APES - The ULTIMATE AP Exam Quizlet

cellular respiration

a process that unlocks the chemical energy stored in the cells of organisms (photosynthesis backwards)

bottleneck effect

a reduction in the genetic diversity of a population caused by a reduction in its size

rain shadows

a region formed by arid conditions on the leeward side of the range, which are produced by warm dry air

limiting resource

a resource that a population cannot live without and which occurs in quantities lower than the population would require to increase in size

Svalbard Global Seed Vault

an international seed storage facility funded by nations and philanthropists

Convention on Biological Diversity

an international treaty created in 1992 to help protect biodiversity three objectives 1) conserve biodiversity 2) sustainably use biodiversity 3) equitably share the benefits that emerge from the commercial use of genetic resources such as pharmaceutical drugs

scientific method

an objective way to explore the natural world, draw inferences from it, and predict the outcome of certain events, processes, or changes

Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976

gives the EPA the authority to regulate many chemicals, though excluding food, cosmetics, and pesticides

Kyoto Protocol

global emissions of greenhouse gases from all industrialized countries will be reduced to 5.2% below their 1990 levels by 2012 the United States Senate did not vote in favor for the protocol

atmospheric convection currents (2)

global patterns of air movement that are initiated by the unequal heating of the Earth

note #153

global temperature has been increasing since 1880

note #157

global warming can affect humans by forcing them to relocate, leading to new health risks, and harming tourism

note #156

global warming has harmed living organisms coral bleaching

note #101

human wastewater can carry a variety of illness-causing viruses, bacteria, and parasites that we collectively call pathogens pathogens in wastewater are responsible for many diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever, various forms of stomach flu, and diarrhea

note #!

humans alter natural systems in both good and bad ways good - Native Americans setting fire to forests when hunting prevented the forests from encroaching on the plains giving birth to the prairie ecosystem bad - driving animals to extinction

porosity

how quickly soil drains sand has high porosity, clay has low porosity, silt is in the middle

solubility

how well a chemical can dissolve in a liquid

HIV

human immunodeficiency virus

note #158

human land uses include agriculture, housing, recreation, industry, mining, and waste disposal

emergent infectious diseases

infectious diseases that were previously not described or have not been common for at least the prior 20 years

density of air

less dense air rises, denser air sinks warm air has a lower density and thus rises cold air has a higher density and thus sinks

total dissolved solids (TDS)

matter that is in the water that is unable to be reduced or eliminated with chemicals

capacity

maximum electrical output

ocean currents

may shift

becquerel (Bq)

measures the rate at which a sample of radioactive material decays 1 Bq = the decay of 1 atom per second

ecosystem services provided by soil

medium for plant growth breaks down organic material and recycle nutrients habitat for a variety of organisms filtes water

methane

methane is created when there is not enough oxygen available during decomposition to produce carbon dioxide wetlands are the largest natural source of methane termites are the second largest natural source of methane

ED50

the effective dose that causes 50% of the individuals to display the harmful, but nonlethal, effect

wind energy

the energy captured by transforming the motion of air into electrical energy using a turbine

net primary productivity (NPP)

the energy captured minus the energy respired by producers

energy subsidy

the energy input per calorie of food produced

kinetic energy

the energy of motion

5 levels of the environment

the environment around us exists at a series of increasingly complex levels 1) individuals 2) populations 3) communities 4) ecosystems 5) biosphere

evolution by natural selection

the environment determines which individuals survive and reproduce

basic needs

the essentials that sustain human life including air, water, food, and shelter

speciation

the evolution of new species, happens very slowly, one to three new species per year worldwide

sympatric speciation

the evolution of one species into two species in the absence of geographic isolation usually happens through polyploidy

environmental equity

the fair distribution of Earth's resources

aquaculture

the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, shellfish, and seaweeds relieve pressure on fisheries, boost economies of developing countries waster water regulation, escaped fish may harm wild fish by competing with them, interbreeding with them, or spreading diseases and parasites

environmental science

the field that looks at interactions among human systems and those found in nature

pioneer species

the first species to populate an area during succession example - cherry and aspen

waste stream

the flow of solid waste that is recycled, incinerated, placed in a solid waste landfill, or disposed of in another way

capacity factor

the fraction of the time a plant is operating

decomposers

the fungi and bacteria that complete the breakdown process by recycling the nutrients from dead tissues and wastes back into the ecosystem

greenhouse gases

the gases in the atmosphere that absorb infrared radiation

J-shaped curve

the graph which shows a population that is not limited by resources, with rapid growth as more births occur with each step in time (exponential growth model)

note #3

the greatest challenge to environmental science is the fact that there is no undisturbed baseline, no "control planet," with which to compare the contemporary Earth

experimental group

the group that experiences the independent variable

note #161

the guiding principle of national park management today is that NPS should maintain the parks in the same biotic condition in which they were first found by European settlers

biomagnification

the increase in chemical concentration in animal tissues as the chemical moves up the food chain example - DDT

overnutrition

the ingestion of too many calories and improper foods

cogeneration/combined heat and power

the use of a fuel to generate electricity and produce heat

perceived obsolescence

when a customer is convinced that he or she needs an updated product, even though his or her existing product is working well

epidemic

when a pathogen causes a rapid increase in disease

note #145

when a patient stops taking antibiotics before the last bacteria have been killed... 1) the pathogen can quickly rebuild its population inside the person 2) because the last few bacteria are generally the most drug-resistant, stopping the antibiotics before the bacteria are eradicated selects for drug-resistant strains

pandemic

when an epidemic occurs over a large geographic region such as an entire continent

chronic studies

experiments of longer duration

acute studies

experiments with a short duration

peat

a precursor to coal, used mostly in the developing world

note #41

geographic isolation leads to reproductive isolation

precision

how close to one another the repeated measurements of the same sample are

persistance

how long the chemical remains in the environment

allopatric speciation

speciation that requires geographic isolation

biological diversity/biodiversity

the diversity of life forms in an environment

energy quality

the ease with which an energy source can be used for work

access

the economic, social, and physical availability of food

fossils

the remains of organisms that have been preserved in rock

extinct species

were known to exist as recently as 1500 but no longer exist today

swamps (freshwater wetlands)

wetlands that contain emergent trees

how to calculate the global population growth rate (%)

(CBR − CDR) ÷ 10

curie

1 curie = 37 billion decays per second

four land-managing federal agencies

1) Bureau of Land Management (BLM) 2) United States Forest Service (USFS) 3) National Park Service (NPS) 4) Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS)

2 reproductive strategies

1) K-selected species 2) r-selected species

three ways evolution occurs

1) artificial selection 2) natural selection 3) random processes

four indoor air pollutants

1) asbestos 2) carbon monoxide 3) Radon-222 4) VOCs

the formation of Hadley cells steps

1) at the ITCZ, the Sun heats the moist tropical air, causing it to rise 2) the rising air experiences adiabatic cooling, which causes water vapor to condense into rain and fall back to Earth 3) the condensation of water produces latent heat release; this causes the air to expand and rise farther up into the atmosphere 4) the warm rising air displaces the cooler, drier air above it to the north and south 5) the cool, dry air sinks and experiences adiabatic heating; it reaches Earth's surface as warm, dry air, and then flows back toward the equator

three steps of group source heat pumps

1) at the compressor, the circulating fluid is compressed to form a hot gas; heat is given off into the house from the heat exchanger as the gas cools to form a liquid 2) as the fluid expands and cools, it becomes a fluid that is much cooler than the ground through which it will move 3) the warmer ground heats the cool fluid, which cycles through buried tubing; thus heat from the ground is essentially pumped into the building

four main causes of urban sprawl

1) automobiles and highway construction, living costs, urban blight, and government policies

seven leading causes of death in the world

1) cardiovascular diseases 2) infectious diseases 3) cancers 4) respiratory and digestive diseases 5) injuries 6) other 7) maternal and perinatal conditions

three major fossil fuels

1) coal 2) oil 3) natural gas

4 categories of interactions with other species

1) competition 2) predation 3) mutualism 4) commensalism

five categories that define the status of a species

1) data-deficient species 2) extinct species 3) threatened species 4) near-threatened species 5) least concern species

the four properties of air that determine how it circulates in the atmosphere

1) density 2) water vapor capacity 3) adiabatic heating or cooling 4) latent heat release

baghouse filter

1) dirty air enters housing 2) combustion exhaust stream moves through and dust particles are trapped in a series of filter bags 3) cleaner, fillers air moves out of the unit 4) a shaker mechanism is activated periodically to dislodge trapped particles, which can then be collected from beneath the unit

electrostatic precipitator

1) dirty air enters precipitator unit 2) particles in combustion exhaust stream pass by negatively charged plates, which gives them a negative charge 3) the negatively charged particles are attracted to positively charged collection plates 4) cleaner air moves out of the unit 5) the positive collection plates are periodically discharged, which causes the particles to fall off so that they can be removed from the system

scrubber

1) dirty air enters scrubber 2) combustion exhaust stream moves upward in shower of water mist 3) mist collects particles ("scrubs" the air) and brings them down to bottom of unit 4) dirty water moves to a sludge removal system 5) sludge is separated from water and disposed of 6) water moves back to scrubber for reuse 7) excess mist collects on screen 8) cleaner air exits through stack

three types of plate contact

1) divergent plate boundaries 2) convergent plate boundaries 3) transform fault boundaries

El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) steps

1) during most years, trade winds push surface water from east to west 2) deep water moves upward (upwelling) to replace the surface water that has moved westward 3) during El Niño years, trade winds weaken or reverse direction; warm surface water moves from west to east 4) the warm surface water builds up along the coast of South America and prevents upwelling of the deep cold water

three levels of biodiversity

1) ecosystem diversity 2) species diversity 3) genetic diversity

two primary categories of nonrenewable energy resources

1) fossil fuels 2) nuclear fuels

two categories of aquatic biomes

1) freshwater biomes streams and rivers lakes and ponds freshwater wetlands 2) saltwater biomes or marine biomes salt marshes mangrove swamps intertidal zone coral reefs open ocean

3 factors that determine the distribution of species around the world

1) fundamental niche 2) ability to disperse (kangaroos can not go to North America because the ocean is an effective barrier) 3) interactions with other species (competition, predation, mutualism, commensalism)

five causes of declining biodiversity

1) habitat loss 2) intrusion of alien species 3) overharvesting 4) pollution 5) climate change

three rock types

1) igneous 3) sedimentary 3) metamorphic

the greenhouse effect

1) incoming solar radiation consists primarily of UV and visible light 2) about 1/3 of this solar radiation is reflected (from the atmosphere, clouds, and the surface of the planet) back into space 3) the remaining solar radiation is absorbed by the clouds and the surface of the planet; both become warmer and then emit infrared radiation 4) much of the emitted infrared radiation from Earth is absorbed by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere; the remainder is emitted into space 5) as the greenhouse gases absorb infrared radiation, they warm and emit infrared radiation, with much of it going back toward Earth; the greater the concentration of greenhouse gases, the more infrared radiation is absorbed and emitted back toward Earth

three benefits of genetic engineering

1) increased crop yield and quality 2) potential changes in pesticide use 3) increased profits

five key ideas of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection

1) individuals produce an excess of offspring 2) not all offspring can survive 3) individuals differ in their traits 4) differences in traits can be passed on from parents to offspring 5) differences in traits are associated with differences in the ability to survive and reproduce

four types of coal ranked from lesser to greater age, exposure to pressure, and energy content

1) lignite 2) sub-bituminous 3) bituminous 4) anthracite

the rock cycle

1) magma rises and after cooling and crystallization, becomes igneous rock 2) igneous rock can undergo subduction and melting OR igneous rock can uplift to the surface OR igneous rock can undergo immense heat and pressure changes and become metamorphic rock 3) metamorphic rock can undergo melting OR metamorphic rock can uplift to the surface 4) after weathering, erosion, transport, and compression, sedimentary rock is formed 5) sedimentary rock can undergo subduction and melting OR sedimentary rock can uplift to the surface OR sedimentary rock can undergo immense heat and pressure changes and become metamorphic rock

five Green Revolution practices

1) mechanization 2) irrigation 3) fertilizers 4) monocropping 5) pesticides

ten principles of smart growth

1) mixed land uses 2) create a range of housing opportunities and choices 3) create walkable neighborhoods 4) encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions 5) take advantage of compact building design 6) foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place 7) preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and critical environmental areas 8) provide a variety of transportation choices 9) strengthen and direct development toward existing communities 10) make development decisions predictable, fair, and cost-effective

four random processes

1) mutation 2) genetic drift 3) bottleneck effect 4) founder effect

two processes that create genetic diversity

1) mutation 2) recombination

six international categories of public lands

1) national parks 2) managed resource protected areas 3) habitat/species management areas 4) strict nature reserves and wilderness areas 5) protected landscapes and seascapes 6) national monuments

five groups of harmful chemicals

1) neurotoxins 2) carcinogens 3) teratogens 4) allergens 5) endocrine disruptors

The Nitrogen Cycle Steps

1) nitrogen fixation - biotic processes by bacteria in plant roots or cyanobacteria convert initrogen gas from the atmosphere into ammonia (which in the soil becomes ammonium), while abiotic processes by lightening or industrial fertilizer production convert nitrogen gas from the atmosphere into nitrate 2) assimilation - producers take up either ammonium or nitrate and consumers assimilate nitrogen by eating producers 3) ammonification - decomposers in soil and water break down biological nitrogen compounds into ammonium 4) nitrification - nitrifying bacteria convert ammonium into nitrite and then into nitrate 5) denitrification - in a series of steps, denitrifying bacteria in oxygen-poor soil and stagnant water convert nitrate into nitrous oxide and eventually nitrogen gas

steps of the scientific method

1) observations and questions 2) forming hypotheses 3) collecting data 4) interpreting results 5) disseminating findings

three resources that supply the majority of the energy used in the United States

1) oil 2) coal 3) natural gas

two types of fertilizer

1) organic 2) synthetic

five factors that determine the properties of soils

1) parent material 2) climate 3) topography 4) organisms 5) time

three major categories of risks that can harm human health

1) physical - natural disasters, exposure to UV radiation 2) biological - disease 3) chemical - exposure to chemicals

two types of weathering

1) physical weathering 2) chemical weathering they both work together to break down rocks

5 population characteristics

1) population size 2) population density 3) population distribution 4) population sex ratio 5) population age structure

three reasons for undernutrition and malnutrition

1) poverty; starvation on a global scale is the result of unequal food distribution rather than absolute food scarcity 2) political and economic factors; refugee populations, lack of food leading to political unrest 3) large amounts of agricultural resources are diverted to feed livestock and poultry rather than people

The Carbon Cycle Steps

1) producers convert carbon dioxide into sugars through photosynthesis, and the carbon dioxide is passed along to consumers and decomposers 2) sugars are converted back into carbon dioxide through respiration 3) some carbon can be buried through burial or sedimentation 4) human extraction of fossil fuels brings carbon to Earth;s surface, where it can be combusted 5) combustion converts fossil fuels and plant material into carbon dioxide 6) carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and carbon dioxide dissolved in water are constantly exchanged

four factors that influence successful adaptation

1) rate of environmental change 2) genetic variation 3) population size 4) generation time

seven leading infectious diseases that cause death in the world

1) respiratory infections 2) HIV/AIDS 3) diarrheal diseases 4) tuberculosis 5) malaria 6) childhood diseases 7) other

three concerns about genetically modified organisms

1) safety for human consumption 2) effects on biodiversity 3) regulation of GMOs

distillation steps

1) seawater flows into chamber 2) heating element boils water, creating steam 3) cool seawater in condensing coil causes steam to condense 4) salt-free water flows out of the chamber 5) brine (very salty water) flows out of the chamber

reverse osmosis steps

1) seawater flows into chamber 2) pressure is applied to the water 3) under pressure, water is pushed through a semipermeable membrane but salt is not 4) salt-free water flows out of the chamber 5) brine (very salty water) flows out of the chamber

two general approaches to conserving biodiversity

1) single-species approach 2) ecosystem approach

The Hydrologic (Water) Cycle Steps

1) solar energy causes evaporation 2) evaporated water from bodies of water, soil, and plants condenses into clouds 3) water returns to Earth as precipitation 4) precipitation falling on land is taken up by plants, runs off along the land surface, or percolates into the soil and enters the groundwater

sanitary landfill steps

1) solid waste is transported to the landfill 2) waste is compacted by a specialized machine 3) leachate collection system removes water and contaminants and carries them to a wastewater treatment plant 4) landfill is capped and covered with soil and then planted with vegetation 5) methane produced in closed cells is extracted and either burned off or collected for use as fuel

four types of surface mining

1) strip mining 2) open-pit mining 3) mountaintop removal 4) placer mining

six criteria air pollutants (Sally, not Carla, painted the lettuce)

1) sulfer dioxide 2) nitrogen oxides 3) carbon monoxide 4) particulate matter 5) tropospheric ozone 6) lead

two types of mining that take place on land

1) surface mining 2) subsurface mining

four factors that influence grain production

1) the amount of land under cultivation 2) global weather and precipitation patterns 3) world prices for grain 4) productivity of the land on which grain is being grown

three causes of unequal heating of Earth by the Sun (1)

