APES Fall Final
Issues associated with water pollution during oil extraction and hydrofracking
- Acid main drainage can pollute waterways and get into drinking water
what we use each type of fossil fuel for (transportation, electricity, plastics, etc)
- Oil is largely used for transportation and industrial - Natural gas mostly used for industrial purposes - Coal, renewables, and nuclear mostly used for electricity generation
identify how humans use freshwater
- Water from groundwater and surface waters is used in agriculture, industry, and homes - Overextraction of water from these sources can imperil their long-term use and endanger ecosystems - 70% of water is used for agriculture! - Humans modify freshwater systems by controlling floods with levees, diverting waters with canals, and creating reservoirs with dams
Know how to use/explain the IPAT(S) model
The IPAT model summarizes how environmental impact (I) results from interactions among population size (P), affluence (A), and technology (T): I = P x A x T
Explain the relationship between TFR and religion
- Not much, has more to do with wealth than religion
Describe how mercury was mined in Almaden Quicksilver County Park
- Used a tunnel to extract cinnabar
Make connections between population, affluence, consumption, impact on biogeochemical cycles, and greenhouse gas emissions
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effects of climate change and their social, economic, and environmental impacts:
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impacts of a warming climate and increased concentrations of CO2 on the ocean
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be able to explain the relationship between September 11th terrorist attacks, energy independence/sovereignty, the Energy Policy Act of 2005, hydraulic fracturing boom, and oil prices
- 9/11 attacks briefly increased oil prices- After 1973 OPEC embargo US has increased domestic production- Energy Policy Act of 2005 promoted Nuclear Energy has an alternative energy source
Characterize the dimensions of the HIV/AIDS epidemic
- AIDS removes young and productive members of society, undermining the ability of poorer nations to develop - Nations lose billions of dollars in productivity and treatment puts a huge burden on the health care system
where major deposits of fossil fuels exist and know how that impacted the industrial revolution and development around the world
- Alberta oil sands - Majority of oil reserves located in the politically volatile Middle East - Hydraulic fracking in the US
Understand and explain how smaller yet affluent populations often have a greater ecological impact than much larger yet poorer countries
- Because affluent populations have the ability to overuse and overconsume while poorer countries cannot - For poorer countries to have an equal standard of living, we would need the resources of at least 4 more earths
Assess divergent views on population growth (see Malthus/Ehrlich)
- Because growing populations can deplete resources, strain food supplies, and stress social systems, Thomas Malthus and Paul Ehrlich warned that overpopulation could greatly harm humanity - The contrasting Cornucopian view holds that innovation will replace consumed resources and thus that population growth can continue
Explain why birth rates will still be high even when death rates drop (during Stage II - transitional stage) of demographic transition
- Birth rates remain high because people have not yet grown used to the new economic and social conditions
The Population Bomb
- Book written by Ehrlich predicting worldwide famine in the 1970s and 80s due to overpopulation and societal upheavals - Advocated for immediate action to limit population growth
Know and be able to discuss current events related to fossil fuels including The Dakota Access Pipeline (DAPL) and protests at Standing Rock; the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill; Fracking
- Dakota Access Pipeline: Canada wanted to make a shortcut through the Great Plains, over the nation's biggest reservoir, Obama said no- Deepwater Horizon: Faulty equipment allowed natural gas accompanying an oil deposit to shoot up a well shaft, which ignited the platform and leading to an oil spill
describe the costs and benefits of dams and the reason why dams are being removed
- Dams help generate jobs and electricity - Also damage ecosystems like China's 3 Gorges Dam
Explain consequences of negative population growth/population decline
- Demand shrinks - Less overcrowding - Fewer schools and public facilities
Explain and apply the fundamentals of demography
- Demography applies principles of population ecology to the statistical study of human populations - Demographers study size, density, distribution, age structure, and sex ratios of populations, as well as rates of birth, death, immigration, and emigration
In which ways they were "right" and which ways they were "wrong"
- Ehrlich's forecasts have not fully materialized because we have intensified food production in recent decades - Population growth has contributed to famine, disease, and conflict, but enhanced prosperity, education, and increasing gender equality have also helped to reduce birth rates
Outline and assess environmental impacts of fossil fuel use, and explore solutions
- Emissions from fossil fuel combustion contribute to TWO DIFFERENT PROBLEMS: 1 = greenhouse gas emissions (contributes to global warming and climate change); 2 = impact local air quality (particulate matter, NOx , SOx , ozone, photochemical and industrial smog) - In various ways, coal mining, oil and gas drilling, and oil sands extraction can alter ecosystems, pollute air and waterways, and pose health risks- Hydraulic fracturing magnifies some of these impacts- Fuels can also spill during transport, affecting soil, water, wildlife, and health- Emissions from fossil fuel combustion pollute air, pose human health risks, and drive global climate change- Public policy and advances in pollution control technology have reduced many of these emissions, but much more remains to be done- If we could safely capture CO2 and sequester it underground, this would resolve a primary drawback of fossil fuels, but carbon capture and storage remains unproven so far
