from land development -runoff of fertilizers -use of cyanide or dynamite to stun and harvest reef fish for food and aquariums -removal of coral for building, jewelry, aquariums -oil spills -coral bleaching from an increase in ocean temp -physical damage from tourists, divers, anchors, and ship collisions -about 10% of the coral reefs have been affected by human activities

subsurface mining

-deep deposits of minerals are removed from underground sources through tunnels and shafts -miners dig a deep vertical shaft -blast subsurface tunnels -use machinery to extract deposit and to transport to the surface dangers of subsurface mining: ~collapse of tunnels ~explosions of flammable gas -build up of poisonous gases -lung disease (black lung disease: coal)

profundal zone

-deep, dark water -low oxygen levels -inhabited by fish adapted to cold, dark zones 2nd layor

Green Revolution

-developing and planting of selectively bred, or genetically engineered high yield key crops -use of large amounts of water, fertilizer, and pesticides -increase the intensity and frequency of cropping -since 1950, high-input agriculture has produced more crops per unit of land -per capita grain production has decreased because population growth is outpacing food production growth -lack of water, high costs for small farmers, and physical limits to increasing crop yields hinder expansion of the green revolution -since 1978 the amount of irrigated land per person has declined due to: ~depletion of underground water supplies ~inefficient irrigation methods ~salt build-up ~cost of irrigation crops **Modern agriculture has a greater harmful environmental impact than any other human activity** -loss of variety of genetically crop and livestock strains might limit raw material needed for future green revolutions ~~in the US, 97% of the food plant varieties available in the 1940 no longer exist in large quantities -one variety of crop increases chances of catastrophic loss if disease sets in (irish potato famine)

the future of nuclear power

-developing countries are unlikely to stop using nuclear power without economic aid from other countries -fuel pellets will eventually need to be replaced- where and how do you transport and store the spent pellets?

the open ocean

-divided into 3 vertical layers based upon SUNLIGHT PENETRATION a) Euphotic (photic) zone: ~low nutrients (expect during upwellings) ~high dissolved oxygen ~high light levels - Home to predatory fish, algae, phytoplankton examples you should know:haddock, swordfish, tuna, cod, sperm whale, orca, blue whale, humpback whale, great white shark -photosynthesis is largely confined here b) Bathyal zone ~low nutrients ~low dissolved oxygen ~very low light ~squid, octopus, hagfish, eels, whales, zooplankton c) Abyssal zone ~high nutrients ~low DO ~No light ~Giant squid, Oarfish, Viperfish -get their food from showers of dead and decaying organisms drifting down from the upper lighted levels of the ocean

Tropical Rain Forest

-dominated by broad leaf evergreens, near the equator -largest: Amazon -specialized niches in distant layers based upon need for sunlight -nutrient poor soil -shallow root system *Emergent Layer: most sun; tree tops (the very top) *Canopy Layer: very sunny, insects, birds, bats *Understory Layer: dim light; small trees *shrub layer: shrubs and short plants *Forest floor: dark; open and free of vegetation ******Epiphyte -cover 2% of the earth's surface but contain 50% of the known terrestrial plant and animal species -lush forests year round; uniformly warm temps, high humidity, almost daily heavy rainfall -dropped leaves, fallen trees, and dead animals decompose quickly bc of the warm, moist conditions

slash and burn

-done mostly in tropical regions without industrialized fertilizers- plots of and are burned to release nutrients - land can be farmed for a few years until the nutrients run out -the land must be left FALLOW for 10-30 years to regain nutrients *FALLOW*- land which is plowed and left unseeded for a season or more; uncultivated. not in use; inactive a type of traditional subsistent agriculture

floods

-due to heavy rain or melting snow -enhanced floods are caused by: >the removal of water absorbing vegetation >draining wetlands that absorb/hold flood water >increased impermeable surfaces (parking lots, streets, building) >floods provide nutrients rich silt to the floodplain leading to rich farmland

what to do for a more substainable food production

-eat less meat, no meat, or organically certified meat -choose sustainably produces herbivorous fish -use organic farming to grow some of your food -buy certified organic food -eat locally grown food -compost food wastes -cut food waste

slowing population growth

-education -elevating status/ empowerment of women -family planning and birth control -equal pay for equal work

habitat fragmentation (human impact on ecosystem)

-elimination of some predators; trophy hunting -deliberate or accidental introduction of new/alien species -over harvesting renewable resources-> grazing/erosion/desertification -interfering with normal chemical cycles: CFC's. fossil fuels, fertilizers

human impact on the desert

-encroaching cities -vehicles collapse animal burrows -irrigation: as water evaporates salts are left behind in the soil -depletion of aquifers -pollution by the extraction of oil and minerals -pollution by storage of toxic and radioactive wastes, underground testing of nuclear weapons, military use, storage of airplanes -deserts take decades to recover from damage done by vegetation -low species diversity -slow nutrient cycling -slow plant growth -water shortages

Ground water

-infiltration (precipitation) -zone of aeration -water table -zone of saturation -aquifers: layers of the ground where groundwater flows

seasonal changes in temperate lakes

-epilimnion: upper layers of a lake; high oxygen content -thermocline: transition layer where temperature changes rapidly; moderate oxygen content -hypolimnion: lower, colder layer of a lake: low oxygen content -stratified = layered -during the FALL, the surface water cools and sinks; the thermocline disappears (called the *FALL OVERTURN*) -during the winter, the lake again has layers (stratified) -In spring, as surface ice/water warms to its max, density (34F/4C) it becomes dense and sinks, again the thermocline disappears (called the SPRING OVERTURN) ***OVERTURNS bring OXYGEN to the BOTTOM and NUTRIENTS to the SURFACE****

Sunlight (limiting factor)

-euphotic zone: from the surface to a depth of about 660 ft -cloudy water from excess algae growth or silt may reduce depth sunlight penetrates (most sunlight does not go deeper than about 660 ft) -Bathyal zone: about 660 ft to 6600 ft; very little light/ not enough for photosynthesis -abyssal zone: about 6600 ft to the bottom; no light * in rare conditions some light can make it down to 2000 ft (in the tropics)

floodplain zone

-even wider, deeper, slow moving rivers meander across a flat plain -higher temps/lower oxygen -large amounts of particulates: silt -muddy waters

eutropic lakes

-excessive supply of nutrients -shallow; murky -brown/green water -large populations -many producers -warm months -> bottom depleted of oxygen

Human Impact on Freshwater Ecosystems

-filling in coastal development: agriculture + residential -pollution from industrial sewage/ point source pollution from cruise ships and spills from oil tankers -dam construction -river diversion for irrigation and consumption -heavy metals and toxic chemicals build up more in these areas -ocean warming and ocean acidification

Oil Spill Clean Up

-floating booms to contain the spill -skimmer boats to vacuum up oil -absorbent pads -coagulation (clumping) agents -dispersion agents for oil slicks -burn oil off -about 12-15% of the oil from a spill is actually recovered -> new harbor island, Louisiana

what biodiversity provides us

-food, wood, fibers, energy from wood and biofuels and medicines - provides us with the ecosystem services that preserve the quality of the air and the water, maintain the fertility of the topsoil, decompose and recycle wastes and control populations of pests

government policies

-government uses 3 main approaches to influence food production: ~control prices: to keep prices artificially low (milk) ~provide subsidies : to keep farmers in business ~let the marketplace decide: rather than implementing price controls (most cash crops )

Tropical Grasslands

-high temperatures -low to moderate precipitation -Savanna: -Warm, year-round -2 prolonged dry seasons -abundant rain the rest of the year -plants adapt to survive drought and have deep roots -tropical grasslands tend to have deciduous shrubs and trees -hoofed animals, grazing animals feed on the vegetation -predators: lions, tigers, cheetahs, eagles, hawks, hyenas hunt the other animal -many animals migrate during the dry season

solutions for organic farming

-improve soil fertilty -reduces soil erosion -retains more water in soil during drought years -uses about 30% less energy per unit of yield -lowers CO2 emissions -reduces water pollution by recycling livestock wastes -eliminates pollution from pesticides -increases biodiversity above and below ground -benefits wildlife such as birds and bats

sewer system

-in a sewer system, the waste water from your house flows into larger sewer pipes, usually under the street, eventually ending up at the waste water treatment plant

chesapeake bay

-in the 1970's, the chesapeake bay was discovered to contain one of the planet's 1st identified marine dead zones, where hypoxic waters were so depleted of oxygen they were unable to support life, resulting in massive fish kills **Hypoxic= reduced oxygen levels below productive levels **Anoxic= depleted oxygen levels -Hypoxia results in part from large algal blooms, which are nourished by the runoff of farm and industrial waste throughout the watershed ***Eutrophication: addition of artificial fertilizers/sewage/wastewater which cause hypoxia

tolerance

-in which plants in the late stages of succession succeed because they are not in direct competition with other plants for key resources -late successional plants are unaffected by plants at earlier stages of succession

what factors influence the size of the human population

-increases through births and immigration, and decreases through deaths and emigration - the average number of children born to the women in the population is the key factor that determines population size

Frog

-indicator species - reacts to increased levels of UV radiation from decreased ozone levels in the stratosphere

Zebra mussel

-introduced into the lakes of the ballast water of ocean-going ships -since colonizing the Great Lakes, they have covered the undersides of docks, boats, and anchors -they have also spread into streams and rivers nationwide -in some areas they completely cover other freshwater mussels -they can grow so densely that they can block pipelines clogging water intakes of municipal water supplies and hydroelectric companies -their shells are very sharp and they're known for cutting up people's feet

Gypsy moth

-introduces in the US by French scientist in 1808 -the native silk spinning caterpillars were proving to be susceptible to disease -gypsy moth eggs were imported to try to make a caterpillar hybrid that could resist the disease -when some of the moths escaped from the lab, they found suitable habitat and started to multiply -gypsy moth is now one of the biggest pests of hardwood trees in the easter United States

primary ecological succession

-involves the gradual establishment of biotic communities in nearly lifeless areas where there is no soil in a terrestrial ecosystem or no bottom sediment in an aquatic ecosystem -pioneer species attach themselves to inhospitable hare rock -lichens and mosses chemically weather the rock, physical weathering aids in soil development

inland wetlands

-land covered with freshwater; part of, or all year -include: marshes (treeless), swamps (more trees), prairie potholes, floodplains, bogs (spongy shrubs), wet arctic tundra -absorb runoff -fish, shellfish, blueberries, cranberries -salt marsh : cape cod -volo bog : hawaii -swamp : georgia -prairie pothole : south Dakota -highly productive bc of abundance of nutrients available -fishes, muskrats, otters, beavers -filter and degrade toxic wastes, reduce floods and erosion, sustain stream flow