1) the angle at which the Sun's rays strike Earth - in the region nearest to the equator, the rays strike at a right angle while in the polar regions, the rays strike at a more oblique angle; as a result, the rays travel a shorter distance to the tropics and thus retain more energy when they reach Earth as compared to the polar regions (figure 4.3) 2) variation in the amount of surface area over which the rays are distributed - the perpendicular angle near the equator causes solar energy to be distributed over a smaller surface area while the oblique angle near the poles causes solar energy to be distributed over a larger surface area, thus ensuring the tropics receive more sunlight per square meter than the polar regions (figure 4.3) 3) some areas of Earth reflect more solar energy than others - albedo, the higher the albedo, the more solar energy it reflects and the less it absorbs (sea ice)

two factors to consider when protecting ecosystems to conserve biodiversity

1) the size and shape of the protected area 2) the amount of connectedness to other protected areas theory of island biogeography

order of the layers of the atmosphere

1) troposphere 2) stratosphere 3) mesosphere 4) thermosphere 5) exosphere

4 categories of predators

1) true predators 2) herbivores 3) parasites 4) parasitoids

three categories of terrestrial biomes

1) tundra and boreal forest tundra boreal forest 2) temperate temperate rainforest temperate seasonal forest woodland/shrubland temperate grassland/cold desert 3) tropical tropical rainforest tropical seasonal forest/savanna subtropical desert

3 types of survivorship curves

1) type I survivorship curve 2) type II survivorship curve 3) type III survivorship curve

sewage treatment plant steps

1) underground pipes carry waste to a treatment plant 2) large debris are filtered out by screens and sent to the landfill 3) solid waste (sludge) settles to the bottom of the tank 4) bacteria break down organic material to carbon dioxide and inorganic nutrients, while settled particles are added to the sludge 5) sludge is thickened by removing water 6) thickened sludge is taken to a landfill, burned, or used for fertilizer 7) exposure to chemicals or ultraviolet light kills pathogens 8) treated water is released into a river or lake

regional differences in temperature and precipitation collectively help determine which organisms can survive in each region; to understand these differences, we need to look at the five processes that affect the distribution of heat and precipitation around the globe

1) unequal heating of Earth by the Sun 2) atmospheric convection currents 3) the rotation of Earth 4) Earth's orbit around the Sun on a tilted axis 5) ocean currents

five principles of organic agriculture

1) use ecological principles and work with natural systems rather than dominating them 2) keep as much organic matter and as many nutrients in the soil and on the farm as possible 3) avoid the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides 4) maintain the soil by increasing soil mass, biological activity, and beneficial chemical properties 5) reduce the adverse environmental effects of agriculture

thermohaline circulation steps

1) warm water flows from the Gulf of Mexico to the North Atlantic, where some of it freezes or evaporates 2) the remaining water, now saltier and denser, sinks to the ocean bottom 3) the cold water travels along the ocean floor, connecting the world's oceans 4) the cold deep water eventually rises to the surface and circulates back to the North Atlantic either in the Indian Ocean or the Pacific Ocean this trip can take hundreds of years to complete

composting facility steps

1) waste is dumped in tipping area 2) compostable and noncompostable materials are separated 3) noncompostable material is sent to the landfill 4) compostable material is aerated and turned one or more times (to speed up aerobic respiration) for a period of 30 days to 1 year 5) composted material is allowed to cure 6) finished compost is transported for use

incineration steps

1) waste is dumped into a refuse bunker 2) crane moves material from bunker to hopper 3) waste is burned in incineration chamber 4) ash is collected and removed from plant 5) a baghouse filter helps clean air before it is released through a chimney 6) heat energy can be used to create steam and generate electricity

septic system steps

1) wastewater from the house flows into the septic tank 2) over time the following three layers develop from top to bottom: scum, septage, and sludge 3) the septage moves out of the septic tank by gravity into the leach field 4) the pipes contain small perforations and allow water to gradually seep out, which is filtered by the surrounding soil 5) harmful pathogens can settle down into the sludge, be outcompeted by other microorganisms in the septic tank, thus diminishing in abundance, or be degraded by soil microorganisms in the leach field 6) organic compounds are broken down into carbon dioxide and inorganic nutrients 7) eventually water and nutrients can be taken up by plants or can enter a nearby stream or aquifer

six major greenhouse gases

1) water vapor 2) carbon dioxide 3) methane 4) nitrous oxide 5) ozone 6) chlorofluorocarbons

The Phosphorus Cycle Steps

1) weathering of uplifted rocks contributes phosphates to the land; some phosphates make their way back to the ocean (step 4) 2) phosphate is mined to be used, and then phosphate fertilizer applied to fields can run off directly into streams, become part of a soil pool, leach into streams, or be absorbed by plants 3) the phosphate that is absorbed by plants moves to consumers and decomposers, and the excretion by animals and decomposition of both animals and plants releases phosphates on land or in water 4) dissolved phosphates precipitate out of solution and contribute to the ocean sediments; conversion of sediments into phosphate rocks is a very slow process 5) geological forces can slowly lift up phosphate rocks form the ocean floor to form mountains

two outputs of energy use in the United States

1) work; the end use of the energy, such as transportation or industry 2) waste; heat, carbon dioxide, and other pollutants are released as energy is converted and entropy increases

note #125

an improvement in gas combustion technology has led to the combined cycle natural-gas fired power plant

stratosphere

10 to 31 miles above Earth's surface, less dense than the troposphere, higher altitudes are warmer than the lower altitudes because UV radiation hits these altitudes first, features the ozone layer which absorbs most of the UV-B radiation and all of the UV-C radiation

Clean Water Act (1972)

1948 Federal Water Pollution Control Act developed into the Clean Water Act in 1972 does not include the protection of groundwater!! supports that "protection and propagation of fish, shellfish, and wildlife and recreation in and on the water" by maintaining and, when necessary, restoring the chemical, physical, and biological properties of natural waters

U.S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)

1976, expanded previous solid waste laws goal - protect human health and the natural environment by reducing or eliminating the generation of hazardous waste 1984, modified with the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA) goal - encourage waste minimization, gradually reduced disposal of hazardous waste on land, and increased authority law enforcement

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)/Superfund Act

1980, amended 1986, tax on chemical and petroleum industries, revenue from this tax is used to clean up hazardous waste sites, contaminated sites that need to be cleaned up fall on the National Priorities List (NPL) goal - clean up contaminated sites

rule of 70 (determines doubling time)

70 ÷ growth rate (%)

note #97

70% of the world's freshwater is used for agriculture the remaining 30% is split between industrial and household uses approximately 20% is for industrial uses and 10% for household uses

note #46

99% of the species that have ever lived on Earth are now extinct species may go extinct because there may be no environment that is close enough to move to, there may be an environment that is close enough to move to but is already occupied by a competing species, or an environmental change may occur so rapidly there is no time to evolve new adaptations

note #79

Alfred Wegner proposed that at one point all of the continents were joined together in one large land mass, called Pangaea evidence - identical rock formations on different continents, fossils of the same species on different continents

base

All compounds are molecules but not all molecules are compounds.

note #14

CO2 taken up during photosynthesis = CO2 taken up in sunlight + CO2 produced in the dark GPP is given in kg C/m^2/day photosynthesis is not efficient because out of the 1% of solar energy captured by producers, 60% is used in respiration and 40% is used for the growth and reproduction of producers (NPP) measurement of NPP allows us to compare the productivity of different ecosystems NPP establishes the rate at which biomass is produced over a given amount of time

note #66

China is currently the world's most populous nation once-scarce consumer goods are becoming increasingly more common government in China has taken taken steps to reduce the population (one-child policy, etc.)

note #4

Earth is a single interconnected system, also the largest system environmental science considers systems contain systems and systems are within systems example - physiology of a fish = system vs. predator-prey relationship of fish = larger system

note #25

Earth's atmosphere consists of five layers of gases the pull of gravity on the gas molecules keeps these layers of gases in place because gravitational pull weakens as we move farther away from Earth, molecules are more densely packed closer to Earth and less densely packed farther from Earth

Earth's tilt and the seasons (4)

Earth's axis of rotation is tilted 23.5 degrees 1) March equinox - the sun is directly overhead at the equator and all regions of Earth receive 12 hours of sunlight and 12 hours of darkness; spring begins in the northern hemisphere and fall begins in the southern hemisphere 2) June solstice - the northern hemisphere is maximally tilted toward the sun and experiences the longest day of the year; summer begins in the northern hemisphere, winter begins in the southern hemisphere 2) September equinox - the sun is directly overhead at the equator and all regions of Earth receive 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of darkness; fall begins in the northern hemisphere and spring begins in the southern hemisphere 4) December solstice - the northern hemisphere is maximally tilted away from the Sun and experiences the shortest day of the year; winter begins in the northern hemisphere and summer begins in the southern hemisphere

bioaccumulation

an increase concentration of a chemical within an organism over time

Earth's rotation and the Coriolis Effect (3)

Earth's rotation has an important influence on climate, particularly on the directions of prevailing winds as Earth rotates, its surface moves much faster at the equator than in the midlatitude and polar regions (figure 4.7) the faster rotation speeds closer to the equator cause a deflection of objects that are moving directly north or south

note #74

GDP is made up of four types of economic activity - consumer spending, investments, government spending, and exports minus imports an increase in GDP is an increase in pollution scientists believe sustainable economic development is possible

IUCN

International Union for Conservation of Nature

note #109

Joel Salatin raises vegetables and livestock in a sustainable, organic way

type I survivorship curve

K-selected species elephants, whales, humans high survival rates throughout most of their life span, as they approach old age, they start to die in large numbers

exponential growth model

N(t) = N₀e^rt

note #48

New England forests have high resilience, years after colonists had nearly cleared these forests, they returned to their original states the population rebound started with golden rods, whose growth was managed by leaf beetles, and was followed by white oaks, and eventually the original maple and beech species

note #96

New York City uses the Catskill aqueduct while Los Angeles uses the Colorado River aqueduct

Darwin's book

On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, published in 1859

petroleum

a fluid mixture of hydrocarbons, water, and sulfur that occurs in underground deposits

induced demand

an increase in the supply of a good causes demand to grow

SLOSS

Single Large Or Several Small

Bird Flu

Spanish flu was an avian influenza caused by H1N1 virus H5N1 virus jumped from birds to humans

note #142

Superfund sites are managed solely by the federal government brownfields program created to assist state and local governments in cleaning up contaminated sites that are not qualified to be in the Superfund category sometimes countries place hazardous waste on ships and send them to other countries to dispose of for money there are limitations to the use of life-cycle analysis

how to calculate the population growth rate for a country (%)

[(CBR + immigration) − (CDR + emigration)] ÷ 10

dam

a barrier that runs across a river or stream to control the flow of water

founder effect

a change in a population descended from a small number of colonizing individuals

evolution

a change in the genetic composition of a population over time

genetic drift

a change in the genetic composition of a population over time as a result of random mating has the largest effect in small populations

ionic bond

a chemical bond resulting from the attraction between oppositely charged ions

covalent bond

a chemical bond that involves sharing electrons between atoms in a molecule

photochemical oxidants

a class of air pollutants formed as a result of sunlight acting on compounds such as nitrogen oxides and sulfer dioxide

fishery

a commercially harvestable population of fish within a particular ecological region

famine

a condition in which food insecurity is so extreme that large numbers of deaths occur in a given area over a relatively short period famines are often the result of crop failures, sometimes due to drought, although famines can have social and political causes as well

externality

a cost or benefit of a good or service that is not included in the purchase price of that good or service

note #71

a country with high life expectancy and low infant mortality rate probably has a high level of available health care, an adequate food supply, portable drinking water, sanitation, and a moderate level of pollution disease is an important regulator of human population infectious diseases are the second biggest killer worldwide after heart disease in the past, tuberculosis and malaria were responsible for the most human deaths caused by infectious diseases, today it is HIV/AIDS

note #69

a country's population is stable when TFR is equal to replacement-level fertility and immigration and emigration are equal TFR less than 2.1 and no net increase from immigration = population decrease TFR greater than 2.1 and no net increase from emigration = population increase

subsidence

a depression in the land surface as a result of groundwater being pumped

population distribution

a description of how individuals are distributed with respect to one another

population age structure

a description of how many individuals fit into particular age categories

hydrogen fuel cell

a device that operates much like a common battery, except allows for the addition of reactants

phylogenetic tree

a diagram used to describe phylogenies

population bottleneck

a drastic reduction in the size of a population

septage

a fairly clear water layer containing large quantities of bacteria and also possibly containing pathogenic organisms and inorganic nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

a family of organic compounds whose properties make them ideal for use in refrigeration and air conditioning, as propellents in aerosol cans to deliver ingredients such as deodorant and insect repellant, and as "blowing agents" to inject air into foam products like Styrofoam cups and foam insulation lead to destruction of stratospheric ozone O₃ + Cl → ClO + O₂ ClO + O → Cl + O₂

tipping fee

a fee charged for the disposing of material in a landfill, usually in dollars per ton

epidemiology

a field of science that strives to understand the causes of illness and disease in human nd wildlife populations

electromagnetic radiation

a form of energy that includes, but is not limited to, visible light, ultraviolet light, and infrared energy, which we perceive as heat

fault

a fracture in rock across which there is movement

disadvantages of distillation

a great deal of water is required to boil the water and then condense it, so distillation can be a monetarily and environmentally expensive process

fecal coliform bacteria

a group of generally harmless microorganisms that live in the intestines of human beings and other animals, the best indicators for potentially harmful water,

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

a group of more than 3,000 scientists from around the world working to assess climate change

species

a group of organisms that is distinct from other groups in its morphology (body form and structure), behavior, or biochemical properties

species

a group of organisms that is distinct from other such groups in terms of size, shape, behavior, or biochemical properties, and that can interbreed with other individuals in the group to produce viable offspring

metapopulation

a group of spatially distinct populations that are connected by occasional movements of individuals between them

control group

a group that experiences exactly the same conditions as the experimental group, except for the single variable under study

cell

a highly organized living entity that consist of the four types of macromolecules and other substances in a watery solution, surrounded by a membrane

theory

a hypothesis that has been repeatedly tested and confirmed by multiple groups of researchers and has reached wide acceptance

Great Pacific Garbage Patch

a large area of solid waste, composed mostly of discarded plastics, floating in the North Pacific gyre, discovered in 1997

reservoir

a large body of water behind the dam in which water is stored

septic tank

a large container that receives wastewater from the house

manure lagoons disadvantages

a leak would allow the waste to seep into the underlying groundwater and contaminate it possible overflow into nearby water bodies leading to disease outbreak can create runoff that moves into nearby water bodies

Red List

a list of threatened species maintained by the IUCN

turbidity

a measure of how clear water is

resistance

a measure of how much a disturbance can affect the flows of energy and matter

mass

a measure of the amount of matter an object contains

ecosystem diversity

a measure of the diversity of ecosystems or habitats that exist in a given region

genetic diversity

a measure of the genetic variation among individuals in a population

base saturation

a measure of the proportion of soil bases to soil acids, expressed as a percentage

prescribed burn

a method for reducing the accumulation of dead biomass in which a fire is deliberately set under controlled conditions

pfiesteria

a microscopic free-living aquatic organism that emits a potent toxin that rapidly kills fish can it harm humans as well? can have up to 24 different life stages under most conditions, pfiesteria is harmless and feeds on algae, but with high concentrations of nutrients and high fish populations, evolves into a carnivore that emits toxins and burrows into the fish, then becomes an amoeba that engulfs tissue off fish corpses, and finally, when food is scare, lies dormant at the bottom of the river

soil

a mix of geologic and organic components

food web

a more realistic model which is a combination of all the food chains in an ecosystem

electrical grid

a network of interconnected transmission lines which connect power plants together and link them with end users of electricity

restoration ecology

a new scientific discipline concerned with the restoration of damaged ecosystems

nuclear fission

a nuclear reaction in which a neutron strikes a relatively large atomic nucleus, which then splits into two or more parts

ozone

a pale blue gas composed of molecules made up of three oxygen atoms

ecosystem

a particular location on Earth whose interacting components include living components and nonliving components

intrinsic growth rate (r)

a particular maximum potential for growth, which every population has, and which occurs under ideal conditions with unlimited resources available

environmentalist

a person who participates in environmentalism

thermal shock

a phenomenon in which a dramatic change in temperature can kill many species

coral bleaching

a phenomenon in which the algae inside the coral die, resulting in the coral dying and the reef turning white algae are dying from a combination of disease and environmental changes such as lower ocean pH and abnormally high water temperatures

zoning

a planning tool developed in the 1920s to separate industry and business from residential neighborhoods and create quieter, safer communities

logistic growth model

a population whose growth is initially exponential, but slows as the population approaches the carrying capacity (K) of the environment

die-off/population crash

a result of the overshoot, there is not enough food for everyone so individuals will die example - reindeer on St. Paul Island in Alaska

perched water table

a saturated zone located above the main water table

fish ladders

a set of stairs with water flowing over them through which fish can get from one side of a dam to the other

septic system

a sewage treatment system used by individual houses in rural areas of low population density

individual

a single organism, natural selection operates at this level, the individual must survive and reproduce

environmental justice

a social movement and field of study that works toward equal enforcement of environmental laws and the elimination of disparities, whether intended or unintended, in how pollutants and other environmental harms are distributed among the various ethnic and socioeconomic groups within a society

environmentalism

a social movement that seeks to protect the environment through lobbing, activism, and education

note #90

a soil with both high CEC and high base saturation is likely to support high productivity

coal

a solid fuel formed primarily from the remains of trees, ferns, and other plant materials that were preserved 280 million to 360 million years ago

instrumental value

a species has worth as an instrument or tool that can be used to accomplish a goal (lumber, plants for medicine)

intrinsic value

a species has worth independent of any benefit it may provide to humans

ecosystem engineers

a species that creates or maintains habitats for other species

keystone species

a species that plays a role in its community that is far more important than its relative abundance might suggest a metaphor that comes from architecture, a keystone holds the structure together keystone species typically exist in low numbers, they may be predators, sources of food, mutualistic species, or providers of some other essential service examples - sea stars feed on mussels in intertidal communities so the mussels do not take over, in this case sea stars are a keystone species plants that produce nectar and fruits in the rainforests are keystone species, they provide food in periods of food scarcity a species of bat known as the flying fox is the only pollinator for many species of plant beavers in North American forests

null hypothesis

a statement or idea that can be falsified, or proved wrong

element

a substance composed of atoms that cannot be broken down into smaller, simpler components

acid

a substance that contributes hydrogen ions to a solution

positive feedback loops

a system responds to a change by increasing the rate at which the change is occurring, amplifies change example - population

negative feedback loops

a system responds to a change by returning to its original state, or at least by decreasing the rate at which the change is occurring, resists change more common than positive feedback loops example - lake level drops, reduced surface area, less evaporation, lake level rises

rain catchment

a system that catches rainwater for usage, such as for watering plants

passive solar design

a technique that takes advantage of solar radiation to maintain a comfortable temperature in the building

hypothesis

a testable conjecture about how something works

natural law

a theory to which there are no known exceptions and which has withstood rigorous testing

commensalism

a type of relationship in which one species benefits, but the other is neither harmed nor helped (+/0) examples - birds and trees, fish and coral

volcano

a vent in earth's surface that emits ash, gases, and molten lava, formed by a plate moving over a geologic hot spot, and heat from the rising mantle plume melting the crust

dry farm

a way of farming dry land in which seeds are planted deep in the ground where there is some moisture.