Specify strategies for conserving energy and enhancing efficiency
- Energy conservation involves both personal choices and efficient technologies - Efficiency in power plant combustion, lighting, consumer appliances, and automotive fuel efficiency all play roles in conserving energy - The rebound effect, however, can partly negate our conservation efforts - Conservation lengthens our access to fossil fuels and reduces environmental impact, but to build a sustainable society we also need to shift to renewable energy sources
Discussion of human population carrying capacity
- Estimates vary wildly, the most conservative estimates range from 1-2 billion people living prosperously in a healthy environment to 33 billion living in extreme poverty in a world of intensive cultivation without wild natural areas - However, what we know for sure is that human population growth can't continue forever
Describe how family planning, the status of women, and wealth and poverty affect population growth
- Family-planning programs, reproductive education, and access to modern contraceptives have reduced population growth in many nations - Fertility rates also tend to fall in societies that grant women equal rights to men, as women delay childbirth to pursue education and employment - Poorer societies tend to show faster population growth than do wealthier societies
Evaluate political, social, and economic aspects of fossil fuel use
- Fossil fuels impose a variety of external costs - Fossil fuel extraction creates jobs but leaves pollution - People living in areas of extraction experience a range of consequences - Today's societies are heavily reliant on fossil fuel energy, and nations that consume far more fossil fuels than they extract are especially vulnerable to supply restrictions
describe major types of freshwater on earth including the difference between surface water and groundwater, what aquifers are, and what the water table is
- Fresh water occurs as groundwater and surface water - Common freshwater ecosystems include rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, and wetlands - Groundwater is located beneath the surface - Aquifers are porous, spongelike formations of rock that hold groundwater - The boundary between the aquifer's upper layer that is partially filled with water and the lower layer that is completely filled with water is called the water table - Like a sponge submerged halfway
A malthusian catastrophe (spectre)
- Occurs when population growth outpaces agricultural production
Carbon capture and storage
- Involves capturing carbon dioxide emissions, converting as to a liquid form, and then sequestering (storing) it in the ocean or underground in a geologically stable rock formation
Global population growth rate is declining (why?)
- Low fertility rates among women, better access to education and birth control to women across the world
compare and contrast the water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles
- Major reservoirs of the hydrologic cycle include the oceans and ice caps, and large fluxes include evaporation, precipitation, and runoff - Most of the carbon on Earth is contained in sedimentary rock and fluxes include photosynthesis, cellular respiration, and fossil fuel combustion - The major reservoir of nitrogen is the atmosphere, and important fluxes include nitrogen fixation (both by bacteria and humans) and denitrification - Phosphorus is most abundant in sedimentary rock, and fluxes include the weathering of rocks and human applications of fertilizers. Not much in the atmosphere
Explain the importance of Thomas Malthus and Paul Ehrlich
- Malthus and Ehrlich warned that over population could greatly harm humanity because humans would surpass food supply
explain main steps of wastewater treatment
- Municipalities treat drinking water by filtering and disinfection in a multi-step process - Septic systems help treat wastewater in rural areas, while cities and towns use municipal wastewater treatment facilities, which treat wastewater physically, biologically, and chemically in a series of steps
explain the consequences of overuse of groundwater and overuse of surface water including examples of each in the United States (hint: Ogallala and Central California aquifer; Colorado River)
- Overextraction of water can imperil their long-term use and endanger ecosystems - The Ogallala aquifer has been used for farming and is quickly becoming drained
explain how humans have impacted all the biogeochemical cycles AND the consequences of these changes (this is a big one; make some connections to climate change and Big River)
- People are affecting Earth's biogeochemical cycles by shifting carbon from fossil fuel reservoirs into the atmosphere, shifting nitrogen from the atmosphere to the planet's surface, and depleting groundwater supplies, among other impacts - Policies that seek to minimize human alterations of cycles, such as the remediation efforts embraced in the Chesapeake Bay, can help us address nutrient pollution
explain positive and negative feedback loops including key examples related to climate
- Positive feedback loops drive the system further toward an extreme because increased output from a system leads to increased input - Ex: Sunlight melts ice caps which exposes more dark water which absorbs more light and melts more ice - In negative feedback loops, output from a system moving in one direction acts as the input that moves the system in the other direction. Neutralize one another and stabilize the system - Ex: When sunlight evaporates water, it leads to more cloud cover, which deflects sun rays and causes cooling
Know ALL stages and what is happening in society and economy in each!