Industrialized (high input) Agriculture

-large amounts of fossil fuel energy, water, commercial fertilizers, and pesticides are used to produce large quantities of single crop (monoculture)

high level radioactive waste

-large amounts of ionizing radiation are given off -must be stored for at least 10,000 years; if using Pu- 239 then 240,000 -most spent fuel rods are high-level; currently being stored in pools of water next to power plants -dry cask storage

Island Habitats

-larger islands and islands close to main land can support larger biodiversity -species on islands can develop highly specialized characteristics through natural selection (birds that lost the ability to fly due to the lack of predators) -many species are endemic (only found on a certain area, such as the island)

grasslands

-less diverse than most forests and consequently they have low inertia and can burn easily -however most of their plant matter are stored underground roots -these ecosystems have high resilience and can recover quickly after a fire as their root systems produce new grasses

Japanese Knotweed

-listed as one of the world's worst invasive species -the invasive root system damages building's foundations, roads, retraining walls and fences -it forms thick dense colonies that completely crowd out other native species. it tolerated page changes in pH. salinity, and soil types and can survive temperatures down to -31 degrees F -physical removal is difficult as its root system can extend about 10ft and outwards 23 ft -biological controls include lead sport fungus or a type of plant lice

barrier islands

-long, thin, low islands of sediment, running parallel to the shore -east coast and gulf coast of U.S. -protect mainland; estuaries; coastal wetlands by dispersing the energy of waves -gentle waves build the beaches up; storms cause beach erosion -support organisms that keep hidden from view and survive by burrowing, digging and tunneling in the sand

Opportunist (r-selected species)

-many offspring each reproductive cycle -reach sexual maturity quickly -short generation times -gives little or no parental care -short life span examples: rodents/insects/bacteria

human impacts on wetlands

-many wetlands are drained, dredged, filled in, and built upon -most common use: AGRICULTURE **Mitigation Banking**- replacing or restoring an equal amount of wetlands destroyed

James Body, Quebec

-massie hydroelectric generation plants -diverted the caniapiscau and eastern rivers -displaced the cree (a native Northern Canadian people) -destroyed habitats and forests

food security

-means every person in a given area has daily access to nutritious food to have an active and healthy life -*developed* countries grow or import enough food to establish food security -malnutrition is the failure to meet the minimum daily caloric intake and/or having a nutrient imbalance -people who are malnourished are weak and more susceptible to diseases -1/6 in a *developing* country is underfed (undernourished) -people in *developed countries* are more prone to OVERNUTRITION due to abundance of calorie rich foods -obesity is 3rd leading cause of preventable deaths (in the US) -We spent 2x the amount of $$ to lose weight as is spend on feeding people to gain weight -1/7 in a *developed country* is overfed ~Malnourished or over nourished- in either case, there is a lower life expectancy, increases susceptibility to disease, reduced productivity and life quality

if 2 or more species niches overlap they compete for resources, the weaker species may:

-migrate to another area -shift feeding habits through evolution -suffer sharp population decline -become extinct

POPs: Persistnat organic pollutants

-organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes -because of their persistence, POPs bioaccumulate with potential adverse impacts on human health and the environment -the effect of POPs on human and environmental health was discussed, with intention to eliminate or severely restrict their production by the international community at the Stockholm Convention or Persistent organic pollutants in 2001

the age group is described in terms of

-organisms not mature enough to reproduce, those capable of reproduction and those too old to reproduce

importance of children in less developed countries

-part of labor -help w fire, wood, cooking, cleaning , tending livestock and crops

solutions moving toward global food security

-people in urban areas could save money by growing more of their food -up to 90% of the world's food is wasted

Plankton

-phytoplankton: drifting organisms, algae -ultraplankton: tiny aquatic plants -through photosynthesis, they produce about half the earth's oxygen -zooplankton: drifting tiny animals that feed on phyto and ultraplankton

fluidized- bed combustion

-powered coal is suspended on upward-blowing jets of air during the combustion process -the result is a turbulent mixing of gas + solids -the tumbling action, much like a bubbling fluid, provides more efficient chemical reactions and heat transfer

lakes and pond formation

-precipitation, runoff, ground water, melt water fills depressions in the surface, which are caused by: ~glaciers, volcanoes, earthquakes -ponds: very shallow, sunlight usually penetrates to bottom: one life zone -lakes: deeper, up to 4 life zones

LPG/LNG

-propane and butane are liquified under high pressure known as Liquified Petroleum Gas -LNG- Liquified Natural Gas is snipped or refrigerated tankers -russia and kazakhstan have 42% of the worlds reserves -US has 3% -world supply: 2262 -US supply: 2100

solutions for a more sustainable aquaculture

-protect mangrove forests and estuaries -improve management of wastes -reduce escape of aquaculture species into the wild -set up self-sustaining polyaquaculture systems that combine aquatic plants, fish, and shellfish

Competitor/ K-selected species

-put little energy into reproduction -tend to reproduce late in life -have few offspring -most energy goes to protecting and nurturing offspring until they reach sexual maturity -longer life spans -longer generation times

solutions for nuclear power

-reactors be built so that a runaway chain reaction is impossible -the reactor fuel and methods of fuel enrichment and dual reprocessing must be so that they cannot be used to make nuclear weapons -spent fuel and dismantled structures must be easy to dispose of without burdening future generations with harmful radioactive waste -taking its entire fuel cycle into account, nuclear power must generate a net energy yield high enough so that it does not need government subsidies, tax breaks, or loan guarantees to complete in the open marketplace -its entire fuel cycle must generate fewer greenhouse gas emissions than other energy alternatives

solutions with reducing water losses

-redesign manufacturing processes to use less water -recycle water in industry -fix water leaks -landscape yards with plants that require little water -use drip irrigation on gardens and lawns -sue water saving shower heads, faucets, applications, and toilets for waterless composting toilets -collect and reuse grey water in and around houses, apartments, and office buildings -raise water prices and use meters, especially in dry urban areas

natural capital deviation

-reducing biodiversity -increasing use of net primary productivity -increasing genetic resistance in pest species and disease- causing bacteria -eliminating many natural predators -introducing harmful species into natural communities 0using some renewable resources faster than they can be replenished -disrupting natural chemical cycling and energy flow -relying mostly on polluting and climate-changing fossil fuels

Pollution in streams and lakes

-reduction of dissolved oxygen eliminates populations that require high oxygen levels -pollution made worse by drought, diversion, damming ->low water levels and damming concentrate the pollution -time to recover depends on : temp, pH, volume, flow rate Progress: -require cities to withdraw drinking water from downstream -> responsible for their own pollution note: if a city is required to place its water intake down stream from sewage treatment plants or factories, the city will be less likely to pollute since the pollution would flow downstream and into the water intake pipes. they don't want to pollute their own drinking water Succes: -clean up of Ohio's Cuyahoga River, which caught fire in 1969- laws require prevention and clean up

Non point Sources

-runoff -atmospheric deposition -subsurface flow -farms, livestock, logged forests, streets, lawns, gold courses, parking lots ~a non point source is a source of pollution that is dispersed ex) rain falls on a cattle farm, the rain picks up fecal material and it flows into a near by stream. The farm is not like a discharge pipe, it is wide dispersed area

Tropical Desert

-sahara -almost no rainfall -highest temperatures all year -no vegetation

aquatic life zones classification

-saltwater or marine life zones: oceans and their bays, estuaries, coastal wetlands, shoreline, coral reefs, and mangrove forests (salty oceans cover 71% of the earth's surface) -freshwater life zones: lakes, rivers, streams and inland wetlands

1)Primary Sewage Treatment

-sewage is passed through a series of screens where large items are removed -then rests in the primary clarifier where solids sink (SLUGDE) and oils and grease rise (SLUMS) -scum is skimmed and sludge is collected and stored. Bacteria and micro organisms digest the waste- after ~14 days it is burned or buried

economic limits

-since mining and processing companies pay for the harmful environmental costs and clean up, there is little incentive to improve pollution controls -one solution: pass off the costs to the consumers

low level waste

-small amounts of ionizing radiation are given off -decay to safe levels in 100-500 years -from 1945-1970 low level waste was put into steel drums and dumped into the ocean -now, low level waste from power plants, hospitals, universities, and industries are put into steel drums and shipped to one of two regional landfills

life in the desert (for animals)

-small in size: coyotes, foxes, snake, owl, ants, hawks, lizards, insects, spiders -nocturnal -bury themselves in sand/soil -water from plants or dew -some become inactive until the cooler months

Human Impact on Forests

-soil erosion, elimination of habitat through clear cutting -cleared forest returns as a less diverse, secondary forest -tree farms have been created for lumber or christmas trees -cold climate trees grow back more slowly

solar energy

-solar energy can be used to charge batteries (*photovoltaics*) that can be used to power household appliances and lighting

minimum population of species needed to avoid extinction due to

-some individuals not finding a mate -interbreeding: weak or malformed offspring -low genetic diversity: no adaptations to changing environmental conditions

solutions for natural gas production

-step up research -increase monitoring and legal regulation/inspections -develop federal regulations on disposal, storage, treatment, and reuse of fracking wastewater -require complete disclosure of all chemicals used -usee less harmful chemicals -require testing of aquifers and drinking wells for chemical contamination

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

-surface: high due to waves + mixing with air + photosynthesis -bottom: very low due to decompositon

nutrients

-surface: low e -bottom: very high due decompositon: surface organisms sink to bottom when the

temperature (limiting factor)

-surface: usually warmer, as you descend the temp drops slowly -middle: a transition zone * Thermocline: a zone of rapid temperature decrease about 90% of ocean water is still below the thermocline, where the temp still drops but more slowly -bottom: cold 29 degrres to 37 degree F

Garbage at sea

-the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is created by plastic debris and other trash from around the world that is brought together by ocean currents -resides within this slow-moving zone that allows floating debris to accumulate

functional diversity

-the biological and chemical processes such as energy flow and matter recycling needed for the survival of species, communities and ecosystems -the variety of processes such as energy flow and matter cycling that occur within ecosystems

Pollution of coastal areas

-the coastal areas, some of the most productive areas, are the most affected -wetlands, estuaries, coral reefs, mangrove swamps -> most affected

el nino conditions

-the flow of surface ocean currents to the west are very weak (possibly non existent) -in the tropical western pacific, surface ocean temps are cooler than normal. the region experiences less rainfall, possible drought conditions -in the tropical eastern pacific, surface ocean temps are warm- inhibiting upwellings because warm water is less dense than the deser cooler waters from the bottom -northern states in the US are warmer and with more precipitation than normal

watershed (drainage basin)