irrigation

a way of supplying water to an area of land increases crop growth rates, enables crops to grow where they once could not, makes productive land even more productive depletes groundwater (Ogallala aquifer) can promote saltwater intrusion into freshwater wells can contribute to soil degradation through waterlogging and salinization

hydrogen bond

a weak chemical bond that forms when hydrogen atoms that are covalently bonded to one atom are attracted to another atom on another molecule (water)

inorganic compounds

a) do not contain carbon b) contain carbon, but only carbon bound to elements other than hydrogen

organic compounds

a) have carbon-carbon bonds b) have carbon-hydrogen bonds examples - carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids

fitness

ability to survive and reproduce

note #136

about 60% of MSW comes from residences and 40% from commercial and institutional facilities overall, waste generation in the United States has been increasing but is now starting to drop off

mantle

above the core, contains molten rock, or magma, that slowly circulates in convection cells, made up of mantle, asthenosphere, and solid upper mantle

AIDS

acquired immune deficiency syndrome

living sustainably

acting in a way such that activities that are crucial to human society can continue

cradle-to-grave/life-cycle analysis

an important systems tool that looks at the materials used and released throughout the lifetime of a product

human activities and the nitrogen cycle

adding nitrogen to soils in fertilizers results in more nitrogen in the environment, which in turn leads to more nitrogen in ecosystems that have adapted over time to a particular level of nitrogen availability, which leads to the alteration of the distribution or abundance of species in these ecosystems (low-nitrogen favoring plants competing with high-nitrogen favoring plants)

inputs

additions to a given system

capillary action

adhesion (sticks to a surface such as tubes in plants)

agricultural practices

agricultural fields that are overirrigated, or those that are deliberately flooded for cultivating crops such as rice, create low-oxygen environments similar to wetlands and therefore can produce methane and nitrous oxide synthetic fertilizers, manures, and crops that naturally fix atmospheric nitrogen can create an excess of nitrates in the soil that are converted to nitrous oxide by the process of denitrification many livestock such as cattle and sheep release methane

note #30

air moving inland from the ocean often contains a large amount of water vapor this air meets the windward side of a mountain range and rises and begins to experience adiabatic cooling clouds form and precipitation falls latent heat release upward movement of air, cold dry air then travels to the leeward side where it descends and experiences higher pressures, which causes adiabatic heating end result is warm dry air

open ocean

algae are the major producers

invasive species

alien species that spread rapidly across large areas

note #6

all compounds are molecules but not all molecules are compounds

watershed

all of the land in a given landscape that drains into a particular stream, river, lake, or wetland

note #42

allopatric speciation is thought to be responsible for Darwin's finches allopatric speciation is thought to be the most common way in which evolution generates new species

advantages of aqueducts

allows for the movement of water from one place to another

solar water heating systems

allows heat energy from the Sun to be transferred directly to water or another liquid, which is then circulated to a hot water or heating system

multi-use zoning

allows retail and high-density residential development to coexist in the same area

salt marshes

along the coast in temperate climates nonwoody emergent vegetation very productive many are found in estuaries spawning fish and shellfish

Mad Cow Disease

also known as bovine spongiform encephalopathy caused by prions mutating into deadly proteins that act as pathogens damages nervous system infected humans develop variant Creutz-Jakob disease (vCJD) prions can exist in the body for many years before symptoms arise

B horizon

also known as subsoil zone of accumulation of metals and nutrients very little organic matter

C horizon

also known as subsoil least-weathered portion of the soil profile, similar to the parent material

A horizon

also known as topsoil zone of overlying organic material mixed with underlying mineral material

reduce

also known as waste minimization and waste prevention, reducing the amount of inputs, the optimal method

positive feedbacks

amplify changes; lead to an unstable situation in which small fluctuations in inputs lead to large observed effects; temperature and carbon dioxide

carbon neutral

an activity that does not change atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations

population pyramid

an age structure diagram that is widest at the bottom and smallest at the top due to many more younger people than older people typical in developing countries population growth example - Kenya

REACH

an agreement on how chemicals should be regulated within the European Union

carbon sequestration

an approach that involves taking carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere

urban area

an area that contains more than 386 people per square kilometer

zone of saturation

an area where all the pores in a rock are completely filled with water

smart grid

an efficient, self-regulating electricity distribution network that accepts any source of electricity and distributes it automatically to end users

electrolysis

an electric current is applied to water to "split" it into hydrogen and oxygen

levee

an enlarged bank built up on each side of the river that prevents flooding

uncertainty

an estimate of how much a measured or calculated value differs from a true value

total fertility rate (TFR)

an estimate of the average number of children that each woman in a population will bear throughout her childbearing years, between the onset of puberty and menopause (births/woman)

disturbance

an event caused by physical, chemical, or biological agents that results in changes in population size or community composition

note #58

an example of a metapopulation is cougars cougars live in mountain habitats scattered across the desert, each mountain habitat has its own cougar population; however, cougars can move among the mountains and thus among the cougar populations using corridors metapopulations lead to more genetic diversity for individual populations and provide a species with some protection from threats such as disease other species that are parts of metapopulations include butterflies and amphibians the number of species that exist as metapopulations is growing because human activities have fragmented habitats, dividing single large populations into several smaller populations

mutation

an occasional mistake in the copying process of DNA that produces a random change in the genetic code factors such as UV radiation can cause mutations most mutations are detrimental

recharge area

an opening in the impermeable layer at the land's surface at which water can enter a confined aquifer

host

an organism on or in which a parasite lives

indicator species

an organism that indicates whether or not disease-causing pathogens are likely to be present

genetically modified organisms

an organism whose genetic material has been altered through some genetic engineering technology or technique

chlorpyrifos

an organophosphate that was suspected to have a serious impact on the central nervous system of humans researchers carried out the scientific method discovered it does cause damage to the central nervous system

disease

any impaired function of the body with a characteristic set of symptoms

system

any set of interacting components that influence one another by exchanging energy or materials

environmental hazard

anything in our environment that can potentially cause harm

sludge

anything in wastewater that is heavier than water

matter

anything that occupies space and has mass

industrial agriculture/agribusiness

applies the techniques of the Industrial Revolution (mechanization and standardization) to the production of food

note #159

approximately 42% of the United States' land is publicly owned, and approximately 25% of the United States' land is owned by the federal government

note #34

aquatic biomes are characterized by salinity, depth, and water flow

freshwater wetlands

aquatic biomes that are submerge or saturated by water for at least part of each year, but shallow enough to support emergent vegetation throughout include swamps, marshes, and bogs among the most productive biomes on the planet provide critical ecosystem services - reduce flooding by taking in water and slowly releasing it into groundwater or streams, filter pollutants, and breeding and migration grounds for birds unfortunately, wetland have been drained for agriculture or development, or to eliminate breeding grounds for mosquitoes

confined aquifer

aquifer surrounded by a layer of impermeable rock or clay, impedes water flow to or from the aquifer

cold spells

are more frequent

heat waves

are more frequent

sea levels

are rising as a result of melting glaciers and ice sheets and warmer water expanding

near-threatened species

are very likely to become threatened in the future

least concern species

are widespread and abundant

estuaries

areas along the coast where the fresh water of rivers mixes with salt water from the ocean, extremely productive places for plants and algae due to large amounts of nutrient-rich organic material from rivers, abundant plant life helps filter contaminants out of the water

exurban

areas that are similar to suburban areas, but are unconnected to any central city or densely populated area

suburban

areas that surround metropolitan centers and have low population densities compared with those urban areas

dead zones

areas with so little oxygen and therefore so little life

theory of demographic transition

as a country moves from a subsistence economy to industrialization and increased affluence, it undergoes a predictable shift in population and growth

adiabatic cooling

as air rises higher in the atmosphere, the pressure on it decreases; the lower pressure allows the rising air to expand in volume, and this expansion lowers the temperature of the air

adiabatic heating

as air sinks lower in the atmosphere, the pressure on it increases; the higher pressure allows the sinking air to constrict in volume, and this contraction raises the temperature of the air

disadvantages of coal

as surface coal is used up and becomes harder to find, subsurface mining becomes necessary, releases pollutants when combusted, ash spills, mining can be dangerous, coal power plants are slow to reach full operating capacity, acid rain

latitude

as we move from the equator towards the North or South Pole, the number of species declines

endangered

at serious risk of extinction

isotopes

atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons

innocent-until-proven-guilty principle

based on the philosophy that a potential hazard should not be considered a hazard until the scientific data can definitively demonstrate that a potential hazard actually causes harm

precautionary principle

based on the philosophy that when a hazard is plausible but not yet certain, we should take actions to reduce or remove the hazard

heat transport

based on whether an ocean current is warm or cold, the land it moves towards or passes by can be warm or cold example - a concern about global warming is that increased temperatures will accelerate the melting of ice and make the waters of the North Atlantic less salty and thus less likely to sink; this could affect thermohaline circulation and stop the transport of warm water to western Europe, making it a much colder place

note #119

because species help determine the services that ecosystems can provide, declines in species diversity are associated with declines in ecosystem function

Highway Trust Fund

begun by the Highway Revenue Act of 1956 and funded by a federal gasoline tax, pays for the construction and maintenance of roads and highways

planetary management

belief that humans are set apart from nature and can manage nature while adequately meeting our increasing needs and wants

environmental wisdom

belief that we are all a part of and totally dependent on nature; nature exists for the good of all species and we must include them as we create management plans

stewardship

belief that we have an ethical responsibility to be caring managers, or stewards of the Earth and its finite resources

mutualism

benefits two interacting species by increasing both species' chances of survival or reproduction (+/+) example - plants and bees, acacia trees and ants, coral and algae, lichens (algae and fungi)

5 global-scale environmental indicators

biological diversity, food production, average global surface temperature and carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere, human population, and resource depletion

note #143

biological risks cause the most human deaths

note #45

biotic factors such as competitors, predators, and diseases can further limit where a species can live

nonpersistant

break down relatively rapidly, usually in weeks to months, have fewer long-term effects, but they must be applied more frequently

disadvantages of reverse osmosis

brine has a very high salt concentration and cannot be deposited in land, it is typically returned to the ocean

Plague

bubonic plague/Black Death caused by an infectious bacterium carried by fleas, often attached to rodents swollen glands, black spots, extreme pain

note #89

calcium, magensium, potassium, and sodium are collectively called soil bases because they can neutralize or counteract soil acids such as aluminum and hydrogen soil acids are generally detrimental to plant nutrition while soil bases tend to promote plant growth with the exception of sodium, all soil bases are essential for plant nutrition

note #20

calcium, magnesium, and potassium are derived primarily from rocks and decomposed vegetation all can be dissolved in water and none are found in the gas phase calcium and magnesium occur in high concnetrations in limestone and marble sulfur is found primarily in rock the sulfur cycle has a gaseous component (volcanic eruptions) sulfuric acid can lead to acid rain

pharmaceuticals and hormones

can affect organisms in the water low concentrations of pharmaceutical drugs that mimic estrogen are connected to male fish growing female eggs in their testes

composing advantages

can be added into soil to enhance soil quality

sulfur allowances

can be bought and sold to limit sulfur emissions

advantages of dams

can be used to do work such as turning waterwheels or generating electricity can be used for flood control can be used for recreational purposes

arsenic

can dissolve into groundwater, can be removed via fine membrane filtration, distillation, and reverse osmosis, associated with cancers of the skin, lungs, kidneys, and bladder, these diseases can take 10 years or more to develop after exposure

landfill advantages

can hold a lot of waste land can be reclaimed for recreational purposes

niche generalists

can live in a variety of habitats or feed on a variety of species

incineration advantages

can result in energy generation produces odor-free residue (ash) refuse volume is greatly reduced

flex-fuel vehicles

can run on either gasoline or E-85

sewage treatment plant advantages

can treat a lot of water for a lot of people

aqueducts

canals or ditches used to carry water from one location to another

carcinogenic

cancer causing

photovoltaic solar cells

capture energy from the Sun as light, not heat, and convert it directly into electricity

active solar energy

captures the energy of sunlight with the use of technologies

modern carbon

carbon in biomass

fossil carbon

carbon in fossil fuels

note #17

carbon is the most important element in living organisms fast parts of the cycle are processes that are associated with living organisms slow parts of the cycle involve carbon that is held in rocks, in soils, or as petroleum hydrocarbons calcium carbonate can precipitate out of water and form limestone and dolomite rock via sedimentation and burial

scavengers

carnivores that consume dead animals (vultures)

Malaria

caused by an infection from any one of several species of protists in the genus Plasmodium, the parasite spends on stage of its life inside a mosquito and another stage of its life inside a human

Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever

caused by the Ebola Virus first discovered in the Democratic Republic of Congo near the Ebola River high fatality rate, kills quickly fever, vomiting, internal and external bleeding no drugs available to fight the virus unknown natural source

global change

change that occurs in the chemical, biological, and physical properties of the planet

woodland/shrubland

chaparral - coast of southern California matorral - southern South America mallee - southwestern Australia fynbos - southern Africa maquis - region surrounding the Mediterranean Sea hot dry summers and mild rainy winters, 12-month growing seasons, plant growth constrained by low precipitation in summer and by relatively low temperatures in winter, natural wildfires, plants well adapted to both fire and drought, plants quickly resprout after fire, produce seeds that open when exposed to extreme heat yucca, scrub oak, sagebrush leaching by winter rains leads to soil that is low in nutrients grazing animals and grapes

soil horizons

characteristic layers in soil

note #147

chemical amounts can be measured as concentrations or as doses

industrial compounds

chemicals that are used in manufacturing some of these compounds have been dumped directly into bodies of water as a method of disposal

allergens

chemicals that cause allergic reactions examples - chemicals found in peanuts and milk, penicillin, and codeine

carcinogens

chemicals that cause cancer carcinogens that cause damage to the genetic material of a cell are called mutagens (although not all mutagens are carcinogens) examples - asbestos, radon, formaldehyde, chemicals found in tobacco

neurotoxins

chemicals that disrupt the nervous system of animals examples - many insecticides, lead, and mercury

teratogens

chemicals that interfere with the normal development of embryos or fetuses examples - thalidomide, alcohol

endocrine disruptors

chemicals that interfere with the normal functioning of hormones in an animal's body examples - male fish, reptiles, and amphibians becoming feminized

industrial production of new greenhouse chemicals

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)

note #88

clay particles contribute the most to the chemical properties of soils because of their ability to attract positively charged mineral ions, referred to as cations since clay particles have a negative charge, cations are adsorbed (held on the surface) by the particles the cations can thus be released from the particles and used as nutrients by plants

note #22

clear cutting forests resulted in higher nitrogen concentrations in the water

note #32

climate affects the distribution of species around the globe the presence of similar plant growth in area possessing similar temperature and precipitation patterns allows scientists to categorize terrestrial geographic regions known as biomes terrestrial biomes are categorized by plant growth forms!! and precipitation and temperature

note #126

coal-fired power plants are the backbone of electricity generation in the United States