- Pre Industrial: Birth rate and death rate are high - Transitional: Death rates decline due to increased food production and improved medical care - Industrial stage: Birth rate declines due to increased opportunities for women and access to birth control - Birth rates in the transitional stage remain high, however, because people have not yet grown used to the new economic and social conditions - Post industrial stage: birth rate and death rate are low
Explain how we extract and use fossil fuels including the costs and benefits associated with various methods of extraction (ie methane leaks, etc)
- Scientists locate fossil fuel deposits by analyzing subterranean geology - Coal is mined underground and strip-mined from the surface, whereas we drill wells to pump out oil and gas - Oil sands may be strip-mined or dissolved underground and extracted through mine shafts - Refineries separate components of crude oil to transform it into a wide variety of fuel types - Coal and natural gas are used today principally to generate electricity - Oil powers transportation and is also used to create a diversity of petroleum-based products
list human activities that can lead to an increased nitrogen or phosphorus load in waterways and coastal ecosystems; know consequences of this; possible solutions
- The Haber-Bosch process enabled people to overcome the limits on productivity long imposed by nitrogen scarcity in nature - Used to create fertilizer using nitrogen - Consequences are that runoff from farming is rich in nitrogen, leading to nutrient pollution, eutrophication, and hypoxia - Severely messes up the Nitrogen cycle - Possible solution is to restrict the amount of nitrogen fertilizers used for agriculture
Evaluate how human population, affluence, and technology affect the environment
- The IPAT model summarizes how environmental impact (I) results from interactions among population size (P), affluence (A), and technology (T): I = P x A x T - Rising population and rising affluence may each increase consumption and environmental impact - Technology has frequently worsened our environmental degradation, but it can also help lessen our impacts
identify conditions that cause hypoxia (dead zones) and explain how algal blooms can reduce dissolved oxygen in aquatic ecosystems
- The condition of extremely low dissolved oxygen concentrations in a body of water - Caused when influx of phosphorus or nitrogen leads to plant overgrowth - When plants overgrow they use up all of the oxygen in the water, leaving none for organisms like fish
Examine how we are reaching further for fossil fuels
- The conventional fossil fuels that remain unexploited are harder to access and more expensive to extract, so we are applying technology and new approaches to extract them, including mountaintop removal mining, secondary extraction, directional drilling, hydraulic fracturing, deep offshore drilling, and Arctic exploration - We are also beginning to mine unconventional fossil fuels such as oil sands
Outline and assess the concept of demographic transition
- The demographic transition model explains why population growth slows as nations experience the process of industrialization - Economic and societal factors in agrarian societies that favored large family sizes are replaced with those that favor smaller families with industrialization and urbanization - The demographic transition may or may not proceed to completion in all of today's developing nations
Perceive the scope of human population growth
- The human population currently stands at more than 7 billion and increases by 1.2% annually - It is predicted to rise to around 9.7 billion people by 2050
Evaluate peak oil and the challenges it may pose
- The point of maximum production of petroleum in the world (or for a given nation), after which oil production declines - This is expected to be roughly the midway point of extraction of the world's oil supplies
Explain why and how improving access to education for women is the most effective way to decrease total fertility rate (TFR)
- The total fertility rate is the average number of children born per female member of a population during her lifetime - If access to education for women is improved, TFR decreases because women no longer need to have more children to be economically viable, so their children "replace" them when they die so population stays the same or drops
describe the major classes of pollution and their sources including toxic chemicals, pathogens and waterborne diseases, nutrient pollution, biodegradable wastes, sediment, and thermal pollution
- Water pollution stems from point sources and non-point sources, and is caused by toxic chemicals, microbial pathogens, excessive nutrients, biodegradable wastes, sediment, and thermal pollution - Legislation and regulation have succeeded in improving water quality in developed nations in recent decades
Evaluate marine protected areas and reserves as innovative solutions
- We have established fewer protected areas in the oceans than we have on land - Most marine protected areas allow some level of fishing to occur but no-take marine reserves that prohibit fish harvests can protect ecosystems, boost fish populations, and make fisheries sustainable
Does the human population have a carrying capacity?