-the land area that delivers to a stream -head-waters: where streams start -smaller streams (tributaries) join to form larger rivers -rivers eventually reach the ocean -river have THREE zones: ~source, transition, floodplain

big ideas

-the long-term usefulness of any energy resource is its net energy yield -conventional oil, natural gas, and coal are plentiful and have moderate to high net energy yields, but use of these fossil fuels, especially coal, has a high environmental impact -the nuclear power fuel cycle has a lo environmental impact and a very low accident risk, but high costs, a low net energy yield, long-lived radioactive wastes, and its role in spreading nuclear weapons technology have limited its use

coal distribution

-the majority of the world's reserves are in the US (then russia, china, india) -coal is used to generate over 60% of the world's electricity -coal reserves should last until 2227 -unidentified and identified reserves would last another 1,000 years

hydraulic fracturing

1) "hydrofracking" is the propagation of fractures in a rock layer caused by the presence of a pressurized fluid 2)the goal is to force natural gas out of the fractures at an accelerated rate 3) proponents of hydrofracking indicate that the US could achieve energy independence 4) environmental concerns include: contaminated groundwater, natural gas intrusion into homes, earthquakes, and air pollution

Energy Conservation

-the reduction or elimination of the waste of energy -84% of all commercial energy is wasted due to the 2nd law of thermodynamics -energy quality will be degraded, mostly through heat released into the environment ~Reducing waste can be accomplished by: 1)using machines/devices/equipment which use less energy to accomplish its purpose: (incandescent v LED) 2) *Cogeneration*- using the waste energy (heat) to perform other functions: (waste heat from industry can be used to heat water for nearby homes)

benefits of clumping

-the resources a species needs vary greatly in availabilty from place to place, so the species tends to cluster where the resources are available -better chances of encountering patches of clumps of resources -provides protection from predators

la nina conditions

-the western flow of surface ocean currents is stronger than normal -in the tropical western pacific, surface ocean temperatures are warmer than normal. the region experiences more rainfall are colder than normal- with strong upwellings -the eastern pacific has a decrease in precipitation- US East Coast is colder and stormier than normal

animal adaptations (in polar grasslands)

-thick coats of fur -feathers -compact bodies to retain heat -underground living -decomposition is VERY SLOW due to the cold -poor soil nutrients

desalination

-through: reverse osmosis( high pressure to force saltwater thru a membrane filter with pores small enough to remove the salt and other impurities) or distillation (heating saltwater until it evaporates) -Very expensive -large amounts of waste called BRINE -most plants located in the Middle East Other solutions: -cloud seeding-> doesn't help if the water isn't there; pollution; who "owns" the water in the clouds? -towing icebergs -> Very expensive; melt water during transit will upset ecosystems ~the process of removing dissolved salts from ocean water or from brackish (slightly salty) water in aquifers or lakes

large scale water transfer

-tunnels, aqueducts, and pipes lead to the disruption of habitats -degrade rivers and lakes -reduce "flushing" to dilute pollution in some Bays and Harbors

solutions for hazardous waste

-use less toxic materials -recycle -reuse -chemically or biologically treat -bury -decrease consumption -trash taxes -converting one industry's waste into resources for another

houses

-uses modern insulators -LED lights -energy star appliances -tankless instant hot water heater -energy efficient windows -plug leaks -green roofs (plants that grow on the roof)

oligotrophic levels

-usually a newly formed lake -small supply of plant nutrients -deep, steep banks -crystal clear blue, or green water -small populations -narrow littoral zone

mono lake, california

-very productive ecosystems -very alkaline + salty lake due to no outlet to the ocean -Brine shrimp that live in the lake are food for 2 million + migratory birds -los angeles diverted water that flows into the lake, lowering lake levels and endangering the ecosystem

brown tree snake

-was accidentally transported from its native South Pacific to Guam as a stowaway in ship cargo (1945-1952) -with abundant prey on Guam and the absence of natural predators- the Brown tree snake population reached large numbers -caused the local extinction of most of the native forest vertebrate species -there were thousands of power outages -widespread loss of domestic birds + pets; bit small children

normal conditions of the ocean

-winds near the surface flow from east to west causing surface ocean currents to flow in the same direction -in the tropical western pacific, surface ocean temps are warm. the warmer water evaporates causing rainfall in the region -in the tropical eastern pacific, surface ocean temps are due to upwellings

problems with food production

-world population is growing faster than food production -distribution of food is poor -rangelands and fisheries appear to be to be approaching their productive limits -if every person had the typical diet of a person living in a developed country, the agricultural system could only support 2.5 billion of the world's 7.5 billion people -there is a set amount of arable (farmable) land -grains are used to feed people and animals -grains are now being used for ethanol as an alternative fuel source: price of food is increasing *HYDROPONIC*: growing food without soil -most fast food is calorie dense with few nutrients -movement to engineer crops grown in developing countries to contain needed vitamins -we produce more than enough food to meet the BASIC nutritional needs of every person on the planet -food is not evenly distributed due to: ~soil conditions, climate, political + economical power, low avg. per capita income, POVERTY (#1 cause of malnutrition)

prereproductive ages

0-14

water shortages

1) *Desiccation: drying of the soil due to deforestation and overgrazing 2) *Water stress: too many people, too little water

Plate tectonics- plate boundaries

1) Convergent: plates come together- major mountain process Ex: Himalayas, Japan, Aleutian islands (Alaska), Philippines, Caribbean, Andes 2)Divergent: plates move apart Ex: mid atlantic ridge 3)Strike slip/ transform: plates move sideways Ex: San Andreas (california) 4)Mantle Hot spots: plumes of rising magma from the mantle, under the plates. Hot spots often occur in the middle of a plate -Hawaii Hot spot -Yellowstone Hot spot -Canary Island Hot spot -Galapagos Hot spot -Iceland Hot spot

Layers of the Earth

1) Crust: *Most abundant element in the crust is oxygen*, the silicon (oxygen is bonded with silicon) A)Continental- less dense, made of granite B)Oceanic- more dense, made of basalt 2)Lithosphere: the crust rests on this layer (where we also find the mineral resources we depend on 3)Asthenosphere: convention here causes plates to move 4)Mantle: thickest part of the earth 5)Outer core: liquid 6)Inner core: solid **Both cores are made of iron and nickel

Other solutions to reusing and recycling

1) Detoxifying -**BIOREMEDIATION: using bacteria when detoxifying -**PHYTOREMEDIATION: using plants to detoxify 2) Burning (incineration) -> leads to particulates entering the atmosphere 3) exporting wastes -> the garbage barge 4) land burial -> ground water contamination 5) sea burial

To Increase reuse and recycling programs

1) Tax virgin resource us (virgin resource: extracted from ground and processed) 2)Elimination of subsidies of virgin resource extraction 3)Providing subsidies for reusing and recycling 4) **PAY AS YOU THROW SYSTEM 5)Requiring the government to purchase reused + recycled goods 6)Viewing landfills and inception as last resort

Increasing water supplies

1) build dams and reservoirs to store runoff 2) import water 3) withdraw groundwater 4) Desalination of ocean water 5) **More Efficient water use***

disposal methods

1) burial 2) shooting the waste into space or the sun -costly; an accident would spread radiation over larger areas of the earth's surface 3) Burial under the ice sheets -ice sheets are melting 4)Burial in the subduction zone -leakage may contaminate the ocean; radiation spread by volcanoes -prohibited by international law; as is burial in ocean sediment

Keystone XL pipeline

1) controversial pipeline linking canadian oil sands to US refineries 2)synthetic crude oil sand release about 5% more greenhouse gases than conventional crude 3)fears about oil leaks in ecologically sensitive farm country 4)parts of the pipeline cross seismically active fault zones 5)parts of the pipeline cross through indian reservations 6)te oil sands fields disrupt canadian boreal forest ecosystems

crude oil

1) crude oil : oil as it comes out of the ground 2) produced when organic material from plants and animals decomposes buried under lake or ocean sediment 3) oil permeates the pores within rock

early successional plant species

1) grow close to the ground 2)establish populations quickly in harsh conditions 3)Have short lives 4)After many hundred of years, thicker soil may be present

major concerns with tapping into deep aquifers

1) nonrenewable and won't replenish within a human time scale 2)may run between multiple counties and has no treaty to have rights over 3)expensive 4)we don't know the geological and ecological impacts of pumping large amounts from deep aquifers

oil refining

1) oil is piped, trucked, or shipped to a refinery where it is distilled, separating components based upon boiling points 2) products of refining are called PETROCHEMICALS used in a variety of products (least dense to most dense) -methane -ethane -propane -butane -gasoline -kerosene -diesel -motor oil -fuel oil -asphalt, tar, waxes

hazards waste does NOT include

1) radioactive waste 2) mining wastes 3) mining wastes 4) oil and gas drilling wastes 5) wastes from small businesses that are less than *220* lbs

water quality

1) salinity: salt content 2)turbidity: amount of suspended particulates 3)Hardness: amount of dissolved minerals -the minerals are mainly calcium and magnesium -many municipalities have added fluoride to drinking water -sand filters, chlorine, ozone are used to clean drinking water

uses of water

1) use is agricultural irrigation 2) industrial use (including energy production) as a coolant 3) transportation 4) Personal use; toilets (overall) (#1 domestic use) **ONLY ~20% OF FRESHWATER IS USED BY HOMES, 1% FOR DRINKING A) Bottle water: -IS frequently contaminated -Potable water: water which is sade to drink -FDA regulates bottled water as a food and it must be truthfully labeled B)Gray water- water left over from bathing or washing clothes and dishes C)Black water- water that was used for waste removal and contains fecal matter

oil reserves

1)64% of the world's oil is found in the middle east: Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates 2)US has 2% of the world's oil*, importing from Canada(15%), Mexico (7.5%), Saudi Arabia(8.1%), venezuela( 6%), Nigeria (5%) (mIddle east 13%) 3)Advantages -low cost -high net energy yield -easily transported -low land use 4)Disadvantages -need to find substitute by 2050 -artificially low prices encourage waste -air pollution -CO2 emissions -moderate water pollution