CTL

coal-to-liquid; technology to convert solid coal into a liquid fuel

surface tension

cohesion (top of water, insects can walk on water)

tundra

cold and treeless with low-growing vegetation, in winter, the soil is completely frozen Arctic tundra - northernmost regions of the northern hemisphere in Russia, Canada, Scandinavia, and Alaska Antarctic tundra - along the edges of Antarctica and on nearby islands alpine tundras - high mountains, where high winds and low temperatures prevent trees from growing, short growing season, about 4 months during the summer woody shrubs, mosses, heath, lichen due to cold temperatures and relatively low precipitation, decomposition happens slowly, accumulation of organic matter in the soil over time, relatively low levels of soil nutrients

founders

colonizing individuals

tidal energy

comes from the movement of water driven by the gravitational pull of the Moon

note #60

commensalism, mutualism, and parasitism are all symbiotic relationships

note #160

commercial logging companies are allowed to use U.S. national forests, usually in exchange for a royalty (a percentage of their revenues)

Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987)

committed 24 nations to concrete steps toward a solution and resolved to reduce CFC production by 50% by 2000

note #154

common indirect measurements for temperature many many years ago include changes in the species composition of organisms that have been preserved over millions of years and chemical analyses of ice that was formed long ago the rise of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide in the atmosphere during the past 50 years is unprecedented

predator-mediated competition

competition in which a predator is instrumental in reducing the abundance of a superior competitor, allowing inferior competitors to persist

open system

exchanges of matter or energy occur across system boundaries most systems are open

population

composed of all individuals that belong to the same species and live in a given area at a particular time, evolution operates at this level

organic fertilizers

composed of organic matter from plants and animals

carbohydrates

compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms monosaccharide - single sugar polysaccharide - many sugars

ores

concentrated accumulations of minerals from which economically valuable materials can be extracted

safety for human consumption

concern about whether or not they are harmful to humans

effects on biodiversity

concerns about GMOs breeding with wild relatives and eliminating natural plant varieties the use of GM seeds is contributing to a loss of genetic diversity among food crops

dynamic

constantly changing

herbivores

consume plants as prey, typically eat only a small fraction of an individual plant without killing it example - deer

MSW sources

containers and packaging (31%) food and yard waste (26%) nondurable goods (25%) durable goods (18%)

loam

contains 40% sand, 40% silt, 20% clay

brownfields

contaminated industrial or commercial sites that may require environmental cleanup before they can be redeveloped or expanded

polar cells

convection currents formed by air that rises at 60 degrees N and S and sinks at the poles (90 degrees N and S) at 60 degrees N and S, the rising air cools, and the water vapor condenses into precipitation; the air dries as it moves towards the poles, where it sinks back to Earth's surface at the poles, and moves back towards 60 degrees N and S

advantages of petroleum

convenient for transport and use, energy-dense, cleanrer-burning than coal

note #114

conventional agriculture relies on plowing and tilling, processes that physically turn the soil upside down and push crops residues under the topsoil, thereby killing weeds and insect pupae some people argue that plowing and tilling have negative effects on the soil because soil particles are broken apart and become more susceptible to erosion organic matter deep in the soil is oxidized, thus reducing the organic matter content of the soil and contributing to global warming tilling has led to severe soil degradation

global impacts

conversion of land to agriculture and the use of fertilizers made from fossil fuels result in more carbon in the atmosphere in general, populations with large global impacts tend to deplete more environmental resources much of this impact comes from the consumption of imported energy sources such as oil and other imported resources such as food some technologies reduce local environmental impact such as sewage treatment affluent suburban living has the greatest impact of all lifestyles on the environment

impacts of ENSO

cooler and wetter conditions in southeastern United States and dry weather in southern Africa and Southeast Asia

type II survivorship curve

corals and squirrels relatively constant decline in survivorship throughout their life span

developing countries

countries that are currently in the process of industrializing

developed countries

countries with relatively high levels of industrialization and income

increased crop yield and quality

create strains of organisms that are resistant to pests and harsh environmental conditions such as drought or high salinity engineer plants to produce essential nutrients for humans (golden rice) produce pharmaceuticals and other compounds

note #148

currently, testing is not done on amphibians for most animals, a safe concentration is obtained by dividing the LD50 value by 10 for humans, a safe concentration is obtained by dividing the LD50 value by 1000

tiered rate system

customers pay a low rate for the first increment of electricity they use and pay higher rates as their use goes up

human activities and the hydrologic (water) cycle

cutting of trees can reduce evapotranspiration by reducing biomass, resulting in more runoff, resulting in more erosion of topsoil due to the lack of roots to hold soil in place, resulting in possible flooding cement reduces percolation resulting in more evaporation and runoff diverting water for drinking and other purposes can affect the cycle

biogeochemical cycles

cycles involving the movement of matter within and between ecosystems through biological, geological, and chemical processes

disadvantages of dams

dam building uses large amounts of energy and materials and displaces people the interruption of the natural flow of water to which many organisms are adapted

negative feedbacks

dampen changes; carbon dioxide and producers

basaltic rock

dark-colored rock that contains minerals with high concentrations of iron, magnesium, and calcium, the dominant rock type in the crust of oceanic plates

note #118

data-deficient species have no reliable data extinct, threatened, near-threatened, and least concern species have reliable data

prereproductive mortality

death before a person has children, which depends on a country's economic status

disadvantages of solid biomass

deforestation, erosion, indoor and outdoor air pollution, possible net increase in greenhouse gas emissions

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Conclusions

ecosystem sustainability will be threatened if the human population continues along its current path of resource consumption around the globe the continued altercations to ecosystems that have improved human well-being (greater access to food, clean water, suitable housing) will also exacerbate poverty for some populations if we establish sustainable practices, we may be able to improve the standard of living for a large number of people

theory of island biogeography

demonstrates the duel importance of habitat size and distance in determining species richness larger habitats typically contain more species for three reasons 1) dispersing species are more likely to find larger habitats than smaller habitats, especially when those habitats are islands 2) at any given latitude, larger habitats can support more species than smaller habitats 3) larger habitats often contain a wider range of environmental conditions, which in turn provide more niches that support a larger number of species

smog

derived by combining smoke and fog, a mixture of oxidants and particulate matter

fossil fuels

derived from biological material that became fossilized millions of years ago

anthropogenic

derived from human activities

nuclear fuels

derived from radioactive materials that give off energy

environmental indicators

describe the current state of an environmental system

sitting

designation of a location

no-till agriculture

designed to avoid the soil degradation that comes with conventional agricultural techniques, farmers using this method leave crop residues in the field between seasons, the intact roots hold the soil in place, reducing both wind and water erosion, and the undisturbed soil is able to regenerate natural soil horizons reduces carbon dioxide emissions uses herbicides

systems analysis

determination of inputs, outputs, and changes in the system under various conditions

risk acceptance

determine acceptable level of risk (balanced against social, economic, political considerations)

risk management

determine policy with input from private citizens, industry, interest groups

texture

determined by the percentages of sand, silt, and clay it contains

ecological footprint

developed by Professor William Rees and Mathis Wackernagel, a measure of how much that person consumes, expressed in area of land

Norman Borlaug

developed new strains of wheat that produced higher yields and were disease resistant

sustainable development

development that balances current human well-being and economic advancement with resource management for the benefit of future generations

infill

development that fills in vacant lots within existing communities, rather than expanding into new land outside the city

infectious diseases

diseases caused by pathogens that are transmissible from one person to another

point sources

distinct locations that cause pollution examples - factory, sewage treatment plan

survivorship curves

distinct patterns of survival over time that each species has, that can be plotted on a graph

aquatic succession

disturbances also create opportunities for succession in aquatic environments example - intertidal zone, storm flips over rocks and clears them of organisms, primary succession occurs

Ferrel cells

does not form distinct convections cells, but instead is driven by the circulation of the neighboring Hadley cells and polar cells some warm air from Hadley cells moves towards the poles while some cold air from polar cells moves towards the equator

advantages of nuclear energy

does not produce air pollution, offers independence from imported oil, energy-dense, good supply

photochemical smog

dominated by oxidants such as ozone and is sometimes called Los Angeles-type smog or brown smog

sulfurous smog

dominated by sulfur dioxide and sulfate compounds and is sometimes called London-type smog or gray smog

threshold

dose at which an effect can be detected

ocean currents (5)

driven by a combination of temperature, gravity, prevailing winds, the Coriolis Effect, and the location of the continents warm air expands and rises, therefore tropical waters are slightly higher than midlatitude waters this slight slope is sufficient for the fore of gravity to make water flow away from the equator

thermohaline circulation

drives the mixing of surface water and deep water scientists believe this process is crucial for moving heat and nutrients around the globe

rangelands

dry, open grasslands used primarily for cattle grazing, which is the most common use of land in the United States

note #103

during periods of heavy rain, the combined volume of storm water and wastewater overwhelms the capacity of the plants, so treatment plants are allowed to bypass their normal protocol and pump vast amounts of water directly into an adjacent body of water

note #78

earth is very hot at the center the high temperature of the outer core and mantle is thought to be a result of the radioactive decay of various isotopes of elements which releases heat the heat causes plumes of hot magma to well upward from the mantle

note #38

earth's biodiversity is the product of evolution evolution can occur at multiple levels evolution depends on genetic diversity

note #77

earth's geologic cycle consists of three major processes 1) tectonic cycle 2) rock cycle 3) soil formation

the theory of plate tectonics

earth's lithosphere is divided into plates, most of which are in constant motion

note #83

earthquakes occur many times a day throughout the world, but most are so small that humans do not feel them

10% Rule

ecological efficiencies range from 5 to 20% and average about 10% across al ecosystems, meaning only 10% of energy is passed from one trophic level to the next

intermediate disturbance hypothesis

ecosystems experiencing intermediate levels of disturbance are more diverse than those with high or low disturbance levels

cultural service

ecosystems provide cultural or aesthetic benefits to many people example - natural parks

advantages of hydrogen fuel cells

efficient, zero pollution

hydroelectricity

electricity generated by the kinetic energy of moving water

e-waste

electronic waste, may contain toxic metals

metals

elements with properties that allow them to conduct electricity and heat energy and perform other important functions

disadvantages of geothermal energy

emits hazardous gases and steam, geographically limited

advantages of natural gas

emits very few pollutants when combusted, cogeneration power plants can have high efficiencies, good for cooking, home heating, etc.

note #9

energy = power x time power - energy / time kilowatt (kW) = power kilowatt-hour (kWh) = energy

note #10

energy always flows from hot to cold

note #16

energy flows through the biosphere matter can not enter or leave the biosphere, it cycles within the biosphere in a variety of forms

note #112

energy input per calorie of food obtained is greater for modern agricultural practices than for traditional agriculture most of the energy subsidies in modern agriculture are in the form of fossil fuels, which are used to produce fertilizers and pesticides, to operate tractors, to pump water for irrigation, and to harvest food and prepare it for transport

first law of thermodynamics

energy is neither created nor destroyed

nondepletable

energy resources that cannot be depleted no matter how much we used them

EROEI

energy return on energy investment how much energy we get out of an energy source for every unit of energy expended on its production energy obtained from the fuel/energy invested to obtain the fuel a larger value for EROEI suggests a more efficient and more desirable process

potential energy

energy that is stored but has not yet been released

energy intensity

energy use per unit of gross domestic product

advantages of coal

energy-dense, plentiful, easy access (surface mining), needs little refinement, easy to transport, economic backbone of some towns

sanitary landfills

engineered ground facilities designed to hold MSW with as little contamination of the surrounding environment as possible

resilience 2.0

ensures that an ecosystem will continue to exist in its current state, which means it can continue to provide benefits to humans; resilience depends greatly on species diversity

environmental studies

environmental science is a subset of this broader field which includes additional subjects such as environmental policy, economics, literature, and ethics

note #99

environmental scientists are concerned about human wastewater as a pollutant for three major reasons 1) wastewater dumped into bodies of water undergoes decomposition by bacteria, which creates a large demand for oxygen in the water 2) the nutrients that are released from wastewater decomposition can make the water more fertile 3) wastewater can carry a wide variety of disease-causing organisms

requirements in order to live sustainably

environmental systems must not be damaged beyond their ability to recover renewable resources must not be depleted faster than they can regenerate nonrenewable resources must be used sparingly

greenhouse warming potential

estimates how much a molecule of any compound can contribute to global warming over a period of 100 years relative to a molecule of carbon dioxide depends on both the amount of infrared energy that a given gas can absorb and how long a molecule of the gas can persist in the atmosphere

note #62

even without human activity, natural communities do not stay the same forever

human population growth

every five days, global human population increases by roughly one million people rapid exponential growth started around 1600, when agricultural output and sanitation began to improve, resulting in better living conditions and falling death rates

note #36

every individual organism is distinct from every other organism, at the most basic level, by how different their genes are the diversity of genes on Earth ultimately helps determine the species diversity and ecosystem diversity on Earth all three scales of biodiversity contribute to the overall biodiversity of the planet

microevolution

evolution below the species level example - the evolution of different varieties of apples

igneous rocks

examples - granite, basalt those that form directly from magma classified by their chemical composition as basaltic or granitic and by their mode of formation as intrusive or extrusive

metamorphic rocks

examples - marble, quartzite form when sedimentary, igneous, or other metamorphic rocks are subjected to high temperatures and pressures

sedimentary rocks

examples - sandstone, limestone form when sediment such as muds, sands, or gravels are compressed by overlying sediments occurs over long periods when environments such as sand dunes, mudflats, lake beds, or landslide-prone areas are buried and the overlying materials create pressure on the materials below may be homogeneous or heterogeneous hold the fossil record

note #21

examples of natural ecosystem disturbances include hurricanes, ice storms, tsunamis, etc. examples of anthropogenic ecosystem disturbances include human settlements, agriculture, air pollution, etc.

note #54

exponential growth is density independent because no matter how many individuals there are, the growth rate does not change the exponential growth model describes a continuously increasing population that grows at a fixed rate, but populations do not experience exponential growth indefinitely ecologists have modified the exponential growth model to incorporate environmental limits on population growth, including limiting resources

dose-response studies

expose animals or plants to different amounts of a chemical and then observe a variety of possible responses including mortality or changes in behavior or reproduction data follows an S-shaped curve

subtropical desert

extremely dry conditions, sparse vegetation, hot deserts Mojave Desert - Southwestern United States Sahara Desert - Africa Arabian Desert - Middle East Great Victoria Desert - Australia plants have spines, waxy leaves, few pores, annual plants live only for a few months while perennial plants live for many years cacti, euphorbs, succulent plants long recovery times due to overall slow growth of perennial plants

note #85

extrusive rocks cool rapidly, so their minerals have little time to expand into large individual crystals the result is fine-grained smooth rock types such as obsidian both extrusive and intrusive rocks can be wither granitic or basaltic in composition the formation of igneous rock often brings to the surface far elements and metals

note #51

factors that influence population size can be classified as density dependent or density independent

seismic activity

fault zones

energy conservation

finding ways to use less energy

United Nations Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)

first held in 1973 to control the international trade of threatened plants and animals today CITES is an international agreement among 175 countries of the world

note #115

fish is the third major source of food for humans, after grain and meat global production of fish has been increasing increase in farmed fish production and decrease in catching wild fish competition for fish has led to a decline in fish populations dragnets can damage ocean-bottom habitats, many fish are keystone species, bycatch

individual transferable quotas (ITQs)

fishery managers establish a total allowable catch and distribute or sell quotas to individual fishers, or fishing companies, favoring those that have a long-term history in the fishery fishers with ITQs have a secure right to catch their quota, so they do not need to spend money to outcompete others if fishers cannot catch enough to remain economically viable they can sell all or part of their quota to another fisher this worked in Alaska with salmon

phytoplankton

floating algae

disadvantages of levees

floodwaters can no longer add fertility to land sediments are carried further downstream and settle out where the river enters the ocean while levees prevent flooding at one location, they force floodwater farther downstream, where it can cause even worse flooding levees encourage development on floodplains, but these areas still occasionally flood when floodwaters become too high, levees can either collapse due to the tremendous pressure of the water, or the water can come over the top and quickly erode a large hole in the levee

streams and rivers

flowing freshwater that may come from underground springs or as runoff from rain or melting snow streams are also called creeks and are smaller and narrower than rivers, they also flow faster and therefore do not feature many producers fallen leaves provide the base of the food chain stretches of turbulent water are known as rapids, where water and air mix together, and trout and salmon can be found in areas with less oxygen, you can find catfish

selective pesticides

focus on a narrower range of organisms

single-species approach

focuses efforts on one species at a time

smart growth

focuses on strategies that encourage the development of sustainable, healthy communities

note #33

for every 18F temperature increase, plants need 0.8 inches of additional precipitation each month when the precipitation line is above the temperature line, plant growth is limited by temperature when the temperature line is above the precipitation line, plant growth is limited by precipitation how humans use biomes - 1) warm temperatures, long growing seasons, abundant rainfall = highly productive, grow crops 2) warm regions, less abundant precipitation = grains and grazing for animals 3) colder regions, forests = lumber

extrusive igneous rock

form when magma cools above earth's surface, as when it is ejected from a volcano or released by seafloor spreading

intrusive igneous rocks

form within earth as magma rises up and cools in place underground

sustainable agriculture

fulfills the need for food and fiber while enhancing the quality of the soil, minimizing the use of nonrenewable resources, allowing economic viability for the farmer, and emphasizing the ability to continue agriculture on a given piece of land indefinitely through conservation and soil improvement requires more labor and therefore costs more

ammonification

fungal and bacterial decomposers use nitrogen-containing wastes and dead bodies as a food source and excrete ammonium

natural gas

gas made up mostly of methane but also ethane, propane, and butane

note #128

gasohol is a fuel that is 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline E-85 is a fuel that is 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline B-20 is 20% biodiesel and 80% petroleum diesel SVO is straight vegetable oil

note #130

generally, air pollution refers to pollution in the troposphere tropospheric pollution is sometimes called ground-level pollution air pollution can be both anthropogenic (automobiles, factories, etc.) and natural (volcanoes, fires, etc.) the air pollution system is a global system

potential changes in pesticide use

genetic engineering for resistance to pests could reduce the need for pesticides Bt corn Roundup Ready allows people to use the herbicide without harming their crops

note #29

global winds patterns play a major role in determining the direction in which ocean surface water moves away from the equator in the northern hemisphere, the trade winds near the equator push water from the northeast to the southwest, and the Coriolis Effect deflects this wind-driven current so that the water actually moves from east to west in the northern hemisphere, the westerlies near the equator push water from the southwest to the northeast, and the Coriolis Effect deflects this wind-driven current so that the water actually moves from west to east this creates a clockwise movement of water in the northern hemisphere in the southern hemisphere, the trade winds near the equator push water from the southeast to the northwest, and the Coriolis Effect deflects the wind-driven current so that the water actually moves from west to east in the southern hemisphere, the westerlies near the equator push water from the northwest to the southeast, and the Coriolis Effect deflects the wind-driven current so that the water actually moves from east to west this creates a counterclockwise movement of water in the southern hemisphere

provisions

goods that humans can use directly examples - lumber, food crops, medicinal plants, etc.