- Yes, but we are not sure what it is yet
Develop suggested methods of restoration/clean-up for previously discussed and newly introduced mining examples
- see above
main drivers of climate change and the major human activities associated with them
1. Combustion of fossil fuels == Burning of fossil fuels for materials and electricity 2. deforestation/forest degradation == Used for new land development == Contributes to rising CO2 because it removes a source of carbon sequestration 3. Land use change (including agriculture) == Dams, mining, changes in irrigation
Discuss the costs and benefits of the valuation of ecosystem services
Costs: Research costs money, estimates might be wrong, and might prevent usage of some important resources Benefits: Helps humans be more aware of the value of nature and informs government action. Prevents humans from taking nature for granted
Review the state of the ocean fisheries and reasons for their decline
- 3/4 of the world's marine fish populations are exploited or overexploited, and the global fish catch has stagnated since the late 1980s despite increased fishing effort and improved technologies - Industrial fishing approaches have overexploited fisheries and resulted in high rates of bycatch and degradation of marine habitats - Traditional fisheries management has not stopped declines, so many scientists feel that ecosystem-based management is needed
greenhouse gases, their GWP, and their natural and anthropogenic sources
- A greenhouse gas is a gas that absorbs infrared radiation released by Earth's surface and then warms the surface and troposphere by emitting energy, thus giving rise to the greenhouse effect - GWP is the global warming potential, meaning how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere relative to carbon dioxide - Anthropogenic sources: Mostly combustion of fossil fuels, also deforestation and agriculture - Natural sources: CO2 is released by respiration and volcanic eruptions
ore
- A mineral or grouping of minerals from which we extract metals
mineral
- A naturally occurring solid element or inorganic compound with a crystal structure, a specific chemical composition, and distinct physical properties
acid drainage
- A process in which sulfide minerals in newly exposed rock surfaces react with oxygen and rainwater to produce sulfuric acid, which causes chemical runoff as it leaches metal from the rocks - It is a natural phenomenon, but mining greatly accelerates it by exposing many new surfaces
rock
- A solid aggregation of minerals
metal
- A type of chemical element, or a mass of such an element, that is typically lustrous, opaque, and malleable and that can conduct heat and elecetricity
the difference between mitigation and adaptation (including examples) and argue that we must do both moving forward
- Adaptation: The pursuit of strategies to protect ourselves from the impacts of climate change - Mitigation: The pursuit of strategies to lessen the severity of climate change == Ex: Reducing emissions of greenhouse gases - Adaptation is needed because even if we halted all our emissions now, the greenhouse gas pollution already in the atmosphere would continue driving global warming - Mitigation is also needed because if we do nothing it will eventually overwhelm any efforts
Discuss major factors behind species extinction and cite Earth's known mass extinction events
- Although extinction occurs naturally, human impact is profoundly accelerating the rate of extinction - Island species and ecologically separated species are especially vulnerable - When species that are vulnerable or rare encounter rapid environmental change, this heightens extinction risk - Five episodes of mass extinction are known—caused likely by asteroid impact or geologic factors - Humans may be initiating a sixth mass extinction
Discuss the consequences of population growth and resource consumption
- As a population grows, its members compete with each other for resources like food, water, and shelter - Resource consumption is a limiting factor because it sets a bar for how much a population can grow
characterize human influences on the atmosphere and on climate
- As we burn fossil fuels and clear forests, we increase atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, intensifying the greenhouse effect - Artificial greenhouse gases are also being added - Aerosol pollution exerts a variable but slight cooling effect, yet overall, human emissions are warming the atmosphere, land surface, and ocean water
Define bioaccumulation and biomagnification and communicate the difference between them
- Bioaccumulation is when a substance increases within an organism - Biomagnification is when a substance increases through an ecosystem
Identify and describe the terrestrial biomes of the world
- Biomes represent major classes of communities spanning large geographic areas - Their distribution is determined by temperature, precipitation, and other factors - Terrestrial biomes include temperate deciduous forest, temperate grassland, temperate rainforest, tropical rainforest, tropical dry forest, savanna, desert, tundra, boreal forest, and chaparral
suggest ways we may respond to climate change
- Both mitigation and adaptation are necessary - We can reduce greenhouse gas emissions with multiple strategies, including conservation, energy efficiency, clean and renewable energy sources, new automotive technologies, and investment in mass transit - International efforts to design effective treaties to restrain climate change have, so far, fallen short of what is needed - However, renewable energy technologies present economic opportunities, and some states, cities, and businesses are acting to address emissions - Carbon trading and carbon taxation offer promising ways to harness market forces and financial incentives to help reduce emissions
Identify the ore that was mined (cinnabar) and describe its chemical makeup
- Cinnabar is the ore of mercury in the form of mercury (II) sulfide (HgS)
Identify common sources of mercury today and explain how it gets from the atmosphere into our food system via wet/dry deposition
- Coal burning (most common), mining, and volcanoes - Wet deposition is when mercury is deposited in rain - Dry deposition is when it falls from the sky onto the ground
Summarize and compare the major types of species interactions
- Competition results when individuals or species vie for limited resources - Competition can occur within or among species and can result in coexistence or exclusion - In predation, an individual of one species kills and consumes an individual of another - In parasitism, an individual of one species derives benefit by harming (but usually not killing)