Less Common/More Recent Transmissible Diseases

1)Lyme Disease - spread by ticks 2)West Nile Virus - spread by mosquitos 3)Avian Flu - initially spread by birds - then human to human contact 4)Swine Flu (H1N1) - initially spread by pigs - then combined with avian flu and human genes - now included in yearly flu shot - caused 1st pandemic in 40 years (2009) 5)COVID19

alternative use of coal

1)coal can be converted to SNG (synthetic natural gas) by a process called coal gasification 2)coal can be liquified to be used as a fuel for vehicles -these processes are costly, and have low net energy yields **A coal fired power plant is only 30% efficient

nuclear power plants

1)core -fuel rods contain fuel pellet (each pellet is 1/3 of the size of a cigarette, and contains the same energy as 1 ton of coal) -fuel- uranium: naturally found as 99.3% U-238 (non-fissionable) .7% U-235 -fuel is enriched by removing some of the U-238. Fuel is 97% U-238 3% U-235 2)Control rods -made of cadium, silver, boron, indium -neutrons split the nucleus of the U -control rods regulate the number of neutrons *by absorbing them* -raised or lowered into the core 3)Moderator -*slows the neutrons -*usually* pressurized *water* or graphite 4)coolant -usually water, circulates through the core to remove heat -water turns to steam, and powers generators to produce electricity -discharge water needs to be within 2 degrees of intake temperature to avoid fish kills

mid- successional plants

1)herbs, grasses, low shrubs 2)replaced by trees which need lots of sunlight 3)as trees grow and create shade

other sources of oil

1)oil shale (kerogen) is a solid combustible organic material found in shale. This material can be distilled to produce shale oil. (Canada) 2)Tar sand (oil sand) -clay , sand, water, and bitumen a high sulfur, heavy oil which can be extracted

oil extraction

1)primary oil recovery: a well is dug and light crude will seep out of pores in the walls of the well, filling the well with light crude 2)secondary oil recovery: a second nearby well is dug, and water is pumped in under high pressure- this forces some of the heavy crude oil through pores- the oil/water mixture is pumped to the surface, the water is removed and reused 3) tertiary oil recovery: the heaviest of crude oil is forced by superheated steam, CO2, or dissolved by detergents... tertiary po; recovery is often very expensive, only used if a profit can be made 4)oil drilling causes moderate damage to the land since wells take up a small space, but some wells are being dug in fragile ecosystems

late successional species

1)trees which tolerate shade

Recycling

1- PRIMARY (or closed loop): EX- Newspaper - into newspaper, aluminum cans into aluminum cans (THIS IS THE MOST DESIRABLE TYPE OF RECYCLING) 2- SECONDARY is a classic example of a secondary recycling process. It isn't primary recycling because the vast majority of recycled tires do not end up as new tires. instead they're turned into other produces made with rubber

types of human waste disposal

1- if you are hooked up to a city sewer system, the water will be cleaned and returned to the environment 2-If you do not have city service, your waste will go to a septic tank- which needs to be pumped out 3- the water that flows into a home is the same- used for washers, toilets, showers, sinks, and drinking 4- all water that goes down the drain + flushed in a toilet goes to the same place

What percentage of all waste (garbage) is produced by households ?

1.5%

reproductive ages

15-44

(1946- 1964) baby boomers/ age 55-73

79 million people were added to the U.S population - the baby bust that followed the baby boom was largely due to delayed marriage, contraception, abortion, woman pursuing careers

la nina

A cooling of the ocean surface off the western coast of South America, occurring periodically every 4 to 12 years and affecting Pacific and other weather patterns.

mass extinction

A large extinction of species in a relatively short period of time -provides an opportunity for the evolution of new species that can fill unoccupied ecological roles or newly created ones

rock cycle

A series of processes on the surface and inside Earth that slowly changes rocks from one kind to another -rocks are broken down, melted, fused together into new forms by heat and pressure, cooled, and sometimes recrystallized within the earth's interior and crust -slowest cycle and plays a major role in forming concentrated deposits of the nonrenewable sources we use

climax community

A stable, mature community that undergoes little or no change in species over time

pangea

A supercontinent containing all of Earth's land that existed about 225 million years ago.

depletion allowance

A tax deduction authorized by federal law for the exhaustion of oil and gas wells, mines, timber, mineral deposits or reserves, and other natural deposits.

heritable traits

A trait that can be passed on genetically from parent to offspring.

irrigation

A way of supplying water to an area of land

Withdrawing groundwater

A) Advantages -Is present year round -no loss to evaporation -usually less expensive than surface water systems -useful for drinking and irrigation -exists almost everywhere -renewable if not over pumped or contaminated B) Disadvantages -lowers water table -depletion of aquifers -aquifer subsidence -> sinking land (due to overpumping pumping) -salt water intrusion (Long Island) -drawing in of chemical pollution -reduced streamflow -some deeper wells are nonrenewable -pollution of aquifers lasts for decades or centuries

Dams and reservoirs

A) Advantages -store runoff -control floods- DOWNstream -hydroelectric power generation -Irrigation -Swimming, fishing, boating B) Disadvantages -Increased surface area --> more evaporation -flooding land to create dam --> loss of habitats -disruption of fish migration -reduced nutrient flow downstream C) Three Gorges Dam- CHina -is located on the Yangtze river -largest electrical generating capacity -1.45 miles long -cost $30 Billion -1.4 million people were relocated -winter habitat of the siberian crane was destroyed -historical areas flooded

removing metals from ores

A) Ore material- the desired mineral; rock that contains a large enough concentration of a particular mineral to make it profitable for mining and processing B)Gangue: waste material *surrounding or mixed with the ore* (pre-processing) 1) tailing: waste material removed from the ore from processing (after processing) C)Smelting: a chemical reducing process (extractive metallurgy)- usually releases CO2 D)Heap leaching: widely used process to remove gold from gold ore- use of acids E) Acid Mine drainage: -after being exposed to air and water, oxidation of metal sulfides within the surrounding rock and overburden generates acidity -the primary acid is sulfuric acid

locating resources

A)Aerial photos and satellites to reveal protruding rock formations B)radiation measuring equipment C)magnetometers D)Drilling core samples E)Measuring electrical resistance F)Seismic surveys (man-made mini-quakes) G) Chemical analysis of plants and water

Hazards

A)Cultural Hazards: Unsafe working conditions Smoking Poor diet Unsafe sex Drinking Driving Drugs Criminal assault Poverty B)Chemical hazards: Most humans contain a small amount of over 500 synthetic chemicals that did not exist in 1920 C)Physical hazards Ionizing radiation Fire Earthquake Volcano Tornado Hurricane Tsunami ~Chemical and physical hazards are not dependent on population density. They will be a hazard if there is 1 person or a million people in the affected area

hazardous waste regulation in the US

A) RESOURCE CONSERVATION ACT (RCRA) 1976 (amended 1984) 1)EPA to identify hazardous wastes and set standards for their management 2)more than 220 lbs storage/disposal require a permit 3)permit holders must use a cradle-to-grave system for off site disposal B)SUPERFUND ACT: 1980 AKA: THE COMPREHENSIVE ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSE, COMPENSATION, AND LIABILITY ACT (CERCLA) 1)Identifying abandoned hazardous waste site 2)protecting and cleaning ground water from sites 3)cleaning sights 4)requiring offending companies/individuals to pay for cleanup 5) ** SUPERFUND HAS FAILED: often, offenders are cut of business, sue the government, or deny responsibility and the government has to take them to court 6) **LOVE CANAL: -near Niagara Falls, NY -Hooker Chemical Company used the canal to dump toxic chemicals -when the canal was filled with chemicals, it was covered with grass and solid. An elementary school and housing community was built on the site -many types of chemicals were present including lead: paralysis, mental retardation, cerebral palsy, and neurological damage

economics of mining

A) Supply vs Usage -Minerals never run out, but become economically depleted: cost of mining, processing, transport is more than profit B) Depletion time: time it takes to use up a certain proportion (*~usually 80*) of the reserves of a deposit -a short depletion time assumes no recycling or reuse and no increase in reserves -a long depletion time that there is recycling and expand existing reserves C) Recycling, reusing, higher prices, better technologies, new discoveries will change depletion times D)Reserve to production ratio: the number of years that proven reserves of a particular mineral will last at annual production rates- this number changes often due to the discovery of new deposits E)Exploring for new minerals takes lots of investment capital economically depleted: when it costs more than it is worth to find, extract, transport, and process the remaining deposits

producing more meat

A) about half of the world's meat is produced by livestock grazing on grass - the other half is produced under factor- like conditions (feedlots) B) fish and shellfish - fish have become contaminated with mercury that comes from the burning of coal- the young and pregnant are most at risk C) Aquaculture: Aquatic feedlots -raising large numbers of fish and shellfish in ponds and cages is world's fastest growing type of food production -fish farming involves cultivating fish in a controlled environment and harvesting them in captivity -fish ranching involves holding *anadromous* species (that live part of their lives in freshwater and part in saltwater) --fish are held for the 1st few years, released, and then harvested when they return to spawn

the gene revolution

A) artificial selection has been used for centuries to develop genetically improved varieties of crops - genetic engineering develops improved strains at an exponential pace compared to artificial selection B) controversy has arisen over the use of genetically modified food (GMF) / genetically modified organism (GMO) - critics fear that we know too little about the long-term potential harm to human and ecosystem health - there is controversy over legal ownership of genetically modified crop varieties and whether GMFs should be labeled

resource classification

A) identified: have a known location, quantity, and quality B)Undiscovered: potential supply; assumed to exist based upon geological theory c)reserves: one identified resources *that can be extracted profitably* D)Other: identified and undiscovered which are not classified as reserves

soil conservation

A) modern farm machinery can plant crops without disturbing soil (no-tll and minimum tillage) -Conservation - tillage farming ~increases crop yield ~raises soil carbon content ~lowers water use ~lowers pesticides ~uses less tractor fuel B) terracing, contour planting, windbreaks can reduce soil erosion ---Alley cropping aka Agroforestry *act as a block to the wind *orchard trees and campion crops C)Fertilizers can help restore soil nutrients, but runoff of inorganic fertilizers can cause water pollution **Organic fertilizers: from plant and animal (fresh, manure, or compost) materials **Commercial inorganic fertilizer: active ingredients contain nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium but lack trace nutrients

protecting food resources: pest management

A) organisms found in nature (such as spiders) control populations of most pest species as part of the earth's free ecological services -we use chemicals to repel or kill pests organisms (pesticides) ~ each year > 250,000 people in the US become ill from each household pesticides B) Rachel Carson : wrote silent spring which introduced the US to the dangers of pesticide DDT and related compounds to the environment ***DDT - Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane: banned world wide for agricultural use under the STOCKHOLM CONVENTION ON PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS (2001) C) superpests: are resistant to pesticides Ex: silverleaf whitefly, stink bugs, japanese mosquitos, bed bugs D) pesticide protection laws in the US - government regulations has banned a number of harmful pesticides - The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the Food and Drug administration (FDA) regulate the sale of pesticides under the Federal Insecticide, fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) --The EPA has only evaluated the health effects of 10% of the active ingredients of all pesticides **Many pesticides are endocrine disrupts the interference with growth and development

soil, soil erosion, and degration

A) soil is a complex mixture of weathered rock, mineral nutrients, decaying organic matter, air, and living organisms B) a mature soil 4 basic layers called *HORIZONS* - o horizon: also called "leaf litter" - A horizon: also called " top soil" - B horizon: also called "subsoil" - C horizon: also called parent material C) Soil erosion is the movement of soil by wind or water ** Soil erosion increases through activities such as farming, logging, construction, overgrazing, and off-road vehicles D) soil erosion lowers soil fertility and can overload nearby bodies of water with eroded sediment E) 1985 Food Security Act (Farm Act): farmers receive a subsidy for taking highly erodible land cut of production and replanting it with soil saving plants for 10-15 years F) DESERTIFICATION: degrading drylands ~about 1/3 of the world's land has lost some of its productivity because of drought and human activities that reduced or degrade topsoil -moderate (10-25% drop in productivity), severe (25-50% drop) and very severe (50%+)

wasting water

A) water is lost through evaporation, leaks, and inefficient use B) irrigation loss prevention -surge valves -low pressure sprinkles -use of soil moisture detectors and timers -drip irrigation problems: cost to farmers C)**XERISCAPING** -landscaping in ways that do not require supplemental irrigation (use of native vegetation)

BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS

A.Non-transmissible disease: not caused by a living organism or spread to others: Cardiovascular disorders, most cancers, diabetes, bronchitis, emphysema, malnutrition B.Transmissible disease: caused by a living organism and can be spread to others: through bacterium, virus, protozoa, parasites C.Spread of Transmissible Diseases 1.Changes in physical, social, or biological environments may increase or decrease exposure to diseases This is the idea behind social distancing. In this case there is a change in social environment that decreases the exposure to Covid-19 2. Increased international air travel: spreads flu, measles, cholera, yellow fever, tuberculosis, Corona virus This is the idea behind putting a travel ban in place & closing the boarders 3. Migration to urban areas NYC has the highest number of cases of Covid-19 in the US 5.Increased rice cultivation: ideal for mosquitoes 6. Global Warming: spreading of tropical diseases 7. Accidental introduction 8. Flooding: contaminates drinking water, increased insect breeding

Effects of Cadmium Ingestion

Acute: -Nausea -Vomiting -Diarrhea -Muscle Cramping -Salivation -Sensory disturbances -liver injury -convulsions -shock -Kidney failure Chronic: Kidney Damage Liver damage bone damage blood damage

solar thermal system

Advantages -No CO2 emissions -low environmental impact -quick installation -low land use (if installed on roof) Disadvantages -pre-existing structure must BE FACING THE SUN (SOUTH) -high cost -need backups -low efficiency

environmental resistance

All the limiting factors that act together to limit the growth of a population.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

An agricultural practice that uses a variety of techniques designed to minimize pesticide inputs

Bioaccumulation examples

An example of poisoning in the workplace can be seen from the phrase "mad as a hatter" (18th and 19th century England). The process for stiffening the felt used in making hats more than a hundred years ago involved mercury, which forms organic species such as methylmercury, which is lipid-soluble, and tends to accumulate in the brain, resulting in mercury poisoning. Other lipid-soluble (fat-soluble) poisons include tetraethyllead compounds (the lead in leaded petrol), and DDT. These compounds are stored in the body's fat, and when the fatty tissues are used for energy, the compounds are released and cause acute poisoning. Strontium-90, part of the fallout from atomic bombs, is chemically similar enough to calcium that it is utilized in osteogenesis, where its radiation can cause damage for a long time. Naturally produced toxins can also bioaccumulate. The marine algal blooms known as "red tides" can result in local filter-feeding organisms such as mussels and oysters becoming toxic; coral reef fish can be responsible for the poisoning known as ciguatera when they accumulate a toxin called ciguatoxin from reef algae.

aquifers

An underground water reservoir.

Oxygen Demanding Wastes

Animal manure and plant waste: from sewage, farms, paper mills, food processing

Some Problems with Rapid Population Decline

Can threaten economic growth Labor shortages Less government revenues with fewer workers Less entrepreneurship and new business formation Less Likelihood for new technology development Increasing public deficits to fund higher pension and health-care costs Pensions may be cut and retirement age increased

CDC

Center for Disease Control

Most Common Transmissible Diseases

Common Cold/Flu - virus Gastroenteritis - rotavirus/norovirus Strep Throat- bacteria Viral Conjunctivitis (Pink Eye)-virus Fifth Disease - parvovirus / children / nasal -throat Gonorrhea - bacteria Hepatitis - liver - virus Pertussis (Whooping Cough) HIV/AIDS Ebola Hanta Virus Tuberculosis Yellow Fever Measles Covid19 (corona)

dumps vs landfills

DUMPS: mostly prior to 1985 - were big holes in the ground where people would throw their unwanted material. Not only "garbage" but anything that needed to be discarded. From car batteries, chemicals, to tvs and so on. When it rained, the water would pass through the dump, picking up chemicals from items in the dump. The tainted water would pass through the soil at the bottom of the dump and contaminate ground water. (sanitary) Landfills: are big holes in the ground, but there is a lining of clay (very small pieces of sediment that has a very low permeability, greatly slows the infiltration of water into the ground. An impermeable synthetic liner is inserted, another layer of clay is used. With no way for rain water to leave, the landfill would fill with water, so a drainage system is installed. The garbage water, or leachate is piped to a treatment facility, cleaned are released into the environment. Many landfills also produce methane from decomposition, the methane is essentially natural gas and can be used as a fuel

availability of oil is determined by

Demand Technology Rate at which we remove the oil Cost of making oil available Market price

natural capital of marine ecosystems

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES: -oxygen supplied through photosynthesis -water purification -climate moderation -CO2 absorption -nutrient cycling -reduced store damage (mangroves, barrier islands, coastal wetlands) -biodiversity: species and habitats ECONOMIC SERVICES: -food -energy from waves and tides -pharmaceuticals -harbors and transportation routes -recreation and tourism -employment -minerals

Sewage- where does it all go?

Early history of sewage: -The OUTHOUSE was a small building built over a pit in the ground that was at least 6 ft deep and at least 10ft away from the main house -the outhouse must be deep enough and for enough away from the main house to avoid parasites (i.e hookworms) from infecting people -insects were attracted to the odor and laid their eggs in fecal matter -once the pit was filled, the waste was ignited to reduce methane build up -a new pit was dug, and the dirt used to cap the old pit -the outhouse was moved over the new pit -as the population increased, using outhouses caused ground water contamination -the 1st solution was to use a septic tank then a waste water treatment (sewer) plant

greenhouse gases

Gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapor, and ozone in the atmosphere which are involved in the greenhouse effect. -warms the lower atmosphere

summarized process of biological evolution

Genes mutate, individuals are selected, and populations evolve such that they are better adapted to survive and reproduce under existing environmental conditions

subsidies

Grants of money to help farmers stay in business and increase yield crop.

RISK Analysis

Greatest risk: poverty Prevent premature death by: Not smoking Avoid excess sunlight Avoid excess alcohol (no more than 2 drinks/day) Reduce cholesterol & saturated fats Eat a variety of fruits & vegetables Exercise Practice safe sex Lose excess weight Drive safely

example

If we use a150lb person (68.4kg): A poison would have to be a chemical that would take 50mg or less per kg of body weight: 50mg x 68.4kg = 3420mg or 3.4g 3420mg is about 7 Tylenol sized pills To kill 50% of the 150lb people to took the chemical with in a 2 week period. *This does not mean if it takes more to kill a population that it is not harmful * *It is just the definition of poison and how it is treated and handled *

Lack of FOOD SECURITY IN *DEVELOPING COUNTRIES* occurs due to:

Inadequate food production due to: -Drought -Inadequate agricultural practices -insect/fungal/bacterial infestations -wild life -pollution Poverty (1st reason) Government corruption Poor distributions War

US infant mortality is higher than it should be due to

Inadequate pre- and post- natal care for poor Drug addiction High teenage birth rate

death rates have declined because of

Increased food supplies, better nutrition. Advances in medicine. Improved sanitation and personal hygiene. Safer water supplies.

ocean acidification

Increasing levels of acid in world's oceans due to their absorption of much of the emitted into the atmosphere by human activities, especially the burning of carbon-containing fossil fuels. The reacts with ocean water to form a weak acid and decreases the levels of carbonate ions needed to form CORAL and the shells and skeletons of organisms such as crabs, oysters, and some phytoplankton.

Declining Age Structure Diagram

Japan germany Bulgaria and russia

Monocultures vs Polycultures

Monoculture: growing one type of crop- reduces biodiversity Polyculture: growing of more than one type of crop on a plot of land- this increased the chance of survival if the food supply is devastated due to pest, disease, bad weather, or other catastrophe

greenhouse effect

Natural situation in which heat is retained in Earth's atmosphere by carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and other gases

Where is Love Canal ?

Niagara Falls, NY

the worlds largest aquifer

Ogallala Aquifer (helps w biodiversity)

genetic engineering

The direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes.

charles darwin and alfred wallace

Proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection

range of tolerance

Range of chemical and physical conditions that must be maintained for populations of a particular species to stay alive and grow, develop, and function normally

Risk

Risk is expressed in terms of probability Risk = exposure x harm

windbreaks/shelterbelts

Row of trees or hedges planted to partially block wind flow and reduce soil erosion on cultivated land.

salinization and waterlogging

Salinization - irrigation water contains small amounts of dissolved salts -evaporation and transpiration leaves salts behind -salts builds up in soil Waterlogging -precipitation and irrigation water percolate downward -water table rises **repeated irrigation can reduce crop yields by causing salt buildup in the soil and waterlogging of crop plants

passive solar energy

Solar energy systems that collect energy without the use of mechanical devices/ absorbs and stores heat from the sun without the need for fans and pumps to distribute heat

nonnative species

Species that migrate into an ecosystem or are deliberately or accidentally introduced into an ecosystem by humans. -referred to as invasive, alien, exotic species

What law was implemented after Love Canal ?