note #111

grains make up the largest component of the human diet meat makes up the second largest component of the human diet as income increases with economic growth, people tend to add more meat to their diet

BLM lands

grazing, mining, timber harvesting, and recreation

desertification

happens in semiarid environments; dry, nutrient-poor soils can be easily degraded by agriculture to the point at which they are no longer viable for any production at all

fossilized

hardened into rocklike material as it is buried under successive layers of sediment

population oscillations in lynx and hares

hares increase in number when their food is abundant and there are few lynx to prey on them with more hares to eat, lynx reproduce more and increase in numbers (lynx populations peak about 2 years after hare populations) with an increase in the number of hares, the hares' food supply declines and the hare population dies off as hares become less abundant, the lynx population dies off

threatened species

have a high risk of extinction in the future

biomes

have a particular combination of average annual temperature and annual precipitation and contain distinctive plant growth forms that are adapted to that climate

data-deficient species

have no reliable data to assess their status; may be increasing, decreasing, or stable

density independent factors

have the same effect on an individual's probability of survival and amount of reproduction at any population size examples - tornado, hurricane, flood, fire

waste-to-energy system

heat generated by incineration is used rather than released into the atmosphere

note #27

heat is produced when water vapor condenses from a gas to a liquid the Sun provides the energy when liquid evaporates to form a gas, therefore in the reverse process when gas condenses to form a liquid, energy is released

geothermal energy

heat that comes from the natural radioactive decay of elements deep within Earth

mercury (water pollution)

heavy metal, increased concentrations in water as a result of human activities such as burning coal, incineration of garbage, and hazardous waste, bacteria convert inorganic mercury to methylmercury which can damage the central nervous system, human exposure to methylmercury is usually the result of eating seafood because it can move up the food chain

lead (water pollution)

heavy metal, serious health threat, can contaminate water that is passing through old pipes, infants are the most sensitive to lead, it can cause damage to the brain, nervous system, and kidneys

secondary consumers

heterotrophs that consume primary consumers (carnivores)

tertiary consumers

heterotrophs that consume secondary consumers (carnivores)

primary consumers

heterotrophs that consumer producers (herbivores)

genetic variation

high genetic variation leads to more successful adaptation

note #23

high resistance is when a disturbance influences populations and communities, but has no effect on the overall flows of energy and matter high resilience is when an ecosystem returns to its original state relatively rapidly

Tuberculosis

highly contagious disease caused by a bacterium that primarily infects the lungs airborne disease weakness, night sweats, coughing up blood can be infected but not develop the disease

well

hold in the ground to obtain water, goes into an unconfined aquifer

landfills

holes filled with waste

note #122

hot water heater comparison electric hot water heaters; heat, which is usually a waste product, is used to heat the water natural gas water heater: uses a flame below a tank, releases waste heat and by-products of combustion if the source of electricity is a coal-fired power plant while the source of natural gas is a natural gas power station, the natural gas water heater is more efficient overall

accuracy

how close a measured value is to the actual or true value

note #35

humans can extract drugs from plants an example would be the Chinese using the sap from the Dung of the Devil to fight the Spanish flu the Spanish flu was caused by the H1N1 virus which was similar to the H1N1 virus that caused the Swine flu years later scientists realized that perhaps they could use the sap from the Dung of the Devil to combat the other H1N1 flu illnesses many species that could have healing properties are being lost to deforestation, agriculture, and other human activities we may lose the knowledge of indigenous people on the subject of organisms and their healing properties

complex needs

humans require meaningful human interactions in order to live a satisfying life

note #75

hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) and all-electric vehicles are not as great as they seem while they do reduce our consumption of liquid fossil fuels, the metals they require are very rare and mining for these metals is bad for the environment and can lead to the spread of acid mine drainage (acid is used in the extraction process)

run-of-the-river

hydroelectricity generation in which water is retained below a low dam or no dam and does not greatly disrupt the flow of water

risk assessment

identify the hazard characterize toxicity (dose/response) determine extent of exposure

note #26

if the temperature of air saturated with water vapor fell from 30C to 10C, 20 g/m^3 would fall as precipitation

IPAT equation

impact = population × affluence × technology PAT = three major factors that influence environmental impact technology is iffy because some technology is beneficial to the environment such as hybrid electrical cars; as a result some scientists have replaced technology with destructive technology

Endangered Species Act (1973)

implements the international CITES agreement authorizes the United States Fish and Wildlife Service to determine which species can be listed as threatened or endangered and prohibits the harming of such species, including prohibitions on the trade of listed species, their fur, or their body parts authorizes the government to purchase habitat that is critical to the conservation of threatened and endangered species and to develop recovery plans to increase the population of threatened and endangered species some oppose the law

development

improvement in human well-being through economic advancement

DDT

in 1972, DDT was banned in the United States in part because it was found to build up over time in the fatty tissues of predators through bioaccumulation

note #24

in 2003 in Kenya, western Kenya suffered flooding while northeastern Kenya suffered a drought that lasted for three years and killed many crops and animals

note #64

in a given region within a biome, the number and types of species present are determined by three basic processes - colonization of the area by new species, speciation within the area, and losses from the area by extinction the relative importance of these processes varies form region to region and is influenced by four factors - latitude, time, habitat size, and distance from other communities

note #39

in most cases, phenotypes result from a combination of the genotype and the environment

military compounds

in places where military rockets are manufactured, tested, or dismantled, a group of harmful chemicals known as perchlorates sometimes contaminate the soil perchlorates are easily leached from contaminated soil into the groundwater where they can persist for many years in humans, perchlorates can affect they thyroid gland and reduce necessary hormone production

E horizon

in some acidic soils, this layer forms usually under the O horizon but can also form under the A horizon, always above the B horizon a zone of leaching or eluviation

note #98

in the United States, about half of all water goes toward generating electricity about 10% of all water used in the United States is used in homes nearly 15% of the world's population lacks access to clean drinking water the ownership of water is complex one solution that has been proposed is to allow all interested parties to openly compete for water and let market forces determine its price (Chile) machines such as showers and toilets have been adapted to use less waters, and some arid areas encourage the planting of native plants so as to save water

tropospheric ozone and photochemical smog formation

in the absence of VOCs but presence of nitrogen oxides, ozone will form during the daylight hours and break down after sunset in the presence of VOCs, ozone will form during the daylight hours, and the VOCs will combine with nitrogen oxides to form photochemical oxidants, which reduce the amount of ozone that will break down later and contribute to prolonged periods of photochemical smog

note #31

in tropical areas, rain shadows tend to be on the western sides of mountain ranges because of the prevailing trade winds moving from east to west, while in midlatitude zones, such as North America, rain shadows are commonly on the eastern sides of mountain ranges because the prevailing westerlies move from west to east (Sierra Nevada)

profundal zone (lakes)

in very deep lakes, where sunlight cannot reach, no producers, bacteria decompose detritus that reaches this zone, they consume oxygen in the process, not many organisms

solid biomass

includes wood and charcoal, animal products and manure, plant remains, MSW, and biofuels

community

incorporates all of the populations of organisms within a given area

species diversity

indicates the number of species in a region or in a particular type of habitat

uniform distribution

individuals of a certain population are evenly spaced example - nesting birds, plants that produce toxic chemicals

clumped distribution

individuals of a certain species stick together in groups to enhance feeding opportunities or gain protection from predators examples - schooling fish, flocking birds, herding mammals

conventional agriculture

industrial agriculture, Green Revolution agriculture

density dependent factors

influence an individual's probability of survival and reproduction in a manner that depends on the size of the population example - food

groundwater recharge

input process in which water from precipitation goes through the soil and works its way into an aquifer

agroforestry

intercropping trees with vegetables

note #61

interspecific interactions can affect the abundance and distribution of species in communities in most cases, a given species has an effect on a small number of other species, but not on the entire community as a result, the extinction of a single species usually does not affect the long-term stability of a community or ecosystem other species at the same trophic level, or species from adjacent areas, can usually provide the links necessary for energy and matter to flow

shifting agriculture

involves clearing land and using it for only a few years until the soil is depleted of nutrients uses a technique called slash-and-burn contributes to global warming

clear-cutting

involves removing all, or almost all, the trees within an area

anemia

iron deficiency, the most widespread nutritional deficiency in the world

permafrost 2.0

is melting

acid precipitation/ acid rain

is responsible for rapid degradation of old statues, gravestones, limestone, and marble

note #86

it takes hundreds to thousands of years for soil to form soil is the result of physical and chemical weathering of rocks and the gradual accumulation of detritus from the biosphere the breakdown of rocks and primary minerals by weathering provides the raw material for soils from below while the deposition of organic matter from organisms and their wastes contributes to soil formation from above

units of energy

joule (J) gigajoule (GJ) = 1 billion joules exajoule (EJ) = 1 billion gigaojoules the United States also uses the quad quad = 1 quadrillion Btu (British Thermal Units) 1 quad = 1.055 EJ

broad-spectrum pesticides

kill many different types of pests

pesticides and inert ingredients

kills plants - herbicides kills fungi - fungicides kills insects - insecticides concern 1 - most pesticides do not target specific organisms, but kill a variety of related organisms as a result, predators of the pest can be killed and unrelated organisms can be killed concern 2 - pesticides are generally designed to target particular aspects of a pest species' physiology, but they can also alter other physiological functions most insecticides target the nervous system of insects, but they can have unintended impacts on the pest and other species DDT moved up the aquatic food chain and to eagles which ate fish; as a result, eagle egg shells became thin and would prematurely break concern 3 - the role of inert ingredients inert ingredients - additives that make a pesticide more effective, allowing it to dissolve in water for spraying or to penetrate inside a pest species Roundup has an inert ingredient that is extremely lethal to amphibians and causes penetration of tadpole gill cells

how to convert between square kilometers and square meters

km² = m² / 10^6 m² = km² X 10^6

note #52

knowing the carrying capacity for a species, and what its limiting resource is, helps us predict how many individuals an environment can sustain

challenges to environmental science

lack of base line data (no control Earth) subjectivity (paper vs. plastic, which is better for the environment, there is no single measurement of environmental quality) interactions (environmental science has to do with so many other fields, not as simple as just science) human well-being

oligotrophic

lakes that have low productivity due to low amounts of nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen in the water

eutrophic

lakes with a high level of productivity

mesotrophic

lakes with a moderate level of productivity

floodplain

land adjacent to a river which is flooded by the excess water in the river

tree plantations

large areas typically planted with a single rapidly growing tree species

fault zones

large expanses of rock where movement has occurred, form in the brittle upper lithosphere where two plates meet

feedlots/concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs)

large indoor or outdoor structures designed for maximum output minimize land costs, more efficient feeding, increase in the fraction of food energy that goes into the production of animal body mass antibiotics given to confined animals are contributing to an increase in antibiotic-reistant strains of microorganisms that can affect humans, waste disposal problem

five global mass extinctions

large numbers of species went extinct over relatively short periods of time

monocropping

large plantings of a single species or variety dominant agricultural practice in the United States increased efficiency and productivity soil erosion by wind more vulnerable to attack by pests

gyres

large scale patterns of water circulation (clockwise movement of water in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise movement of water in the southern hemisphere) gyres redistribute heat in the ocean

manure lagoons

large, human-made ponds lined with rubber to prevent the manure from leaking into the groundwater, in which bacteria break the waste down so that it can be used as fertilizer

carrying capacity (K)

largest number of individuals of a particular species that a particular environment can support

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act of 1996

law through which pesticides are regulated, under this act, a manufacturer must demonstrate that a pesticide "will not generally causes unreasonable adverse effects on the environment"

continental plates

lie beneath landmasses, crust of these plates is less dense and rich in silicon dioxide, these plates are lighter and typically rise above the oceanic plates

oceanic plates

lie beneath oceans, crust of these plates is dense and rich in iron

note #70

life expectancy is reported in three ways - overall population of a country, males only, and females only right now, men have higher death rates and thus a lower life expectancy the availability of health care, access to good nutrition, and exposure to pollutants are all factors in life expectancy, infant mortality, and child mortality

granitic rock

lighter-colored rock made up of the minerals feldspar, mica, and quartz, which contain elements such as silicon, aluminum, potassium, and calcium, the dominant rock type in the crust of continental plates

disadvantages of hydroelectricity

limited amount can be installed in any given area, high construction costs, threats to river ecosystems, loss of habitat, agricultural land, and cultural heritage, displacement of people, siltation, some pollution

range of tolerance

limits to the abiotic conditions a species can tolerate

outer core

liquid

crude oil

liquid petroleum that is removed from the ground

hazardous waste

liquid, solid, gaseous, or sludge waste material that is harmful to humans or ecosystems

parasites

live on or in the organism they consume, typically consume only a small fraction of their host, a single parasite rarely causes the death of its host example - tapeworms

meat

livestock (beef, veal, pork, and lamb) and poultry (chicken, turkey, and duck)

biotic

living

sustainability

living on Earth in a way that allows us to use its resources without depriving future generations of those resources

pH

logarithmic, scale from 1-14 7 = neutral (# of hydrogen ions = # of hydroxide ions) below 7 = acidic above 7 = basic

disadvantages of liquid biofuels

loss of agricultural land, higher food costs, lower gas mileage, possible net increase in greenhouse gas emissions, contributes to global warming

outputs

losses from the system

biphilia

love of life, a need to make the connections that humans subconsciously seek with the rest of life

note #100

low BOD indicates that the water is less polluted while high BOD indicates that the water is more polluted

generation time

low generation time leads to more successful adaptation

hypoxic

low oxygen

note #144

low-income countries are at a greater risk acquiring chronic diseases than high-income countries

temperate grassland/cold desert

lowest average annual precipitation of any biome, prairies - Great Plains of North America pampas - South America steppes - central Asia and eastern Europe cold harsh winters and hot dry summers, constrained by precipitation in summer and temperature in winter, fires grasses and flowering plants, tallgrass prairies receive more precipitation than shortgrass prairies cold deserts are also known as temperate deserts, cold winters relatively long growing season, rapid decomposition adds many nutrients to the soil, very productive tallgrass - agriculture shortgrass - growing wheat and grazing cattle

leach field

made up by the combination of pipes and lawn

proteins

made up of long chains of nitrogen-containing organic molecules called amino acids