Identify the major economic costs of mining and explain why it can be difficult to make a profit including which factors greatly influence a mining company's ability to make a profit
- Cost isn't just labor and equipment, it's also in insurance - Very expensive to have that kind of equipment and dig into the ground - Labor is very expensive and insurance for workers - Difficult to make a profit because you need to be getting more $$ from ore than you're using to extract it - Technically recoverable vs economically recoverable == As long as it costs less than gain than it is profitiable
Characterize disturbance, succession, and notions of community change
- Disturbances varied, and communities respond to disturbance in different ways - Succession describes a typical pattern of community change through time - Primary succession begins with an area devoid of life - Secondary succession begins with an area that has been severely disturbed but where remnants of the original community remain - Ecologists today view succession as less predictable and deterministic than they did in the past - If disturbance is severe enough, communities may undergo regime shifts involving irreversible change—or novel communities may form
List and describe the different types of plate boundaries (divergent, convergent, transform) and predict the consequences of each and be able to identify examples of each from the book or discussed in class
- Divergent: Tectonic plates push apart from one another as magma rises upward to the surface == creating new lithosphere as it cools == Ex: Mid-Atlantic Ridge - Convergent: Two plates come together == Can either result in subduction, where one plate dips beneath the other (forming a trench or islands), or in a continental collision, where masses of buckled crust are forced upward as they are pressed together (forms mountains) == Ex: Subduction: Mariana Trench == Ex: Collision: The Himalayas - Transform: The area where two tectonic plates meet and slip and grind alongside one another == Creates earthquakes == Ex: The Pacific Plate and the North American plate rub against each other along CA's San Andreas fault
Explain the importance of natural resources and ecosystem services to our lives
- Ecosystem services are benefits we receive from the normal functioning of natural systems - Natural resources and ecosystem services are essential to human life and civilization
Earth's Energy Balance
- Energy balance is how much energy Earth retains compared to how much it sends into space (right now Earth is retaining more than it releases) - In this way, the Earth maintains a stable average temperature and therefore a stable climate
Differentiate among forms of energy and explain the basics of energy flow
- Energy is the capacity to change the position, physical composition, or temperature of matter - Energy can convert from one form to another— for instance, from potential to kinetic energy and vice versa— and, like matter, energy is conserved during conversions - Systems tend to increase in entropy, or disorder, unless energy is added to build or maintain order and complexity
Describe feeding relationships and energy flow, and use them to identify trophic levels and navigate food webs
- Energy is transferred among trophic levels in food chains - Lower trophic levels generally contain more energy, biomass, and individuals - Food webs illustrate feeding relationships and energy flow among species in a community
Define the term environment and describe the field of environmental science
- Environment: All the living and nonliving things around us - Environmental science is the study of how the natural world works, how our environment affects us, and how we affect our environment - Environmental science uses approaches and insights from many disciplines in the natural sciences and social sciences
Characterize the nature of environmental science
- Environmental scientists aim to comprehend how Earth's natural systems affect people and how we influence those systems - Many environmental scientists are motivated by a desire to develop solutions to environmental problems like technology, policy decisions, or resource management
Explain the fundamentals of matter and chemistry and apply them to real-world situations
- Everything in the universe that has mass and occupies space is matter, which can neither be created nor destroyed - Matter comprises atoms and elements, and changes at the atomic level can result in alternate forms of elements such as ions and isotopes - Atoms bond with one another to form molecules and compounds conserved in such reactions - Carbon-based organic compounds are particularly important because they are the building blocks of life and provide energy in the form of fossil fuels
extreme weather
- Extreme weather damages crops and property - Climate change melting the Arctic has influenced the jet stream, causing and atmospheric blocking pattern that blocks the eastward movement of weather systems - As a result, weather like rain or heat stays ini place longer
Explain how methylmercury forms (what conditions are needed)
- Formed when microbes that live in aquatic systems combine inorganic mercury with carbon, which forms methylmercury
Know how geologists divide and classify the history of the earth
- Geologists divide and classify geological history into long and short term history - Within these two categories are 4 subcategories, Eons and eras, and Periods and Epochs - Eons: Largest set of time: 0.5 billion years ago to 2 billion years ago - Era: Time scales within eons, now in hundreds of millions of years ago - Periods: Subdivided parts of Eras - Epochs: Subdivided parts of periods
Identify and discuss challenges and current efforts in conserving biodiversity
- Habitat loss, the introduction of non-native species, and climate change are among the major challenges to biodiversity - People are striving to protect and restore populations, species, and habitats, even as human impacts continue to complicate efforts
sea level rise
- Higher sea levels lead to beach erosion, coastal flooding, intrusion of saltwater into aquifers, and greater impacts from storm surges - Affects small island nations
Predict the potential impacts of invasive species in communities, and suggest responses to biological invasions
- Humans have introduced countless species to new areas - Some of these non-native species may become invasive if they do not encounter limiting factors on their population growth - Invasive species such as the zebra mussel have altered the composition, structure, and function of communities - We can respond to invasive species with prevention, control, and eradication measures
Distinguish between photosynthesis, cellular respiration, and chemosynthesis and summarize their importance to living things