Super Fund (Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act)

the number of children women have is affected by

The cost of raising and educating them. Availability of pensions. Urbanization. Education and employment opportunities. Infant deaths. Marriage age. Availability of contraception and abortion. religious beliefs, traditions and cultural norms

Other ways to control pests

There are cultivation, biological, and ecological alternatives to conventional chemical pesticides - fool the pest through cultivation practices -provide homes for the pest enemies -bring in natural enemies -use pheromones to lure pests into traps - use hormones to disrupt life cycles

Nuclear Accidents

Three mile Island (Pennsylvania) March 28th 1979 -partial meltdown- no deaths- minor radiation release -mechanical failure of the power operated relief valve (PORV) in unit #2 -level 5 out of 7 event Chernobyl (Ukraine) April 26th 1986 -worst nuclear disaster Fukushima Di'ichi (Japan) March 11th 2011 -2nd worst nuclear disaster

TOXICOLOGY

Toxicity: how harmful a substance is 1.Dosage: the amount of potentially harmful substance that is inhaled, ingested, absorbed -Size of dosage over time Small amount= less risk -How often dosage occurs More often= higher risk -Who is exposed: adult, child Children & the elderly are usually affected more -How well the body is detoxified: liver, lungs, kidneys Are you healthy? Or do you have liver, lung ,kidney disease -Genetic makeup: sensitivity of toxin Some people are genetically either very sensitive or less sensitive to some toxins The harm caused by a substance may also be affected by: Solubility: 1.water soluble can get into and move throughout the environment in the water supply 2.Fat and oil soluble substances build up in the tissue and cells of the body 3. Bioaccumulation: some molecules are stored in specific organs or tissues at levels higher than normal 4.Biomagnification: levels of toxins are magnified as they pass through food chains/webs and can also be passed onto offspring 5. Response: the type and amount of health damage caused 6. Antagonistic interaction: can reduce the harmful response 7.Synergistic interaction: multiplies the harmful effect

Expanding Slowly (Age Structure)

United States, Australia, China

dam

a barrier that runs across a river or stream to control the flow of water main goal:capture and store the surface runoff from a river's watershed and release it as needed to control floods; to generate electricity and to supply freshwater for irrigation and for towns and cities

rocks

a combination of 1 or more minerals 1)sedimentary: sediments (dead plant and animal remains and tiny particles of weathered and eroded rock) compacted + cemented together -examples: shale and sandstone 2)Metamorphic: heat and/or pressure alter rocks without melting a) contact: rocks heated by contact with magma b) regional: compressed by convergent plates 3)Igneous: rocks solidify from magma/ lava -examples: granite and lava rock a) extrusive: rapid cooling at/near the surface small crystals b)intrusive: slow cooling down within the earth- large crystals

mineral resource

a concentration of a mineral in or on the earth's crust that can be extracted and processed into a useful form AT AN AFFORDABLE COST

Which of the following is an example of "e-waste" ?

a discarded cell phone

Charging consumers for the amount of waste they throw away is most closely associated with

a fee-per bag waste collection system

population

a group of interbreeding individuals of the same species

species

a group of organisms with a set of characteristics that distinguish it from other groups of organisms and in secually reprofucing organisms

Mangrove trees

a halophyte (plants which thrive in saline conditions) = live where no other trees can live/survive; major contributor to ecosystems as they purify water and provide habitats to other species - leaves provide food (detritus) as they fall in the water -a type of coastal wetland -one of the most productive ecosystems bc of high nutrient inputs from rivers and from adjoining land , rapid circulation of nutrients by tidal flow and ample sunlight

active solar energy

a heat absorbing fluid is mounted on the roof and is circulated through a pump to heat a home

reservoir

a large natural or artificial lake used as a source of water supply.

fertility rate

a measure of how many children are born in a population over a set period of time

predation

a member of one species (the predator) feeds directly on all or part of a living organism (the prey) as part of a food web

El Nino/ la nina -Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

a periodic climate pattern that occurs across the tropical pacific ocean roughly every 5 years

Chronic effect:

a permanent or long lasting consequence to exposure

epiphyte

a plant that uses its root(s) to attach itself to branches high in trees, mainly in tropical rain forests

top down control hypothesis

a population is controlled through a predator consuming a portion of the population

random population distribution

a species can survive in random locations

keystone species

a species on which other species in an ecosystem largely depend, such that if it were removed the ecosystem would change drastically. -often live in limited numbers in their ecosystems -more vulnerable to extinction -can lead to population crashes and extinction of other species in the community if the keystone species is lost

el nino

a warming of the ocean water along the western coast of South America/ the eastern tropical pacific

Brownfields

a) Industrial and commercial sites that have been abandoned and in most cases, contaminated 1) Ex: junkyards, older landfills, boarded up gas stations 2)tires-> breed mosquitos **b)landfills -most municipal solid waste is dumped in landfills - use-free, or pay as you throw programs generate revenue for cities and encourage reduced waste **

evaluating energy resources

a) biomas (burning wood and coal) is the main source of energy for heating and cooking for half of the world's population b) The US is the largest energy user: 64% from fossil fuels, 19% nuclear, 17% renewable c) solutions -> adapt solar, wind, hydropower, biomass, nuclear alternatives, obstacles : POLITICS + MONEY

electrical energy

a) electrical use is based upon the amount of electricity that is being used over a certain amount of time b) units: electricity in watts and time, usually in hours 1 watt (1 joule/sec) 1 kW (kilowatt)= 1,000 or 1x10^3 watts 1 MW(megawatt)= 1 million watts or 1x10^6 watts 1 GW(gigawatt) = 1 billion watts or 1x10^9 watts 1 TW( terawatt)= 1 trillion watts or 1x10^12 watts -kW to MW: divide by 1,000 -kW to GW: divide by 1,000,000 -MW to GW:divide by 1,000 -GW to MW: multiply by 1,000 -GW to kW: multiply by 1,000,000 -MW to kW: multiply by 1,000

Reuse and Recycle

a) reusing is the BEST OPTION b) recycling is the LEAST FAVORABLE. OPTION, but still better than burying or increasing c) recycling plastics IS THE MOST DIFFICULT d) Over 60% of the garbage on the US beaches is PLASTIC e) Great Pacific + Atlantic garbage spots

net energy

a) the usable amount of high quality energy from an energy resource is it net energy **= energy the resource provides- energy used to obtain + process resource -oil has a high net energy (easier to extract + process) -nuclear power has a very low net energy (harder to process and extract) -hydrogen has a negative net energy -the amount of energy available from a resource minus the amount of energy needed to make it available

service flow economy

a)instead of purchasing, people would lease/rent the service or materials for a fee 1) ADVANTAGES: -reduces waste -materials last longer -easier to maintain -provides the services customers want instead of having to buy unnecessary features -examples: copy @ staples, tool libraries, lawn services > Service Flow Economy Example: -there are 15 households in your neighborhood: Everyone's lawn needs to be mowed. Option 1: All 15 households buy a lawn mower + rake: 15 lawn mowers and 15 rakes Option 2: All 15 households hire a lawn services: 1-2 lawn mowers + 1-2 rakes ~Service flow economies REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF MATERIALS USED, BUT INCREASES THE COST TO A HOUSEHOLD Tool Libraries: How many of you have tools laying aroundd that have been only used once?- You can rent expensive equipment that won't get used that often --> lowers carbon footprint

hydrogen

advantages -No CO2 emissions -water is the waste product disadvantages -has to be produced by using energy to extract Hydrogen from water -H extracted from methane has extremely high carbon emissions -high costs -25-50 years to phase in -excessive leaks may deplete ozone layer

advantages and disadvantages on nuclear power

advantages -No CO2 emissions disadvantages -radiation -accidents make huge areas of land inhibitable -possible thermal pollution of bodies of water -very low net energy -cast for safety + security -target for terrorists

Hydropower

advantages -high efficiency -long life span -no CO2 emissions -flood control -provides water year-round -useful for fishing and recreation Disadvantages -high construction costs -land is flood/loss of habitat -danger of collapse -decrease flow of sediment to beaches -interferes with fish migration

tidal power

advantages -no CO2 emissions disadvantages -interrupt fish migration -corrosion -storm damage -cost -ugly

dam-reservoir system

advantages -provides irrigation water above and below dam -provides water for drinking -reservoir useful for recreation and fishing -can produce cheap electricity -reduces downstream flooding of cities and farms disadvantages -flooded lands destroys forests or cropland and displaces people -large losses of water through evaporation -deprives downstream cropland and estuaries of nutrient-rich silt -risk of failure and devastating downstream flooding -disrupts migration and spawning of some fish

genetically modifies crops and food

advantages - may need less fertilizer, pesticides, and water; can be resistant to insects, disease, frost, and drought; can grow faster; may tolerate higher levels of herbicides disadvantages: have unpredictable genetic and ecological effects; may put toxins in food; can promote pesticide- resistant insects, herbicides-resistant weeds, and plant diseases ; could disrupt seed market and reduce biodiversity

conventional chemical pesticides

advantages- expand food supplies; raise profits; work fast; are safe if used properly disadvantages: promote genetic resistance; can kill pests' natural enemies and harm wildlife and people; can pollute air, water, and land; are expensive for farmers

advantages and disadvantages of conventional natural gas

advantages: -ample supplies -versatile fuel -medium net energy yield -emits less CO2 and other air pollutants than other fossil fuels when burned disadvantages -low net energy yield for LNG -production + delivery may emit more CO2 and CH4 per unit of energy produced than coal -fracking uses and pollutes large volumes of water -potential groundwater pollution from fracking

wind power

advantages: -high efficiency -moderate cost -very low environmental impact -no CO2 emissions -quick construction -on land or sea -land below turbines can be used for farming disadvantages -need steady wind -backup systems needed -high land use -visual pollution (ugly) -Noise -interferes with migratory birds

use of natural gas

advantages: -high net energy yield -low cost -less pollution than other fuels -lowest CO2 emissions -moderate environmental impact -low land use -easily transported -good fuel for fuel cells and turbine disadvantages; -release CO2 -gas can leak -shipped across the ocean as highly explosive LNG

advantages and disadvantages of coal

advantages: -large supply -high net energy yield -low cost disadvantages -very high environmental impact severse land disturbance, air and water pollution -high CO2 emissions -releases radioactive and toxic particles

the electric car

advantages: -no direct CO2 emissions -potential to be charges by renewable energy -less noise disadvantage: -limited driving range -long charge times -less tow power (in some cases) -run out of power, car needs to be towed -requires special electrical outlet at home

Keystone XL pipeline advantages and disadvantages

advantages: -moderate supplies -large potential supplies disadvantages: -high cost -low net energy yield -water pollution from mining -need a lot of water -severe land disruption -air pollution when burned -CO2 emissions

aquaculture

advantages: high efficiency; high yield; reduces over harvesting of fisheries; jobs and profits disadvantages: large inputs of land, grain, and fish meal; large waste output; loss of mangrove forests and estuaries; dense pop vulnerable to disease

global air circulation

affected by the uneven heating of the earth's surface by solar energy, seasonal changes in temperature and precipitation, rotation of earth on its axis, and properties of air water and land

uneven heating of the earth's surface by the sun

air is more heated at the equator where the sun hits directly and at the poles, the heat is spreaded out due to being hit by heat at an angle -the increase of solar radiation leads to greatly increased evaporation in tropical regions from forests, grasslands and bodies or water ** tropical regions normally receive more precipitation than do other areas in the earth