National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA, 1969)

mandates an environmental assessment of all projects involving federal money or federal permits

disadvantages of solar water heating systems

manufacturing materials requires high input of metals and water, no plan in place to recycle solar panels, geographically limited, higher initial costs

disadvantages of photovoltaic solar cells

manufacturing materials requires high input of metals and water, no plan in place to recycle solar panels, geographically limited, higher initial costs, storage batteries required for off-grid systems

note #146

many emergent infectious diseases have come from pathogens that normally infect animal hosts, but then unexpectedly jump to human hosts

photons

massless packets of energy that travel at the speed of light and can move even through the vacuum of space

population growth models

mathematical equations that can be used to predict population size at any moment in time

closed system

matter and energy exchanges across system boundaries do not occur

law of conservation of matter

matter cannot be created or destroyed; it can only change form

mountaintop removal

miners remove the entire top of a mountain with explosives, then machines remove the resource and deposit the tailings in lower-elevation regions nearby, often in or near rivers and streams

temperate rainforest

moderate temperatures and high precipitation, coastal biome found on west coast of North America, southern Chile, west coast of New Zealand, island of Tasmania mild summers and winters , nearly 12-month growing, season, rainy winters and foggy summers large trees, fir, spruce, cedar, hemlock, coastal redwood, sequoias, ferns, mosses slow decomposition, not as slow as boreal forests and tundras, nutrients are rapidly taken up by trees or leached down into soil by abundant rainfall logging

compounds

molecules that contain more than one element

affluence

money, goods, or property, also known as wealth

retrospective studies

monitor people who have been exposed to a chemical at some time in the past

prospective studies

monitor people who might become exposed to harmful chemicals in the future

temperate seasonal forest

more abundant than temperate rainforests, also called temperate deciduous forests found in eastern United States, Japan, China, Europe, Chile, eastern Australia good amount of precipitation, warmer summers and colder winters broadleaf deciduous trees, beech, maple, oak, hickory, some coniferous tree species rapid decomposition, broadleaf deciduous tree leaves decompose quickly, more nutrients, higher soil fertility, longer growing season, high productivity agriculture

flood irrigation

more disruptive to plant growth than furrow irrigation, involves flooding an entire field with water and letting the water soak in evenly (70%-80% efficiency)

advantages of reverse osmosis

more efficient and often less costly than distillation

spray irrigation

more expensive than furrow or flood irrigation and uses a fair amount of energy, water is pumped from a well into an apparatus that contains a series of spray nozzles that spray water across the field, like giant lawn sprinklers (75%-95% efficient)

nonpoint sources

more spread out areas that cause pollution examples - farming region, suburban community

obese

more than 20% above their ideal weight

polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs)

most commonly known as flame retardants added to a wide variety of items including construction materials, furniture, electrical components, and clothing has been detected in fish, aquatic birds, and human breast milk can lead to brain damage, especially in children

note #8

most energy on Earth is derived from the sun

note #141

most municipalities do not have regular collection sites for hazardous waste or household hazardous waste, asked to hold onto hazardous waste until periodic collections are held hazardous waste is chemically altered before disposal so it does not hurt the environment Love Canal

local impacts

most of the materials that are consumed in developing countries are produced locally this can lead to regional overuse of resources and environmental degradation two commonly overused resources are land and woody biomass land is cleared for farming this also results in erosion, soil degradation, and habitat loss

note #43

most organisms are diploid meaning they have two sets of chromosomes, but in organisms that are polyploidy, the number of chromosomes increases to three, four, or even six sets this can occur during the division of reproductive cells, either accidentally in nature or as a result of deliberate human actions polyploid organisms cannot mate with their diploid ancestors

note #57

most species fall between the two extremes (K-selected and r-selected) examples - tuna and redwoods, long living, take a long time to reach reproductive maturity, produce millions of small offspring, provide little or no parental care

nomadic grazing

moving herds of animals, often over long distances, to seasonally productive feeding grounds

intertidal zone

narrow band of coastline that exists between the levels of high tide and low tide range from rocky to smooth areas stable during high tide during low tide, organisms deal with exposure to direct sunlight, high temperatures, and desiccation waves make it challenging barnacles, sponges, algae, mussels, crabs, and sea stars

regulating services

natural ecosystems help to regulate environmental conditions example - trees using carbon dioxide

support systems

natural ecosystems provide numerous support services that would be extremely costly for humans to generate example - pollination, filtration of harmful pathogens and chemicals from water

disadvantages of natural gas

natural gas leaks, usage of thumper trucks and fracking, groundwater contamination, not available everywhere because it is transported by pipelines

note #40

natural selection favors any combination of traits that improve an individual's fitness

tropical rainforest

near the equator found in Central and South America, Africa, Southeast Asia, northeastern Australia, large tropical islands warm and wet, frequent precipitation with seasonal patterns, more biodiversity than any other biome, up to 2/3 of Earth's terrestrial species canopy, subcanopy/understory, epiphytes, lianas due to warm temperatures and abundant rainfall, productivity is high and decomposition is rapid, vegetation takes up nutrients quickly leaving little in the soil agriculture but soil loses fertility quickly

note #92

nearly 70% of Earth's surface is covered by water water is found in five main repositories - oceans, ice and glaciers, belowground water, water bodies, and atmospheric water more than 97% of Earth's water is found in the ocean as salt water less than 3% of Earth's water is fresh water and approximately 3/4 of it is found in ice and glaciers while about 1/4 is found belowground

native species

species that live in their historical range, typically where they have lived for thousands or millions of years

note #76

nearly all the elements found on earth today are as old as the planet itself earth formed roughly 4.6 billion years ago early earth was a hot molten sphere debris from the formation of the sun bombarded earth earth then cooled, and the elements within it separated into layer based on their mass heavier elements sank towards the center while lighter elements floated up top some gaseous elements left the planet's surface and formed the atmosphere the processes that formed earth determined the distribution and abundance of elements and minerals today

primary minerals

newly exposed minerals, chemical weathering is very important in this case because it alters primary minerals to form secondary minerals and the ionic forms of their constituent elements

note #18

nitrogen is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere nitrogen is used to form amino acids and nucleic acids humans now fix more nitrogen than is fixed in nature organisms use nitrogen to grow

macronutrients

nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur

nitrous oxide

nitrous oxide is a natural component of the nitrogen cycle that is produced through the process of denitrification

septic system advantages

no electricity is needed to run a septic system since it uses gravity

advantages of geothermal energy

nondepletable resource, after initial investment, no cost to harvest energy, can be installed anywhere (ground source heat pump), no pollution during operation

advantages of wind energy

nondepletable resource, after initial investment, no cost to harvest energy, low up-front cost, no pollution during operation

advantages of tidal energy

nondepletable resource, after initial investment, no cost to harvest energy, no pollution during operation

advantages of photovoltaic solar cells

nondepletable resource, after initial investment, no cost to harvest energy, no pollution during operation (some generated during manufacturing of panels)

advantages of solar water heating systems

nondepletable resource, after initial investment, no cost to harvest energy, no pollution during operation (some generated during manufacturing of panels)

advantages of hydroelectricity

nondepletable resource, low cost to run, flood control, recreation

abiotic

nonliving

note #121

nonrenewable energy accounts for most of our energy use

chronic hunger/undernutrition

not consuming enough calories to be healthy

limiting nutrient

nutrient whose supply limits growth in an ecosystem

energy efficiency 2.0

obtaining the same work from a smaller amount of energy

mangrove swamps

occur along tropical and subtropical coasts trees with roots submerged in water salt tolerant often grow in estuaries help protect coastlines from erosion and storm damage falling leaves and trapped organic material create a nutrient-rich environment habitat for fish and shellfish

earthquakes

occur when the rocks of the lithosphere rupture unexpectedly along a fault

recombination

occurs as chromosomes are duplicated during reproductive cell division and a piece of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome

El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

occurs every 3 to 7 years, begins around Christmas, can last from a few weeks to a few years, periodic changes in winds and ocean currents

secondary succession

occurs in areas that have been disturbed but have not lost their soil; follows an event such as a forest fire or hurricane, which removes vegetation but leaves the soil mostly intact an example is the New England forests annual plants, perennial weeds and grasses, from here it depends on the temperature and precipitation example - annual plants, perennial weeds and grasses, shrubs, aspen/cherry/young pine forest, beech/maple/broadleaf forest

primary succession

occurs on surfaces that are initially devoid of soil, such as an abandoned parking lot, newly exposed rock left behind after a glacial retreat, or newly cooled lava rocks, lichens and mosses, annual plants, perennial weeds and grasses, from here it depends on the temperature and precipitation

population inverted pyramid

occurs when a country has a greater number of older people than younger people so the age structure diagram looks like an inverted pyramid typical in developed countries negative population growth example - Germany

population column

occurs when a country has little difference between the number of individuals in younger age groups and in older age groups so the age structure diagram looks more like a column typical in developed countries slow population growth or stable example - United States

natural experiment

occurs when a natural event acts as an experimental treatment in an ecosystem example - volcano

chemical reaction

occurs when atoms separate from the molecules they are a part of or recombine with other molecules

thermal pollution

occurs when human activities cause a substantial change in the temperature of water power plants bring in cold water to cool down their machines and return it as warmer water

overharvesting

occurs when individuals are removed at a rate faster than the population can replace them include hunting and fishing may have caused the extinction of the Dodo laws have been passed to prevent overharvesting

interbreeding depression

occurs when individuals with similar genotypes (typically relatives) breed with each other and produce offspring that have an impaired ability to survive and reproduce example = Florida Panther

nuclear fusion

occurs when lighter nuclei are forced together to produce heavier nuclei

weathering

occurs when rock is exposed to air, water, certain chemical compounds, or biological agents such as plant roots, lichens, and burrowing animals

salinization

occurs when small amounts of salts in irrigation water become highly concentrated on the soil surface through evaporation, these salts can reach toxic levels and impede plant growth

waterlogging

occurs when soil remains under water for prolonged periods, impairs root growth because rools cannot get oxygen

upwelling

occurs when surface currents diverge, or separate from one another, along the west coast of most continents, causing deeper waters to rise and replace the water that has moved away this deep water brings nutrients from the ocean bottom that can support highly productive ecosystems

extinction

occurs when the last member of a species dies

overshoot

occurs when there is less food available in the spring than needed to feed the offspring; as a result, the population is larger than the spring carrying capacity

latent heat release

occurs when water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into liquid water and energy is released, also it means that whenever water vapor in the atmosphere condenses, the air will become warmer, and this warm air will rise

edge habitat

occurs where two different communities come together, typically forming an abrupt transition, such as where a grassy field meets a forest

benthic zone (ocean)

ocean floor

note #80

oceanic and continental plates float on top of the denser material beneath them their slow movements are driven by convection currents in the mantle as the plates move, the continents slowly drift

divergent plate boundaries

oceanic plates move apart, magma rises up result - seafloor spreading, brings copper, lead, and silver to the surface of earth, over tens to hundreds of millions of years, some of this area becomes land containing these resources

bitumen

often called tar or pitch, a degraded type of petroleum that forms when a petroleum deposit is not capped with nonporous rock

blowout

oil well explosion and rupture

nonrenewable

once they are used up, they cannot be replenished

polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)

one group of industrial compounds that have caused many environmental problems used in manufacturing plastics and insulating electrical transformers no longer manufactured or used in the United States ingested PCBs are lethal and carcinogenic

note #56

one of the assumptions of the logistic growth model is that the number of offspring individuals produce depends only on the current population size and the carrying capacity of the environment, but many organisms mate in the fall and winter based on the food supply at the time, and since offspring are born in the spring, there is a risk that food availability will not match the new population size

note #102

one of the most common species of fecal coliform bacteria is Escherichia coli, or E. coli most E. coli is not harmful, but a few strains can be deadly since E. coli is commonly found in human intestines, E. coli in the water often indicates that human waste has entered the water swimming at a public beach or in a river is considered safe as long as the fecal coliform bacteria levels are less than 500 to 10,000 colonies per 100 mL of water the two most widespread systems for treating human sewage are septic systems and sewage treatment plants the most prevalent system to treat waste from large livestock operations is a manure lagoon

open-loop recycling

one product is recycled into another product

polar molecule

one side is more positive and the other side is more negative

disseminated deposits

ores that occur in much larger areas of rock, often in lower concentrations

nucleic acids

organic compounds found in all living cells DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - the genetic material organisms pass on to their offspring that contains the code for reproducing the components of the next generation RNA (ribonucleic acid) - translates the code stored in the DNA and allows for the synthesis of proteins

volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

organic compounds, typically hydrocarbons, that become vapors at typical atmospheric temperatures

O horizon

organic matter in various stages of decomposition

oxygen-demanding waste

organic matter than enters a body of eater and feeds the growth of microbes that are decomposers

compost

organic matter that has decomposed under controlled conditions to produce an organic-rich material that enhances soil structure, cation exchange capacity, and fertility

consumers/heterotrophs

organisms that can not produce their own food and must consume other organisms for energy

producers/autotrophs

organisms that can produce their own food

carnivores

organisms that eat meat

omnivores

organisms that eat plants and meat

phylogenies

the branching patterns of evolutionary relationships can be based on morphology, behavior, and genetic similarity

parasitoids

organisms that lay eggs inside other organisms, when the eggs hatch, the parasitoid larvae slowly consume the host from the inside out, eventually leading to the host's death example - certain species of wasps and flies

detritivores

organisms that specialize in breaking down dead tissues and waste products (referred to as detritus) into smaller particles (dung beetles)

Lacey Act (1900)

originally prohibited the transport of illegally harvested game animals, primarily birds and mammals, across state lines over the years amendments have been added so today the act forbids the interstate shipping of all allegedly harvested plants and animals

sublethal effects

other harmful effects a chemical might have, including acting as a teratogenic, carcinogen, or neurotoxin

asthenosphere

outer part of the mantle, composed of semi-molten ductile rock

waste

outputs that are nonuseful products generated within the system

succession in lakes

over hundreds to thousands of years, lakes are filled with sediments and slowly become terrestrial habitats open water lake, increase in floating and submerged plants, accumulating sediments, shallower water, grasses and shrubs, lake basin filled, wet center

volcanic eruptions

over time, volcanic eruptions can add a large amount of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere the large quantity of ash emitted in the atmosphere from a volcanic eruption can have a major effect on global temperatures by reflecting incoming solar radiation back out into space, thereby cooling Earth

percent composition of waste

paper (31%) food scraps and yard trimmings (13%) plastics (12%) metals, rubber, leather, and textiles (8%) wood (17%) glass (5%) other (3%)

pathogens

parasites that cause disease in their host (viruses, bacteria, fungi, protists, and wormlike organisms called helminths

molecules

particles containing more than one atom

coal scrubbers

pass the hot gases through a limestone mixture that reacts with the acidic gases and removes them from the hot gases that subsequently leave the smokestack

Marine Mammal Protection Act (1972)

passed in response to declining populations of many marine animals, including polar bears, sea otters, manatees, and California sea lions prohibits the killing of all marine mammals in the United States and prohibits the import or export of any marine mammal body parts only the United States Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service are allowed to approve any exceptions to the act

Taylor Grazing Act of 1934

passed to halt overgrazing; converted federal rangelands from a commons to a permit-based grazing system

The Mining Law of 1872/General Mining Act

passed to regulate the mining of silver, copper, and gold ore as well as fuels, including natural gas and oil, on federal lands contains very few environmental protection provisions

impermeable surfaces

pavement or buildings that do not allow water penetration

immigration

people coming into a country

emigration

people leaving a country

stakeholders

people with an interest in a particular place or issue

note #105

petroleum products are highly toxic to many marine organisms, including birds, mammals, and fish, as well as algae and microorganisms that form the base of the aquatic food chain one source of oil in the water comes form drilling for undersea oil using offshore platforms, which can leak oil can also enter the water through spills from oil tankers (Exxon Valdez) as a result of the Valdez incident, new rules were made now oil tankers in North America must have a double hull design to help contain leaking oil in the case of an accident oil can also enter the water naturally

4 phases of demographic transition

phase 1 - slow industrial growth or no industrial growth, high birth and death rates phase 2 - rapid industrial growth, death rates drop rapidly but birth rates do not change, population growth is the greatest phase 3 - population stabilization, birth rates decline phase 4 - population decline, birth rates drop below death rates

human activities and the phosphorus cycle

phosphorus inputs, through fertilizers and in the past detergents, into phosphorus limited aquatic systems can cause rapid growth of algae, known as an algal bloom, thus adding much biomass, and when the algae dies, decomposition uses large amounts of oxygen creating hypoxic conditions that kill fish and other aquatic animals increased phosphorus through fertilizers and in the past detergents can also alter plant communities

note #19

phosphorus is a limiting nutrient only second to nitrogen organisms use phosphorus to grow like nitrogen, phosphorus is used in fertilizers the phosphorus cycle has no gaseous component phosphorus is a limiting nutrient in many aquatic systems

genes

physical locations on chromosomes within each cell of an organism determine the range of possible traits (physical or behavioral) that one can pass down to his or her offspring

transpiration

plants releasing water from their leaves into the atmosphere

organisms

plants remove nutrients from soil and excrete organic acids that speed chemical weathering animals that tunnel or burrow, such as earthworms, gophers, and voles, mix the soil, distributing organic and mineral matter uniformly throughout

note #107

plastic rings from beverage six-packs can strangle animals medical waste such as hypodermic needles are dangerous coal ash and coal slag contains mercury, arsenic, and lead that can contaminate water according to the EPA, waste from burning coal and other fossil fuels is "special waste" and thus exempt from federal regulations for the disposal of hazardous waste

transform fault boundaries

plates move sideways past each other result - faults and thus earthquakes

convergent plate boundaries

plates move towards one another and collide, creating pressure result - if an oceanic and a continental plate collide, subduction occurs and long narrow coastal mountain ranges may develop (Andes), additionally, the subjected plate may melt and as a result of the rising magma, volcanoes may form if two continental plates collide, both plates may be lifted, resulting in the formation of mid-continental mountain ranges (Himalayas)

contour plowing

plowing and harvesting parallel to the topographic contours of the land, helps prevent erosion by water while still allowing for the practical advantages of plowing

primary pollutants

polluting compounds that come directly out of the smoke-stack, exhaust pipe, or natural emission source include CO, CO₂, SO₂, NO, NO₂, most suspended particulate matter, and most VOCs

note #73

population and economic development are not equally distributed around the world, the human impact on natural resources is also unequally distributed developed countries consume more and developing countries consume less even though more often than not developing countries have larger populations

note #53

population ecologists use population growth models that incorporate density-dependent and density-independent factors to explain and predict changes in population size

note #50

population ecology can be used for endangered species and pest species in the case of endangered species, it can be used to determine how we can help a population of a certain endangered species grow in the case of pest species, it can be used to determine how we can limit or restrict the growth of a certain pest species

note #49

populations are dynamic the exact size of a population is the difference between the number of inputs to the population (births and immigration) and outputs from the population (deaths and emigration) within a given time period if births and immigration exceed deaths and emigration, the population will grow if deaths and emigration exceed births and immigration, the population will decline

unconfined aquifer

porous rock covered by soil where water can flow easily in and out (an opening at the land surface would be a spring, and could serve as a water source for a stream or river)

disadvantages of tidal energy

potential disruptive effect on some marine organisms, geographically limited

chemical energy

potential energy stored in chemical bonds

renewable

potentially renewable and nondepletable

advantages of liquid biofuels

potentially renewable, can reduce our dependence on fossil fuels, reduces trade deficit, possibly more environmentally friendly than fossil fuels

advantages of solid biomass

potentially renewable, eliminates waste from environment, available to everyone, minimal technology required

note #59

predators regulate prey populations to avoid being eaten, prey have developed defenses these defenses can be behavioral, morphological, or chemical, or may simply mimic another species' defense behavioral - hiding and reduced movement morphological - camouflage and spines chemical - insects, frogs, plants, skunks emit toxic or distasteful chemicals mimic - mimic toxic species so predators avoid them

fossil fuels 2.0

pretty self-explanatory...