- In photosynthesis, autotrophs use CO2, water, and solar energy to produce oxygen and chemical energy in sugars - In cellular respiration, organisms extract energy from sugars by converting them in the presence of oxygen into carbon dioxide and water, and use this energy to combat entropy and sustain life - In chemosynthesis, specialized autotrophs use carbon dioxide, water, and chemical energy from minerals (instead of energy from sunlight) to produce sugars
how hydraulic fracturing technology has impacted EROI, impacted oil prices, and impacted the Canadian Tar Sands operations (and the profitability of the Keystone XL pipeline)
- In the Canadian tar sands, EROI ratios are low because oil sands are a low-quality fuel that requires a lot of energy to extract and process - Hydraulic fracturing has high EROI at first until all the "sweet spots" are used up
the Keeling Curve
- Keeling observed a steady increase in atmospheric CO2, and indication that fossil fuel emissions were building up in the atmosphere
Discuss characteristics of a keystone species
- Keystone species exert impacts on communities that are far out of proportion to their abundance - Top predators are frequently considered keystone species - Other types of organisms (such as ecosystem engineers) can also exert strong effects on communities
Identify the energy sources we use and depend on
- Many energy sources are available, but since the industrial revolution, nonrenewable fossil fuels—including coal, natural gas, and oil— have become our primary sources of of energy - We are also developing alternative sources of clean and renewable energy
tailings pond
- Massive earth structures used to store coarse and fine solids contained in the oil sands deposit and recover water back to the main processing plant - Temporary storage facilities and need to be reclaimed when no longer in use - Fine solids from tailings streams tend to trap large volumes of water, making pond reclamation challenging
Describe how mercury bioaccumulates in aquatic food systems
- Mercury bioaccumulates in aquatic food systems because of biomagnification - The higher up on the food chain you go, there are less predators. Predators have to eat a lot of prey, which have small amounts of mercury. When predators eat their prey, the amount of mercury in the prey combines with the others to magnify
Know that mercury is volatile and explain what that means; explain how it got into the environment during extraction and processing in New Almaden
- Mercury is volatile because it vaporizes easily - Liquid mercury has a high vapor pressure and readily releases particles into the air - It got into the environment at New Almaden because the dust from the furnace where they roasted mercury was dumped into nearby creeks, which flowed into the bay and affected ecosystems there - When mercury gets into waterways and wetlands, it binds with proteins in plants and animals and forms methylmercury, which can be fatal
Describe how the ore was processed to extract the mercury and what was done with it afterwards
- Mercury obtained by heating the cinnabar and collecting and cooling the mercury vapors that were produced - Afterwards the leftover cinnabar was thrown into the rivers, with miners not realizing that the cinnabar still had mercury remains which leaked into the environment
Describe the health effects of mercury poisoning and explain why mercury is especially harmful to pregnant women and children
- Mercury poisoning affects the nervous system, leading to neurological symptoms like memory problems - Especially harmful to pregnant women because mercury is easily passed from mother to child, which can inhibit development - Also harmful to children because it affects brain development
Evaluate ways to encourage sustainable use of mineral resources
- Minerals are non-renewable resources, so they are limited in supply- Several factors affect how long a given mineral resource will last- Reuse and recycling by industry and consumers are the keys to more sustainable practices of mineral use- E-waste can be a source of recovered minerals
Explain natural selection and cite evidence for this process
- Natural selection is the process whereby inherited traits that enhance survival and reproduction are passed on more frequently to offspring than traits that do not enhance survival and reproduction - Evidence of natural selection can be found in countless adaptations in the diversity of wild species that exist today - It can also be found in our crop plants, pets, and farm animals, all of which have been bred by artificial selection
Milankovitch cycles
- One of 3 types of variations in Earth's rotation and orbit around the sun that result in slight changes in the relative amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface at different latitudes - As the cycles proceed, they change the way solar radiation is distributed over Earth's surface and contribute to changes in atmospheric heating and circulation that have triggered glaciations and other climate changes
List the levels of ecological organization
- Organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, landscapes, and the biosphere - Habitat, niche, and specialization are vital ecological concepts
Explain how plate tectonics relates to the rock cycle
- Plate tectonics drive the rock cycle - The rock cycle is the process by which rocks transform from one type to another, which is usually affected by how plates move - Ex: Metamorphic rocks are caused by heat and pressure and can be found at subduction zones, where material is forced downward and heat and pressure increases
Explain how plate tectonics works and the differences between oceanic and continental plates
- Plate tectonics is the process by which Earth's surface is shaped by the extremely slow movement of tectonic plates, or sections of crust - The interactions of Earth's major tectonic plates gives rise to processes that build mountains, cause earthquakes, and otherwise influence the landscape - Continental crust is located beneath land masses and under shallow seas close to continents, while oceanic crust is located beneath deep ocean - Continental crust is very thick, but composed of lighter rock - Oceanic crust is very thin, but composed of dense and heavy rock - When oceanic and continental plates converge, the oceanic crust subducts and moves underneath the continental plate, forming a convergent plate boundary
Explain how plate tectonics relates to natural disasters such as earthquakes and volcanoes