Diversifying Natural selection

also known as disruptive natural selection *favors traits at both ends of normal ( the normal is eliminated and the ends increase)

volcanic eruptions can cause:

an affect on biological evolution by destroying habitats and reducing, isolating, or wiping out populations of species`

hazardous waste

any discarded solid or liquid that contains: 1)one or more of the 39 toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, or teratogenic compounds in excess of established guidelines 2)catches fire easily 3)is reactive or unstable enough to emit toxic fumes or explode 4)capable of corroding metal containers

Adaptation/ adaptive trait

any heritable trait that improves the ability of an individual organism to survive and to reproduce at a higher rate than other individuals in a population are able to do under prevailing envirmonenrtal circumstances

solid waste

any unwanted or discarded material that Is not a liquid or gas 1) Municipal Solid Waste: aka GARBAGE: 1.5% 2) 98.5% from mining, oil and natural gas, agriculture, industrial activities

native species

are those species that normally live and thrive in a particular ecosystem.

natural capital degradation

biodiversity loss -conversion of grasslands, grasslands, forests and wetlands to crops or rangeland -fish kills from pesticide runoff -killing of wild predators to protect livestock soil -erosion, loss of fertility, salinization, water logging, desertification water -aquifer depletion -increases runoff, sediment pollution, and flooding from cleared land -pollution from cleared land air pollution -emissions of greenhouse gasses CO2 from fossil fuel use, N2O from inorganic fertilizer use, and methanols (CH4) from cattle -other air pollutants from fossil fuel use and pesticide sprays Human health -nitrates in drinking water (blue baby) -pesticide residue in water, food, and air -livestock wastes in drinking and swimming water -bacterial contamination of meat

exploitation competition

both species have equal access to the resource but differ in speed and efficiency in the gathering of that resource

Benthos

bottom dwellers: lobsters, clams, crabs, starfish -anchor themselves to ocean-bottom structures and some burrow into the sand and mud

how humans change the greenhouse effect

burning fossil fuels, clearing forests and growing crops releases carbon dioxide, methane , and nitrous oxide into the atmosphere, enhance the earth's natural greenhouse effect and change the earth's climate during this century

herbivores

can simply walk, swim or fly to capture prey

demographic transition

change in a population from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates

mutations

changes in the structure or number of DNA molecules in a cell that can be inherited by offspring. Most mutations are lethal, some are harmless, on a rare occasion be beneficial - some can because of exposure to : radiation and natural and human-made chemicals (mutagens)

worlds three largest populations are

china (19%), India (18%) and the United States in this order

who has the biggest reserves

china has ~50% (produces about 97% of the worlds rare-earth metals and oxides ) russia has ~15% US has ~13% The US and japan have 0 rare-earth reserves and depend on other countries

the major biomes

coastal chaparral and scrub (coastal mountain ranges); coniferous forest (sierra nevada); desert (great American desert); coniferous forest (rocky mountains); prairie grassland (great plains); deciduous forest (appalachian mountains)

rising rate of extinction:

comes from loss of, fragmentation, and degradation of habitats; such as cultivating land

infraspecific competition

competition between members of the same species for the same resources

SNG (synthetic fuels)

convert solid coal into synthetic natural gas by a process called coal gasification which removes sulfur and most other impurities from cole advantages -large potential supply in many countries -vehicle fuel -lower air pollution than coal disadvantages -low to medium net energy yield -requires mining 50% more coal with increases land disturbance, water pollution, and water use -higher CO2 emissions

proven oil reserves

deposits from which the oil can be extracted profitably at current prices with current technology; they're not fixed

desert biomes

desert- an area where evaporation exceeds precipitation *vegetation is sparse, widespread, low to the ground *deserts cover about 30% of the Earth's land *mainly located at/near 30N and 30S latitude at the interior of a continent *minor deserts form on leeward sides of mountains *VERY HOT during the day; VERY COLD night

long term climate changes

determined where different plants and animals can survive and thrive and by changing the locations of different types of ecosystems such as deserts, grasslands, and forests.

how does climate affect the nature and locations of biomes

differences in long term average annual precipitation and temperature lead to the formation of tropical, temperate and cold deserts, grasslands, forests and largely determine their location

prevailing winds

different directions of air movement; major surface winds that blow almost continuously and help distribute air, heat, moisture, and dust over earth's surface

People in food *SECURE COUNTRIES* lack proper nutrition due to:

drug use **Poverty eating disorders lack of proper parental care

factors that cause water scarcity

dry climate, too many people using a freshwater supply more quickly than it can be replenished and the inefficient use of freshwater

The majority of solid waste is

dumped in landfills

what are the earth's major geological hazards?

dynamic processes move matter within the earth and on its surface and can cause volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, erosion, and landslides -fissure: magma rising in a plume thru the lithosphere reaches the earth's surface thru a central vent or a long crack -seismic waves move upward and outward from the earthquake's focus -magnitude measures the ground motion caused by an earthquake -tsunami is a series of large waves generated when part of the ocean floor suddenly rises or drops; are caused when certain types of faults in the ocean floor move up or down as a result of a large underwater earthquake

ecological niche/ niche

each species has a specific role to play in the ecosystem where it is found - affects its survival and reproduction -a species patter of living

Forest Biomes

ecological services: -regulating water and water flow -cleansing of ground water -the maintenance of soil quality through leaf and branch fall -the limning of erosion (through root system) -release of oxygen -being key components of biodiversity both in themselves and as a habitat for other species

How do communities and ecosystems respond to changing environmental conditions?

ecological succession

Mineral

element or inorganic compound that occurs naturally and is solid with a crystalline structure

stabilizing natural selection

eliminated those with traits at the end of normal (they favor the middle and those at the ends will be eliminated)

Gaitor

enlarged thyroid due to lack of iodine in the diet

majority of urban dwellers live

in less developed countries where resources for dealing with rapidly growing populations are limited

Plantation Agriculture

in tropical developing countries- growing of CASH CROPS: banana, coffee, cocoa, sugarcane , soybeans

environmental issue with withdrawal of freshwater

falling in water tables, decreasing river flows, shrinking lakes, and disappearing wetlands -degrade water quality

earthquakes can cause:

fissures in the earth's crusts that can separate and isolate populations of species; over time can form new species as each isolated population changes genetically in response to new environmental changes

lotic (freshwater)

flowing bodies of water -flowing streams, rivers

limiting factor examples

food, water, space, weather conditions (temp, precipitation) -too much water or fertilizer can kill plants for aquatic life zones : sunlight, nutrient availability, acidity and low levels of oxygen gas in the water (dissolved water content) and salinity

coral reefs

form in clear, warm tropical and subtropical coastal waters -coral reef organisms: *attached organisms: coral, algae. spondes *fish *small organism which bare into and hide among the many holes in the reef

hydrothermal ore deposits

form when superheated, mineral-rich water shoots out of vents in volcanic regions of the ocean floor

Organic Chemicals

gasoline, oil, plastics, pesticides, cleaning solvents, detergents

compact flourescent light bulb

gives off the same light as an incandescent but only uses 25% of the electricity

LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes)

gives off the sme light s an incandescent but only uses 8-15% of the electricity L.E.Ds : do not base the brightness on watts **Lumens: unit of brightness 95% of the electricity flowing through an incandescent light bulb is converted to heat - 5% to light (*5% efficient) -We need to make things more efficient

since 1960 the population

has decreased BUT the population has continued to grow

generalist species

have broad niche -they can live in many different places, eat a variety of food, and often tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions ex: humans, mice, rats, white-tailed deer

tropical rain forests

have high species richness and high inertia and thus are resistant to significant change or damage -if the whole rainforest is cleared or severely damaged, the resilience of the resulting degraded forest ecosystem may be so low that it reaches an ecological tipping point and may not be restored by secondary succession

properties of air water and land

heat from the sun evaporates ocean water and transfers heat from the oceans to the atmosphere, especially near the hot equator; this evaporation creates giant cyclical convention cells that circulate air, heat, and moisture both vertically and from place to place in the atmosphere

How do prevailing winds affect climate?

help by redistributing heat from the sun, thereby influencing climate and vegetation especially near coastal areas, this creates warm and cold ocean currents -they flow in roughly circular patterns between continents; clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere

traditional subsistence agriculture

human labor and animal produce only what the family needs

fracking

hydraulic fracturing-using pressurized fluid to create fractures in rock and release natural gas or petroleum -can cause small earthquakes -fracking for natural gas has lowered US. Natural gas prices

An acute effect:

immediate/rapid reaction to an exposure

rain shadow effect

is a reductio of rainfall and loss of moisture from the landscape on the leeward side of a mountain, facing away from prevailing surface winds

weather

is a set of physical conditions of the lower atmosphere such as; temp, precipitation, humidity, wind speed, cloud cover -caused by the uneven heating of the earth

Comensalism

is an interaction where one species benefits, while the other is unaffected

radioactive

isotopes of iodine, radon, uranium, cesium, thorium

Stable Age Structure Diagram

italy greece

age structure

its distribution of individuals among various age groups

water disasters

james bay, quebec kissimmee river, florida mono lake, california chesapeake bay milwaukee 1993 tap water disaster flint michigan 2014-2016

mesotrophic lakes

lakes that fall somewhere between the two extremes of nutrient enrichment

biomes

large regions such as forests, deserts, and grasslands with distinct climates and certain species (especially vegetation) adapted to them

general tendency for succession

leads to more complex, diverse and presumable sustainable ecosystems -reflects the ongoing struggle by different species for enough light, water, nutrients, food, space , and other resources

Freshwater

less than 5 ppt (parts per thousands) (.5% of dissolved salts) -Lakes -rivers, streams, creeks, brooks -ponds -ground water occupies roughly 2.2% of the earth's surface

Ectoparasites

live on the body

endoparasite

lives inside its host

Which is true about plastic ?