secondary pollutants

primary pollutants that have undergone transformation in the presence of sunlight, water, oxygen, or other compounds includes ozone, sulfate, and nitrate

nitrification

process by which ammonium is converted to nitrite and then nitrate

nitrogen fixation

process by which nitrogen gas is converted into ammonia

anaerobic

process that does not require oxygen.

aerobic

process that requires oxygen

liquid biofuels

processed or refined biomass such as ethanol and biodiesel

flows

processes that move matter between pools

Stockholm Convention

produced a list of 12 chemicals to be banned, phased out, or reduced

hot spots

produced by plumes, places where molten material from the mantle reaches the lithosphere

S-shaped curve

produced by the logistic growth model

synthetic/inorganic fertilizers

produced commercially, highly concentrated

note #12

producers carry out both photosynthesis and cellular respiration overall, producers photosynthesize more than they respire in sunlight, both photosynthesis and respiration occur and in the absence of sunlight (at night), only respiration occurs

disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cells

producing hydrogen is an energy-intensive process, lack of distribution network, hydrogen storage challenges

Hubbert curve

projected the point at which world oil production would reach a maximum and the point at which we would run out of oil

biosphere reserves

protected areas consisting of zones that vary in the amount of permissible human impact

intrinsic values provided by biodiversity

provide no direct benefit to people the belief that individuals, species, and ecosystems are inherently valuable in themselves and that we have an obligation to preserve them

instrumental values provided by biodiversity

provisions = food, medicine, and building materials regulating services = the ability of plants to remove human-added carbon dioxide from the atmosphere support services = pollination

type III survivorship curve

r-selected species mosquitoes and dandelions low survivorship early in life, few individuals reach adulthood

algal bloom

rapid growth of algae

acute diseases

rapidly impair the functioning of a person's body example - ebola

ecosystem approach

recognizes the benefit of preserving particular regions of the world, such as biodiversity hotspots

NPS lands

recreation and conservation

note #140

recyclables and metals are removed ash is tested for toxicity, if it is not toxic it can be disposed of in a landfill or can be used in cement, if it is toxic it is disposed of in a special ash landfill exhaust gases go through special processes so they are not as harmful to the environment

note #137

recycling rates have increased in the United States since 1975 recycling require more energy than reducing and reusing materials

increased profits

reduce expenses because you no longer have to pay for pesticides GMO crops often produce greater yields, therefore potential for greater revenues can lead to higher incomes for farmers, lower prices for consumers, or both

the three Rs

reduce, reuse, recycle

haze

reduced visibility caused primarily when particulate matter from air pollution scatters light

global warming

refers specifically to one aspect of climate change: the warming of the oceans, landmasses, and atmosphere of Earth

global climate change

refers to changes in the climate (the average weather the occurs in an area over a period of years or decades) of Earth

predation

refers to the use of one species as a resource by another species (+/-)

municipal solid waste (MSW)

refuse collected by municipalities from households, small businesses, and institutions such as schools, prisons, municipal buildings, and hospitals

The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977

regulates surface mining of coal and the surface effects of subsurface coal mining land must be minimally disturbed during the mining process and must be reclaimed after mining is completed

family planning

regulation of the number or spacing of offspring through the use of birth control

free-range

relating to farm animals that are not kept in cages more ethical, no need for antibiotics, less fossil fuel use, no waste issue use more land, cost more

disadvantages of petroleum

releases pollutants when combusted, oil spills, requires refinement, human rights/environmental justice issues, will be much less available in the future

persistent

remain in the environment for a long time

selective cutting

removes single trees or relatively small numbers of trees from among many in a forest

desalination/desalinization

removing the salt from saltwater

environmental impact statement (EIS)

required by NEPA to be filed by the project's developers; typically outlines the scope and purpose of the project, describes the environmental context, suggests alternative approaches to the project, and analyzes the environmental impact of each alternative

disadvantages of aqueducts

requires a great deal of money and disturbs natural habitats diversion of water from a river can affect the river and its ecosystem

ash

residual nonorganic material that does not combust during incineration

fly ash

residue collected beyond the furnace

bottom ash

residue collected underneath the furnace

deforestation

results in fewer trees available to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during photosynthesis

reuse

reuse of a soon-to-be-discarded product or material, rather than disposal, allows a material to cycle within a system longer before becoming an output

note #151

risk = probability of being exposed to a hazard X probability of being harmed if exposed

crop rotation

rotating the crop species in a field from season to season

note #87

sand, silt, and clay are mineral particles of different sizes

note #139

sanitary landfills have a clay or plastic lining at the bottom clay is often used to impede water flow and retain positively charge ions such as metals a cap for a landfill is made up of soil and clay rainfall and other water inputs are minimized because excess water causes a greater rate of anaerobic decomposition and consequent methane release leachate can leak into surrounding soil and groundwater if leachate is determined to be too toxic, it is treated as toxic waste closed landfills can be reclaimed, meaning vegetation is planted on top of the landfill for both aesthetic reasons and to reduce soil erosion construction on a landfill is limited for many years, later playgrounds, golf courses, etc. can be built on reclaimed landfills a landfill should be built in soil rich clay, away from water sources,

demographers

scientists in the field of demography

note #149

scientists often measure persistent by observing the time needed for a chemical to degrade to half its original concentration, or the half-life of the chemical

note #63

secondary succession happens on many spatial scales, from one tree falling to huge areas cleared by wildfires

sediment pollution

sediments are particles of sand, stilt, and clay carried by moving water in streams and rivers that eventually settle out in another location where water movement is slowed, such as where streams empty into lakes and rivers empty into oceans forming deltas the transport of sediments by streams and rivers is a natural phenomenon, but sediment pollution is the result of human activities that can substantially increase the amount of sediment entering natural waterways construction, plowed agricultural fields, and removal of natural vegetation are all ways in which human activities contribute to increased sediments as a result of increased sediments, water becomes brown and cloudy, fish gills can be clogged, and the increased sediments limit the reaches of sunlight thus reducing the productivity of algae and aquatic plants

source reduction

seeks to reduce waste by reducing, in the early stages of design and manufacture, the use of materials, toxic and otherwise, destined to become MSW

geographic isolation

separation of populations as a result of geographic change

national wilderness areas

set aside with the intent of preserving large tracts of intact ecosystems or landscapes

Safe Drinking Water Act (1974, 1986, 1996)

sets the national standards for safe drinking water EPA is responsible for establishing maximum contaminant levels (MCL) for 77 different elements or substances in both surface water and groundwater

dikes

similar to levees, but they are typically built to prevent ocean waters from flooding adjacent land (Netherlands)

rate of environmental change

slow rate of environmental change leads to more successful adaptation

oil sands

slow-flowing, viscous deposits of bitumen mixed with sand, water, and clay

chronic diseases

slowly impair the functioning of a person's body example - heart disease, cancer

septic system disadvantages

sludge must be pumped out periodically from the septic tank and taken to a sewage treatment plant

population size

small population size leads to more successful adaptation (more likely to undergo evolution by random processes)

lipids

smaller biological molecules that do not mix with water

zone of aeration

soil region above water table where pore spaces are filled with air instead of water

climate 2.0

soils do not develop well when temperatures are below freezing because decomposition of organic matter and water movement are both extremely slow in frozen or nearly frozen soils soils develop well in warmer climates

photosynthesis

solar energy + carbon dioxide + water = glucose + oxygen

inner core

solid

minerals

solid chemical substances that form under specific temperatures and pressures

particulate matter/particulates/particles

solid or liquid particles suspend in air

solid waste pollution

solid waste consists of discarded materials from house-holds and industries that do not pose a toxic hazard to humans and other organisms (also known as garbage)

intrusion of alien species

some alien species can become invasive species and can cause harmful effects on native species

note #11

some ecosystems have well-defined boundaries while others do not (cave vs. Yellowstone National Park) although ecosystems have boundaries, all ecosystems interact with surrounding ecosystems through the exchange of energy and matter nearly all of the energy that powers ecosystems comes from the sun as solar energy, which is a form of kinetic energy

note #95

some people rely heavily on atmospheric water (precipitation) droughts affect the soil because the recycling of many nutrients depends on the movement of water, prolonged droughts can dry out the topsoil to such an extent that it blows away in the wind resulting in land being useless for agriculture for decades or longer, and severely parched soil can become impermeable leading to water running over the surface and erosion drought on the Great Plains led to the Dust Bowl flooding occurs when water input exceeds the ability of an area to absorb that water

population oscillations

some populations experience recurring cycles of overshoots and die-offs that lead to a pattern of oscillations around the carry capacity of the environment the oscillations decline over time and approach the carrying capacity

energy carrier

something that can move and deliver energy in a convenient, usable form to end users

boreal forest

sometimes called taiga, forests made up primarily of coniferous (cone-bearing) evergreen trees that can tolerate cold winters and short growing seasons, "evergeen" trees appear green year-round because they drop only a fraction of their needles each year found in Europe, Russia, Canada cold, low precipitation, nutrient-poor soil pine, spruce, fir, birch, maple, aspen due to cold temperatures and relatively low precipitation, decomposition happens slowly, waxy needles are resistant to decomposition, soil is covered in thick layer of organic material but is poor in nutrients logging

landfill disadvantages

sometimes landfills are located in sites not because they are ideal, but because the people in the area do not have the resources to object the construction of the landfill possibility of leachate contaminating surrounding water sources sometimes a tipping fee is charged

noise pollution

sound emitted by ships and submarines that interfere with animal communication

potentially renewable

sources of energy that can be regenerated rapidly as long as we do not consume them more quickly than they can be replenished

aquifer

space found within permeable layers of rock and sediment which holds groundwater

niche specialists

specialized to live in a specific habitat or feed on a small group of species

alien/exotic species

species that live outside their historical range have been moved by humans or accidentally sometimes alien species have no effect on their new environment and other times alien species have an effect

r-selected species

species with a high-intrinsic growth rate because they reproduce often and produce large numbers of offspring; abundance of these species is determined by intrinsic growth rate, population oscillations small organisms, reach reproductive maturity relatively early, reproduce frequently, provide little or no parental care examples - mice, small fish, many insects, weedy plants, cockroaches, dandelions, organisms that humans consider pests

K-selected species

species with a low intrinsic growth rate, which causes their population to increase slowly until they reach the carrying capacity of the environment; abundance of these species is determined by carrying capacity, small population fluctuations large organisms, reach reproductive maturity relatively late, produce few offspring, provide parental care, difficult to help when they are endangered species examples - elephants, other large mammals, most birds

HIV/AIDS

spread through sexual contact and sharing dirty needles perhaps originally from chimpanzees

climax stage

stage at which succession ends example - oldest forests = climax forests it is now recognized that natural disturbances are a regular part of most communities, so there is no final stage because a community can reset to an earlier stage at any time

note #15

standing crop measures the amount of energy in a system at a given time while productivity measure the rate of energy production over a span of time

lakes and ponds

standing water ponds are smaller and lakes are bigger

environmental mitigation plan

states how the project's environmental impact will be addressed

resource conservation ethic

states that people should maximize resource use based on the greatest good for everyone

cohesion

sticks to each other

adhesion

sticks to other stuff

water impoundment

storing water in a reservoir behind a dam; the most common method of hydroelectricity generation

corridors

strips of natural habitat that connect the separated populations

note #120

study worksheets and notebook

pesticides

substances, either natural or synthetic, that kill or control organisms that people consider pests application of pesticides is easy pesticides injure or kill organisms other than their intended targets pest populations may develop resistance over time can harm beneficial organisms such as predators of pests, pollinators, and plants that fix nitrogen and improve soil fertility can enter groundwater

trophic levels

successive levels of organisms consuming one another (from the Greek word troph which means nourishment)

impervious surfaces

surfaces that don't absorb water (roads, sidewalks)

carbon monoxide

symbol - CO anthropogenic sources - incomplete combustion of most matter, vehicle exhaust, malfunctioning exhaust systems on natural gas heaters, cooking with manure, charcoal, or kerosene natural sources - incomplete combustion of most matter effects - bonds to hemoglobin and affects oxygen transport, causes headaches, can cause death

carbon dioxide

symbol - CO₂ anthropogenic sources - complete combustion of most matter, including fossil fuels and biomass, and clearing of land natural sources - respiration effects - climate change

mercury (air pollution)

symbol - Hg anthropogenic sources - combustion of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, waste incinerators, electricity generation plants, and gold mining natural sources - effects - toxic to the central nervous system, bioaccumulation in fish

nitrogen oxides

symbol - NO or NO₂ anthropogenic sources - motor vehicles and stationary fossil fuel combustion natural sources - forest fires, lightening, and microbial action in soils effects - respiratory irritant, play a role in forming tropospheric ozone and other components of photochemical smog, can covert to nitric acid which can harm aquatic life and some vegetation, and can over-fertilize terrestrial and aquatic systems

photochemical oxidants including tropospheric ozone

symbol - O₃ anthropogenic sources - formed by the combination of sunlight, water, oxygen, VOCs, and nitrogen oxides natural sources - forms naturally effects - harm plant tissue, human respiratory tissue, and construction materials, can cause asthma and emphysema, can form even more harmful oxidants in the presence of nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds, can enhance the formation of particulate matter in the presence of sulfur and nitrogen oxides, and can hurt the economy

particulate matter

symbol - PM, PM₁₀ (smaller than 10 micrometers), and PM₂.₅ (2.5 micrometers and smaller) anthropogenic sources - combustion of wood, animal manure and other biofuels, coal, oil, gasoline, road dust, and rock-crushing operations natural sources - volcanoes, forrest fires, and dust storms effects - can be deposited within the respiratory tract and can negatively affect photosynthesis or cause haze by scattering or absorbing sunlight

lead (air pollution)

symbol - Pb anthropogenic sources - added to gasoline, lead-based paint in older buildings, coal and oil natural sources - occurs naturally in rocks and soils effects - can be toxic to the central nervous system and can affect learning and intelligence, particularly in children

sulfer dioxide

symbol - SO₂ anthropogenic sources - combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gasoline natural sources - volcanic eruptions and forest fires effects - respiratory irritant, can adversely affect plant tissue, and can convert to sulfuric acid which can harm aquatic life and some vegetation

volatile organic compounds

symbol - VOC anthropogenic sources - gasoline, lighter fluid, dry-cleaning fluid, oil-based paints, and perfumes natural sources - given off by trees effects - play an important role in the formation of photochemical oxidants such as ozone

note #104

synthetic, or human-made, compounds can enter the water supply either from industrial point sources where they are manufactured or from nonpoint sources when they are applied over very large areas these organic (carbon-containing) compounds include pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and industrial cleaners they can be toxic, cause genetic defects, and in the case of compounds that resemble animal hormones, interfere with growth and sexual development

group source heat pumps

take advantage of the high thermal inertia of the ground

composing disadvantages

takes time and space source separation can be inconvenient and in some cases, not possible can attract unwanted guests such as flies, rats, skunks, raccoons, and other vermin

replication

taking several sets of measurements

herbicides

target plant species that compete with crops

insecticides

target species of insects and other invertebrates that consume crops

species evenness

tells us whether a particular ecosystem is numerically dominated by one species or whether all of its species have similar abundances the more even distribution is more diverse (33% oak, 33% beech, 33% maple > 10% oak, 40% beech, 50% maple)

note #113

the Green Revolution involved new management techniques and mechanization as well as the triad of fertilization, irrigation, and improved crop varieties increased food production

note #81

the Hawaiian islands are an example of a plate moving past a hot spot, leaving behind a trail of extinct volcanic islands

note #155

the IPCC concluded in 2007 that most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-twentieth century has been the result of increased concentrations of anthropogenic greenhouse gas

note #152

the Sun emits most of its energy as visible light and ultraviolet light the Earth emits most of its energy as infrared light

replacement-level fertility

the TFR required to offset the average number of deaths in a population so that the current population size remains stable also depends on rates of prereproductive mortality

thermal inertia

the ability of a material to retain heat or cold

cation exchange capacity (CEC)

the ability of a particular soil to adsorb and release cations sometimes referred to as the nutrient holding capacity