- Plate tectonics relates to earthquakes because earthquakes are caused by the sudden movement of rock, explained by the "Elastic Rebound Theory" - The "Elastic Rebound Theory" says that rock suddenly moves into place after elastic deformation, usually occurs only on fault lines - Volcanoes occur where crustal rock melts, usually due to a subducting plate - Tsunamis are an immense wave of ocean water triggered by an earthquake, volcano, or landslide that can travel long distances across oceans and hit coasts
Describe the characteristics of populations that help predict population growth
- Populations are characterized by size, density, distribution, sex ratio, and age structure - Rates of birth, death, immigration, and emigration determine how a population will change
Explain how logistic growth, limiting factors, carrying capacity, and other fundamental concepts affect population ecology
- Populations unrestrained by limiting factors undergo exponential growth - Logistic growth results from density dependence - Growth slows as population size increases and approaches a carrying capacity - Reproductive strategies differ among species, and carrying capacities can change—all of which affect population ecology
tailings
- Portions of ore left over after metals have been extracted in mining
Define ecosystem services
- Processes and the results of those processes that naturally result from the normal functioning of ecological systems and from which human beings draw benefits - Examples include nutrient cycling, air and water purification, climate regulation, pollination, waste recycling, and more
Climate models and their role in policy making
- Programs that combine what is known about atmospheric circulation, ocean circulation, atmosphere-ocean interactions, and feedback cycle to simulate climate processes - Can produce reliable predictions that influence policy making
Identify, describe, and classify ecosystem services (provisioning services; cultural services; supporting/regulating services)
- Provisioning: Nature provides humans with resources like food, water, fuel, fiber, and material for industrial products - Regulating/Supporting: Nature reserves and purifies water, regulates, temperatures, prevents floods, and decomposes waste. Nature also generates oxygen and circulates water and minerals - Cultural: Nature provides humans with recreational experiences and sites for education
summarize how researchers study climate
- Proxy indicators, such as data from ice cores, sediment cores, tree rings, packrat middens, and coral reefs, reveal information about past climate - Direct measurements of temperature, precipitation, and other conditions tell us about current climate - Climate models serve to predict future change in climate
radiative forcing (examples and significance of net radiative forcings
- Radiative forcing quantifies the influence that aerosols, greenhouse gases, and other factors exert over Earth's energy balance - Positive forcing warms the surface whereas negative forcing cools it
the difference between renewable and nonrenewable resources
- Renewable energy resources are readily replenished so we can keep using them without depleting them - Ex: Sunlight, geothermal energy and tidal energy - Nonrenewable energy sources result from ongoing natural processes but they take so long to form that once depleted, they cannot be replaced within a useful timespan - Ex: Coal, oil, natural gas
Explain the goals and methods of restoration ecology
- Restoration ecology is the science of restoring communities to a previous, more functional or more "natural" condition, variously defined as before human impact or before recent industrial impact - The growing practice of ecological restoration, informed by the science of restoration ecology, helps us restore ecological systems - Common strategies include removing invasive species, reintroducing native species, and reestablishing ecological processes
reclamation
- Restoring a mining site to an approximation of its pre-mining condition - To reclaim a site, companies are required to remove all mining structures, replace overburden, fill in mine shafts, and replant the area with vegetation
Diagnose and illustrate some of the pressures on the global environment
- Rising population and intensifying consumption magnify human impacts on the environment, which include resource depletion, air and water pollution, climate change, habitat destruction, and biodiversity loss
describe Earth's climate system and explain the factors influencing global climate
- Solar radiation, Milankovitch cycles, ocean absorption, and ocean circulation all influence climate - Greenhouse gases warm the atmosphere by absorbing and re-emitting infrared radiation - Earth's climate changes naturally over time, but today human influence is changing it rapidly - Our planet is now experiencing radiative forcing of 2.3 watts/m^2 of thermal energy above what it was experiencing 250 years ago
Describe how evolution generates and shapes biodiversity
- Species most commonly form when geographic isolation over many generations leads to speciation, which produces new types of organisms that enhance Earth's biological diversity - Natural selection can be a diversifying force as populations of organisms adapt to their environments - Phylogenetic trees and the fossil record teach us about the history of life by chronicling how populations of organisms have evolved
Discuss the Anthropocene as a new geological epoch, including evidence for why it should be considered a new epoch (see "Science Behind the Story" from book, "The Human Age" reading, and the following click and learn: http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/anthropocene-human-impact-environment )
- Started with the era of industrialization in the 1950s and is characterized by human-induced changes in landscape, ocean, and atmospheric chemistry - Leads to species extinctions and invasions - Human effects on the environment are unprecedented and are rapidly changing the geologic record, so it should be considered a new epoch
Identify and describe the type of mining method that was used
- Subsurface mining (tunnel)
Articulate the concept of sustainability and describe campus sustainability efforts
- Sustainability means living within our planet's means, such that Earth's resources can sustain us—and all life— for the future - Today we are actively developing sustainable solutions (such as replacing fossil fuels with renewable energy) that promote our quality of life while protecting and restoring our environment - Many college students are taking action to promote sustainable solutions on their campuses, including recycling, energy efficiency, water conservation, transportation alternatives, and more
outline current and future trends and impacts of global climate change