makes up over 60% of the debris found on U.S. beaches

prey species have evolved:

many ways

ocean currents

mass movements of surface water driven by winds blowing over the oceans -help determine regional climates and are a key component of the earth's natural capital

fitness

measure of reproductive success

fossils

mineralized or petrified replicas of skeletons, bones, teeth, shells, leaves and seeds or impressions of such items found in rocks ( found in glacial ice, mountaintops)

tectonic plates

molten rock within the earth's interior have broken its surface into a series of gigantic solid plates

secondary ecological succession

more common type of succession* - a series of communities or ecosystems with different species develop in places containing soil or bottom sediment -begins in an area where the natural community has been disturbed, removed, or destroyed

solutions for a more sustainable food production

more: high yield polyculture organic fertilizers biological pest control integrated pest management efficient irrigation perennial crops crop rotation water-efficient crops soil conservation subsidies for sustainable farming less: soil erosion soil salinization water pollution aquifer depletion overgrazing overfishing loss of biodiversity and agrobiodiversity fossil fuel use greenhouse gas emissions subsidies for unstainable farming

interspecific competition

most common interaction* -occurs when members of 2 or more species** interact to use the same limited sources such as food, water, light and space -involved the ability of one species to become more efficient than the other

cluming (population)

most populations live together in clumps ex- pack of wolves, schools of fish, cities of people

reproductive isolation

mutation and change by natural selection operate independently in the gene pools of geographically isolated populations

plant nutrients

nitrates, phosphates, ammonium ions

irregular population patterns

no patter

what limits the growth of population

no population can grow indefinitely because of limitations on resources and because of competition among species for those resources

specialist species

occupy narrow niches. They may be able to live in only one type of habitat, use one or a few types of food, or tolerate a narrow range of climatic and other environmental conditions. -more prone to extinction when environmental changes occur

geological isolation

occurs when different groups of the same population of a species become physically isolated from one anohter for a long period of time

natural selection

occurs when some individuals of a population have genetically based traits that increase their chances of survival and their ability to produce offspring with the same traits -these characteristics would show more in future populations

cultural eutrophication

often puts excessive nutrients into lakes -humans inputs of nutrients through the atmosphere and from urban and agricultural areas within a lake's watershed can accelerate the eutrophication of the lake

character displacement

one of two similar species may develop different physical or behavioral adaptations through evolution that allow them to use a different resource

limiting factor

one or more factors are more important than other factors in regulating population growth

mimicry

one species evolves to resemble another species

interference competition

one species may limit access to a resource from another species; regardless of the abundance of the resource

speciation

one species splits into two or more species

territoriality

organisms patrol or mark an area around their home or feeding site and defend it against members of their own species

parasites

organisms that live on or in a host and cause it harm, but rarely kill

demographers

population experts

stable population patterns

population size fluctuates slightly above and below carrying capacity

cyclic population patterns

population size will increase and decrease on a regular cycle

irruptive population patterns

populations explode and then crash to a more stable level

groundwater depletion

prevention -use water efficiently -subsidize water conservation -limit number of wells -stop growing water-intensive crops in dry area control -raise price of water to discourage waste -tax water pumped from wells near surface water -build rain gardens in urban areas -use permeable paving material on streets, sidewalks, and driveways

solutions in reducing flood damage

prevention -preserve forests in watersheds -preserve and restore wetlands on floodplains -tax developments on floodplains -increase use of flooding plains for sustainable agriculture and forestry control -strengthen and deepen streams (channelization) -build levees or flood walls along streams -build dams

soil salinization prevention and cleanup

prevention- reduce irrigation; use more efficient irrigation methods; switch to salt-tolerant crops cleanup- flush soil (expensive and inefficient); top growing crops for 2-5 years; install underground drainage systems

Grassland biomes

primarily in the interiors of the continent in areas that are too moist for deserts to form or too dry for forests to grow -have enough precipitation for grasses and small shrubs to grow -limiting factors: * sporadic precipitation *fire *grazing by large herbivores

Which type of recycling is most desirable ?

primary, closed loop

major factors that affect the circulation of air in the lower atmosphere

properties of air water and land, uneven heating of the earth's surface by the sun, properties of air water and land

circle of poison/boomerang effect

residues of some banned or unapproved chemicals exported to other countries can return to the exporting countries on imported food

What is the best way to deal with soft-drink and beer bottles ?

reuse them

Alpine Tundra

similar to "arctic tundra" found above the tree, on mountains, but below the permanent snow line -receive more sunlight than arctic vegetation gets

what is species diversity and why is it important?

species diversity is a major component of biodiversity and tends to increase the sustainability of some ecosystems

indicator species

species that provide early warnings of damage to a community or an ecosystem

convergent evolution

species with similar niches tend to evolve similar sets of traits even if they are different species , located in different part of the world

lentic (freshwater)

standing bodies of water -lakes, ponds, inland wetlands

logistic growth

starts out slowly, then grows exponentially, but decreases and levels out near its carrying capacity resulting in an "S" shape

exponential growth

starts out slowly, then rapidly grows resulting in a "J" shaped curve

theory of evolution

states that all species evolved from earlier, ancestral species; life comes life

Nekton

strong swimming: fish, turtles, whales...

upwellings

surges of cold deep ocean water rich in nutrients which rise from the deep ocean to replace the warm surface water which has been pushed west

How do geological processes and climate change affect evolution?

tectonic plate movements, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and climate change have shifted wildlife habitats, wiped out large numbers of species, and created opportunities for the evolution of new species

key factoring determining biodiversity in aquatic systems

temperature, dissolved oxygen content, availability of food, and access to light and nutrients necessary for photosynthesis

why ecological succession is important

tends to increase the biodiversity of communities and ecosystems by increasing species richness and interactions among species -enhance sustainability by promoting population control and by increasing the complexity of food webs, which enhance energy flow and nutrient cycling

biomes

terrestrial regions with characteristic types of natural, undisturbed ecological communities adapted to the climate of the region temp- tropical (hot), temperate (moderate) and polar (cold) deserts, grasslands, and forests

BOD: Biological Oxygen Demand

the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic decomposers to break down the organic material in a certain volume of water over a 5 day incubation period at 20 C (68 F)

salinity

the amounts of various salts such as sodium chloride dissolved in a given volume of water

cells

the atmosphere over the different areas of heated air masses distinguished by the direction of air movement

Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

the average number of children a woman has during her reproductive year -globally: 2.4 and needs to drop to 2.1 for population to level off

Replacement level fertility

the average number of children that couples in a population must bear to replace themselves -This is 2.1 to account for the possibility of infant mortality (for more-developed countries) (2.5 for less developed countries)

life expectancy

the average number of years a person is expected to live -global life expectancy is 70 -Japan- 83 -less developed countries is 55 or less

background extinction rate

the average rate at which species go extinct over the long term

how do environmental scientists think about human population growth

the continuing rapid growth of the human population and its impact on natural capital raise questions about how long the human population can keep growing

climate

the general pattern of atmospheric conditions in a given area over periods of atmospheric conditions in a given area over periods ranging from at least 3 decades to thousands (basically over a long period of time) -is affected by by latitude, altitude, ocean currents, air currents and mountain ranges

human population growth

the human population has grown rapidly bc of the expansion of agriculture, industrial production and Lower death rates from improvements of hygiene and medicine

Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986

the large increase in immigration since 1989 resulted mostly from the immigration reform and control act of 1989 which granted legal status to certain illegal immigrants who could show they had been living in the country before January 1st 1982

water table

the level below which the ground is saturated with water.

cultural carrying capacity

the maximum number of people who live in reasonable freedom and comfort indefinitely without decreasing the ability of the earth to sustain future generations

carrying capacity

the maximum population of a given species that a particular habitat can sustain indefinitely -"k" k = biotic potential - environmental resistence

migration

the movement of people into (immigration) and out (emigration) specific geographic areas

ecological succession

the normally gradual change in species composition in a given area

species diversity

the number and abundance of species present in different communities

population density

the number of individuals in a population found within a defined are or volume -high numbers help chances in mating, protection of the week -high population density also increases the spread of diseases and competition for resources - these are density dependent factors -density independent factors include natural disasters and are mostly abiotic in nature

crude birth rate

the number of live births per 1,000 people in a population in a given year

habitat

the place where a species lives

population crash / dieback

the population faces a sharp decline

bottom up control hypothesis

the population is being controlled by the RATE of feeding and the replenishment of the food

extinction/biological extinction

the process in which an entire species ceases to exist

biomining

the process of removing desired metals from ores while leaving the surrounding environment undisturbed

biological evolution (simple evolution)

the process whereby the earth's life changes over time through changes in the genes of populations of organisms in succeeding generations

species evenness

the relative proportion of different species in a given area

geology

the science devoted to the study of dynamic processes taking place on the earth's surface and in its interior

artifical selection

the selective breeding of organisms by humans for specific characteristics

4 components increase the following

the stability of ecosystems and the resistance of ecosystems to harmful invasive species

genetic diversity

the variety of genetic material within a species or a population

ecological diversity

the variety of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems found in an area or on the earth

Biological diversity/ biodiversity

the variety of the earth's species, or varying life-forms, the genes they contain, the ecosystems in which they live, and the ecosystem system processes such as energy flow and nutrient cycling that sustain all life

coastal zone

the warm, nutrient rich, shallow water that extends from the high-tide mark on land to the gently sloping, shallow edge of the continental shelf (the submerged part of the continents) -makes up less than 10% of the world's open ocean and contains 90% of all marine species and is the side of most commercial marine fisheries -include estuaries, coastal marshes, mangrove forests, and coral reefs

algal blooms

the water becomes clouded by excessive growth of algae which results from nutrient overloads -tubility (the cloudiness) can occur naturally such as from the algae growth

petrochemicals

they're used as raw materials to make industrial organic chemicals, cleaning fluids, pesticides, plastics, synthetic fibers, paints, medicines, cosmetics, ice cream, and many other products

gut inhabitant mutualism

vast armies of bacteria in the digestive system of animals help to break down the animals' food.

heat (thermal pollution)

water cooling of electric and nuclear plants

how does water move affect currents and/or temp?

water moves vertically and as dense water sinks while less dense water rises, this creates a loop of deep and shallow ocean currents; this acts as sa conveyor belt that moves heat from the surface o the deep sea and transfers warm and cold water between the tropics and the poles

Inorganic Chemicals

water soluble acids, toxic metals, salts, fluorides

thermocline

water temperature drops rapidly between the euphotic zone and the abyssal zone (a layer)

freshwater

water that contains very low levels of dissolved salts

freshwater rivers and streams

watershed/drainage basin source zone transition zone floodplain zone

the future of evolution

we have used artificial selection to change the genetic characteristics of populations with similar genes through selective breeding -we have used genetic engineering to transfer genes from one species to another

competitive exclusion principle

when 2 species inhabit the same fundamental niche both can not survive indefinitely, one species may eliminate the other or one may migrate

local extinction

when a species is no longer found in an area it once inhabited but is found elsewhere in the world

carnivore (predation)

when one species hunts or traps another live species (THEY DO NOT LIVE ON OR IN THE PREY)

uniform population distribution

when resources are scarce, uniform distribution helps the species to get resources

resource partitioning

when species competing for similar scarce resources evolve specialized traits that allow them to share resources by using parts of them, using them at different times, or using them in different ways

overlap

when two species compete with one another for the same resources, their niches overlap and the greater the overlaps, the more intense their competitions are for key resources

Drinking Water Quality

~1/4 of the world does not have access to clean drinking water -poor villages suffer from: -> shallop wells (easily contaminated) -> polluted rivers -> mud holes used by animal and people -purification: chlorination, charcoal filtering, use of UV light -Protection: 1974 Safe Drinking Water: sets max contamination levels