- Temperatures have warmed about 1.1°C (2.0°F) in the past century and are predicted to rise 1.0-3.7°C (1.8°-6.7°F) more by 2100 - Changes in precipitation are varying by region - Extreme weather events are becoming more frequent, likely due in part to modification of the jet stream - Melting glaciers will diminish water supplies, and melting ice sheets are added to sea level rise - Sea level has risen 24.1 cm (9.5 in) in the past 135 years, and its continued rise poses increasing risks of damage to islands and coasts - Of all impacts of our greenhouse gas emissions, ocean acidification may become the most far-reaching - All these changes exert impacts on organisms and ecosystems, as well as on agriculture, forestry, health, economics, and national security - These impact vary regionally but will affect us all
The IPCC's role in the development of science on climate change and importance in regards to policy and planning (adaptation and mitigation strategies for different regions)
- The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - Mission is to assess and synthesize scientific research on global climate change and to offer guidance to the world's policymakers, primarily through periodic published reports - Makes observations and then recommendations - Mitigation tries to reduce the severity of climate change, while adaptation strategies adapt to the challenges of climate change
Identify the geological process (ie plate boundary) that is responsible for the formation of the Sierra Nevada Mountain Range
- The Sierra Nevada mountain range was formed by the subduction of the ancient Farollan Plate - As oceanic crust melted, magma rose up to form mountains
how concepts of net energy and EROI (energy return on investment) allow us to compare the amount of energy obtained from a source with the amount invested in its extraction and production
- The concepts of net energy and EROI allow you to compare the different amount of energy obtained from a source with the amount invested in its extraction and processing - This can help decide which energy sources are most efficient and productive
Describe the restoration/reclamation techniques used in the park
- The field where the reduction equipment used to be was covered in 3 feet of clay soil to try and prevent the mercury residue from affecting the environment - This reclamation attempt was successful in restoring the field, but there are still lasting effects in the creek because fish are not safe to eat
Understand and define the "Tragedy of the Commons" including common examples discussed in class (Bottom of the Well, overfishing, etc) and possible solutions
- The process by which publicly accessible resources open to unregulated use tend to become damaged and depleted through overuse - Relates to Bottom of the Well and overfishing because if everyone scrambles to maximize the use of a resource like water or fish, they deplete it faster than it can regenerate, hurting both them and their competitors - Possible solutions are to have the government step in and prevent overuse
Understand the scientific method and the process of science
- The scientific method is a technique for testing ideas with observations
mining
- The systematic removal of rock, soil, or other material for the purpose of extracting minerals of economic interest
Explain how the oceans influence and are influenced by climate
- The thermohaline circulation redistributes heat around the world and shapes regional climate. Keeps Europe warm. - El Niño and La Niña events occur periodically and alter climate - It is hypothesized that global warming could alter existing circulation patterns, which in turn would affect Earth's climate - the oceans sequester atmospheric carbon and have slowed global climate change, but they could soon become saturated
Develop an argument to support or refute the valuation of ecosystems for use in policy making
- The valuation of ecosystems for policy making is crucial because it helps inform government decisions based on the worth of the environment
the greenhouse effect
- The warming of Earth's surface and atmosphere (especially the troposphere) caused by the energy emitted by greenhouse gases - After absorbing radiation emitted from the surface, greenhouse gases send some energy into space but some back downward, warming the atmosphere and surface
the greenhouse effect's significance to life on earth
- The warming of Earth's surface and atmosphere (especially the troposphere) caused by the energy emitted by greenhouse gases - Significant to life because it warms the surface temperature of the earth to a temperature that allows for life to exist
aerosols (from sulfur emissions) result in a slight cooling effect
- Very fine liquid droplets or solid particles aloft in the atmosphere - Cool the atmosphere by reflecting the sun's rays - Can be released by major volcanic eruptions
Analyze the problem with viewing nature as "priceless"
- Viewing nature as priceless causes people to take advantage of it and take it for granted - Putting a price on nature underscores its value
coral bleaching
- Warmer water contribute to coral bleaching - Stronger storms physically damage reefs - This harms people who live in Miami because coral reefs provide habitats for fish consumed locally and exported for profit - Also recreation like scuba diving - Corals also protect coastlines from erosion by reducing wave intensity
changes in precipitation
- Winter and strong precipitation is projected to decrease in the South but increase in the North - Some areas get drought and some get flooding - Droughts harm agriculture, worsen soil erosion, reduce water supplies, and promote wildfire - Rain increases lead to floods that kill people and destroy property - Wet regions are projected to get wetter and dry areas are projected to get dryer
Describe the origin and nature of major types of fossil fuels including how fossil fuels are formed (what conditions are necessary)
- coal: most abundant; results from organic matter that undergoes compression but little decomposition - crude oil: formed underground in high temp and high pressure - natural gas: methane - oil sands: bitumen; tarry and sticky substance that forms when oil has been degraded by bacteria - shale oil and methane hydrate: potential for future use
causes and consequences of ocean acidification
- even a slight warming of ocean temperature causes coral bleaching - symbiotic algae cannot withstand increased temperature and are expelled by coral, which results in death of an entire reef ecosystem - Absorption of excess carbon dioxide leads to ocean acidification, which hinders coral reefs from forming
Know and be able to apply knowledge about major (7) mining methods including description, ore, examples of locations, major environmental impacts, waste disposal/treatment, social impacts, economic impacts, and methods of reclamation
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