energy

the ability to do work or transfer heat

food production

the ability to grow food to nourish the human population

siltation

the accumulation of sediments on the bottom of the reservoir

deposition

the accumulation or depositing of eroded materials such as sediment, rock fragments, or soil

dissemination

the act of spreading something, especially information, widely

phenotype

the actual set of traits expressed in an individual

standing crop

the amount of biomass present in an ecosystem at a particular time

note #129

the amount of electricity that can be generated at any particular hydroelectric power plant depends on the flow rate, the vertical distance the water falls, or both

note #13

the amount of energy available in an ecosystem determines how much life the ecosystem can support

joule

the amount of energy used when a 1-watt lightbulb is turned on for 1 second 1 calorie = 4.184 J

biochemical oxygen demand/BOD

the amount of oxygen a quantity of water uses over a period of time at a specific temperature

intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)

the area of Earth that receives the most intense sunlight, where the ascending branches of the to Hadley cells converge (dense clouds and intense thunderstorm activity) moves north and south of the equator between 23.5 degrees N and S following the path of the Sun's most direct rays

distribution

the areas of the world in which the species lives

wind patterns

the atmospheric convection currents of tropical and polar latitudes, the mixing of air currents in the mid-latitudes, and the Coriolis Effect cause the prevailing wind patterns that occur worldwide, although local features, such as mountain ranges, can alter wind directions significantly

crustal abundance

the average concentration of an element in the crust

economies of scale

the average costs of production fall as the output increases

note #44

the average global rate of evolution is about one new species every 3 million years, but evolution can be faster or slower cichlids and pupfishes evolved faster than this rate

life expectancy

the average number of years that an infant born in a particular year in a particular country can be expected to live, given the current average life span and death rate in that country life expectancy is generally higher in countries with better health care high life expectancy is also an indicator of high resource consumption rates and environmental impacts

background extinction rate

the average rate at which species go extinct over the long term, happen very slowly, about two species per year

climate

the average weather that occurs in a given region over a long period, typically over several decades

ecosystem services

the benefits that humans obtain from natural ecosystems, can be divided into five categories: provisions, regulating services, support systems, resilience, and cultural services, each having instrumental value

chemical weathering

the breakdown of rocks and minerals by chemical reactions, the dissolving of chemical elements from rocks, or both it releases essential nutrients from rocks, making them available for use by plants and other organisms

lithosphere

the brittle outermost layer of the planet, approximately 100 km (60 miles) thick, made up of solid upper mantle and crust, contains several large and numerous smaller plates, which overlie the convection cells within the asthenosphere

sick building syndrome

the buildup of toxic compounds and pollutants in an airtight space caused by inadequate or faulty ventilation, chemical contamination from indoor sources such as glues, carpeting, furniture, cleaning agents, and copy machines, chemical contamination in the building from outdoor sources such as vehicle exhaust transferred through the air intakes for the building, and biological contamination from inside or outside, such as molds and pollen

acid deposition

the burning of coal releases sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide into the air where they are converted to sulfuric acid and nitric acid that returns to Earth; refers to deposition with a pH lower than 5.6

anthropogenic sources of greenhouse gases

the burning of fossil fuels, agriculture, deforestation, landfills, and industrial production of chemicals

crust

the chemically distinct outermost layer of the lithosphere on top of which the soil lies

fundamental niche

the combination of abiotic conditions in a particular environment that determines whether a species can persist there

atmospheric brown cloud

the combination of particulate matter and ozone derived primarily from the combustion of fossil fuels and burning biomass

evapotranspiration

the combined amount of evaporation and transpiration, often used by scientists as a measure of the water moving through an ecosystem

human activities and the carbon cycle

the combustion of fossil fuels has led to excess carbon in the atmosphere which has contributed to global warming and increased temperatures deforestation results in more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and the destruction of biodiversity

genotype

the complete set of genes in an individual serves as the blueprint for the complete set of traits that an organism may potentially possess

pools

the components that contain the matter, including air, water, and organisms

food insecurity

the condition in which people do not have adequate access to food

food security

the condition in which people have access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs for an active and healthy life

rock cycle

the constant formation and destruction of rock, the slowest of all of earth's cycles

water pollution

the contamination of streams, rivers, lakes, oceans, or groundwater with substances produced through human activities that negatively affect organisms.

Hadley cells

the convection currents that cycle between the equator and 30 degrees N and S

note #123

the conversion of fossil fuel into electricity is only about 35% efficient nearly 30% of energy use in the United States is for transportation

open-pit mining

the creation of a large pit that is used when the resource is close to the surface but extends beneath the surface both horizontally and vertically

urban sprawl

the creation of urbanized areas that spread into rural areas and remove clear boundaries between the two

hydroponic agriculture

the cultivation of crop plants under greenhouse conditions with their roots immersed in a nutrient rich solution, but no soil; additionally water not taken up by the plants can be reused, they produce more crops per hectare than traditional farms, they can grow crops under ideal conditions, grow the crops during every season of the year, and often grow the crops with little or no use of pesticides

pesticide treadmill

the cycle of pesticide development followed by pesticide resistance

fishery collapse

the decline of a fish population by 90% or more

eutrophication

the decomposition of wastewater, resulting in the addition of nitrogen and phosphorus, and thus an abundance of fertility to a body of water

aphotic zone (ocean)

the deeper layer of water that lacks sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis

Coriolis Effect

the deflection of an object's path due to Earth's rotation

urban blight

the degradation of the built and social environments of the city that often accompanies and accelerates migration to the suburbs

planned obsolescence

the design of a product so that it will need to be replaced within a few years

habitat loss

the destruction of habitats that usually results from human activities largest threat to biodiversity

net migration rate

the difference between immigration and emigration in a given year per 1,000 people in a country positive net migration means there is more immigration than emigration negative net migration means there is more emigration than immigration

note #65

the distance between a habitat and a source of colonizing species affects the species richness of communities example - oceanic islands that are more distant from continents generally have fewer species than islands that are closer to continents distance matters because many species can disperse short distances, but only a few can disperse long distances if two islands are the same size, the nearer island should accumulate more species than the farther island because it has a higher rate of immigration by new species this theory can be applied to "habitat islands" within continents

core

the innermost zone, over 3,000 km (1860 miles) below earth's surface, a dense mass largely made up of nickel and some iron, made up of inner core and outer core

air pollution

the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or microorganisms into the atmosphere at concentrations high enough to harm plants, animals, and materials such as buildings, or to alter ecosystems

reserve

the known quantity of the resource that can be economically recovered

poverty

the lack of resources that allow one access to food

biosphere

the largest and most complex system which incorporates all of Earth's ecosystems

thermosphere

the largest layer, features a rapidly increasing temperature, blocks harmful X-ray and UV radiation, contains charged gas molecules that, when hit by solar energy, begin to glow and produce light (northern lights or aurora borealis and southern lights or aurora australis)

troposphere

the layer closest to Earth's surface, extends roughly 10 miles above Earth, it is the densest layer of the atmosphere, most of the atmosphere's nitrogen, oxygen, and water vapor occur in this layer, the layer where Earth's weather occurs, air temperature decreases with distance from Earth's surface

LD50

the lethal dose that kills 50% of the individuals

note #55

the logistic growth model accounts for density-dependent factors such as food and water, but does not account for density-independent factors such as floods because they are unpredictable

time

the longer a habitat exists, the more colonization, speciation, and extinction can occur there

soils degradation

the loss of some or all of the ability of soils to support plant growth one of the main causes - soil erosion (topsoil loss)

note #132

the main components of acid deposition are sulfate and nitrate

urban impacts

the majority of people in developed countries live in urban areas developed countries employ city planning to some degree although urban areas produce greater amounts of solid waste, pollution, and carbon dioxide emissions than suburban or rural areas, they tend to have smaller per capital ecological footprints

saturation point

the maximum amount of water vapor that can be in the air at a given temperature

maximum sustainable yield (MSY)

the maximum amount that can be harvested without compromising the future availability of that resource

temperature

the measure of the average kinetic energy of a substance

physical weathering

the mechanical breakdown of rocks and minerals can be caused by water, wind, or variations in temperature such as seasonal freeze-thaw cycle

transportation

the movement of people and goods achieved primarily through the use of vehicles fueled by petroleum products, such as gasoline and diesel, and by electricity

hydrologic (water) cycle

the movement of water through the biosphere

benthic zone (lakes and ponds)

the muddy bottom of a lake or pond beneath the limnetic and/or profundal zones

crude birth rate (CBR)

the number of births per 1,000 individuals per year

child mortality rate

the number of deaths of children under age five per 1,000 live births

infant mortality rate

the number of deaths of children under one year of age per 1,000 live births

crude death rate (CDR)

the number of deaths per 1,000 individuals per year

population density

the number of individuals per unit area (or volume, in the case of aquatic organisms) at a given time

growth rate

the number of offspring an individual can produce in a given time period, minus the deaths of the individual or its offspring during the same period

atomic number

the number of protons in the nucleus of a particular element

N₀

the number of reproducing individuals that are currently in the population

species richness

the number of species in a given area such as a pond, the canopy of a tree, or a plot of grassland used to give an approximate sense of the biodiversity of a particular place

most common measure of biodiversity

the number of species in any given place

sample size (n)

the number of times a measurement is replicated

doubling time

the number of years it takes for a population to double, can be calculated if you know the growth rate of a population and assume that the growth rate is constant

furrow irrigation

the oldest form of irrigation, easy and inexpensive, involves a farmer digging furrows along the crop rows and filling them with water (65% efficient)

national wildlife refuges

the only federal public lands managed for the primary purpose of protecting wildlife

limnetic zone (lakes and ponds)

the open water, where rooted plants can no longer survive, phytoplankton are the only photosynthetic organisms, extends as deep as sunlight can penetrate

exosphere

the outmost layer extending outward into space

albedo

the percentage of incoming sunlight that is reflected from a surface

population momentum

the phenomenon which demonstrates how it takes time for actions that attempt to reduce births to catch up with a growing population

erosion

the physical removal of rock fragments (sediment, soil, rock, and other particles) from a landscape or ecosystem caused by wind, water, and ice transporting soil and other materials by downslope creep under the force of gravity and living organisms that burrow under the soil

epicenter

the point on earth's surface directly above the location where the rock ruptures

disadvantages of nuclear energy

the possibility of accidents, disposal of radioactive waste, unpopular, plants are expensive to build

ecological succession

the predictable replacement of one group of species by another group of species over time can occur over time spans from decades to centuries in terrestrial communities, ecological succession can be primary or secondary, depending on the starting point of the community

acid deposition formation

the primary pollutants sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are precursors to acid deposition after transformation to the secondary pollutants (sulfuric acid and nitric acid), dissociation occurs in the presence of water and the resulting ions (hydrogen, sulfate, and nitrate) cause the adverse ecosystem effects of acid deposition

note #127

the primary use of petroleum products is for transportation

macroevolution

the process by which genetic changes give rise to new species, genera, families, classes, or phyla (larger classes of organisms into which species are organized) among these many levels of macroevolution, the term speciation is restricted to the evolution of new species

recycle

the process by which materials destined to become MSW are collected and converted into raw materials that are then used to produce new objects

seafloor spreading

the process by which oceanic plates move apart, resulting in rising magma forming new oceanic crust on the seafloor at the boundaries between the plates

saltwater intrusion

the process by which rapid pumping of groundwater on coastlines results in the lowering of the water table, and thus less downward pressure, leading to salt water moving into an aquifer and contaminating it

deductive reasoning

the process of applying a general statement to specific facts or situations

incineration

the process of burning waste material to reduce their volume and mass and sometimes to generate electricity or heat

clear cutting

the process of cutting down all the trees in an area at once

placer mining

the process of looking for metals and precious stones in river sediments

inductive reasoning

the process of making general statements from specific facts or examples

genetic engineering

the process of manipulating or altering the genetic material of a cell resulting in desirable functions or outcomes that would not occur naturally.

subduction

the process of one plate passing under another (when a oceanic plate meets a continental plate, the heavier oceanic plate slides underneath the lighter continental plate)

organic agriculture

the production of crops without the use of synthetic pesticides or fertilizers can not use no till methods, pest control methods may use fossil fuels

ecological efficiency

the proportion of consumed energy that can be passed from one trophic level to another

entropy

the randomness that all systems move toward, rather than order; is always increasing in a system, unless new energy from outside the system is added to create order

realized niche

the range of abiotic and biotic conditions under which a species actually lives

resilience

the rate at which an ecosystem returns to its original state after a disturbance

power

the rate at which work is done

note #138

the ratio of carbon to nitrogen that will best support microbial activity (30:1)

population sex ratio

the ratio of males to females in a population in most sexually reproducing species, the sex ratio is usually close to 50:50

energy efficiency

the ratio of the amount of work that is done to the total amount of energy that is introduced into the system in the first place

note #110

the recent increase in global undernutrition is due in part to a decrease in government assistance for agricultural development in much of the developing world more recently it has been made worse by an increase in fuel prices and the global economic downturn

closed-loop recycling

the recycling of a product into the same product

symbiotic relationship

the relationship of two species that live in close association with each other

strip mining

the removal of strips of soil and rock to expose ore, used when the desired ore is relatively close to earth's surface and runs parallel to it, as is often the case for deposits of sedimentary materials such as coal and sand miners remove a large volume of material, extract the resource, and return the unwanted waste material to the hold created during the mining

dependent variable

the results

feedbacks

the results of a process feed back into they system to change the rate of that process

parent material

the rock material underlying the soil from which the soil's inorganic components are derived

note #82

the rock near the plate margins becomes fractured and deformed from the immense pressure exerted by plate movement; the rock along a fault is thus jagged and resists movement as the plates attempt to move, but eventually, the pressure overcomes the resistance and the plates give way, slipping quickly this is known as an earthquake

grains

the seed-like fruits of corn (maize), rice, wheat, and rye, among others

food chain

the sequence of consumption from producers through tertiary consumers

littoral zone (lakes and ponds)

the shallow area of soil and water near the shore where algae and emergent plants such as cattails grow; most photosynthesis occurs in this zone

weather

the short-term conditions of the atmosphere in a local area which include temperature, humidity, clouds, precipitation, wind speed, and atmospheric pressure

windward side

the side of a mountain facing the wind

leeward side

the side of a mountain on the other side of the windward side ;)

note #131

the six air pollutants in the Clean Air Act are called criteria air pollutants because the EPA must specify allowable concentrations of each pollutant although not one of the six air pollutants included in the Clean Air Act, carbon dioxide, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and mercury are notable air pollutants

atom

the smallest particle that can contain the chemical properties of an element

radioactive decay

the spontaneous release of material from the nucleus

note #134

the stratospheric ozone layer provides protection from ultraviolet solar radiation O₂ + UV-C → 2O O₂ + O → O₃ O₃ + UV-B or UV-C → O₂ + O

competition

the struggle of individuals to obtain a limiting resource (-/-)

toxicology

the study of chemical risks

population ecology

the study of factors that cause populations to increase or decrease

demography

the study of human populations and population trends

community ecology

the study of the interactions between species, which determine the survival of a species in a habitat

rock

the substance of the lithosphere, composed of one or more minerals

environment

the sum of all the conditions surrounding us that influence life

tectonic cycle

the sum of the processes that build up and break down the lithosphere

topography

the surface slope and arrangement of a landscape soils that form at the bottom of slopes are better than soils that form on slopes

tragedy of the commons

the tendency of a shared, limited resource to become depleted because people act from self-interest for short-term gain

half-life

the time it takes for one-half of the original radioactive parent atoms to decay

gross primary productivity (GPP)

the total amount of solar energy that the producers in an ecosystem capture via photosynthesis over a given amount of time

biomass

the total mass of all living matter in a specific area

population size (N)

the total number of individuals within a defined area at a given time

mass number

the total number of protons and neutrons in an element

Green Revolution

the transformation of the agricultural system in the twentieth century from a system of small farms relying mainly on human labor and with relatively low fossil fuel inputs to a system of large industrial operations with fewer people and much more machinery

leaching

the transportation of nitrogen through the soil by water

bycatch

the unintentional catch of nontarget species

Easter Island

the unsustainable use of natural resources on Easter Island appears to be the primary cause for the collapse of its civilization

mining spoils/tailings

the unwanted waste material from mining

photic zone (ocean)

the upper layer of water that receives enough sunlight to allow photosynthesis the aphotic zone has tube worms and organisms that generate their own light (bioluminescence) to help find food

water table

the uppermost level at which the water in a given area fully saturates the rock or soil

mechanization

the use of machines instead of humans leads to greater profits large agricultural operations generally outcompete small ones average farm size has increased large single-crop farms are more efficient

gross domestic product (GDP)

the value of all products and services produced in a year in that country; measure of a nation's wealth

instrumental values

the value that something has because it helps us to get or achieve some other thing

intrinsic values

the value that something has in itself

thermal inversion

the warm inversion layer traps emissions that can then accumulate beneath it, causing a severe pollution event

manure lagoons advantages

the waste can be used as fertilizer

wastewater

the water produced by human activities including human sewage from toilets and gray water from bathing and washing clothes and dishes

leachate

the water that leaches through the solid waste and removes various chemical compounds with which it comes into contact

routes of exposure

the ways in which an individual might come into contact with a chemical

note #28

the wind systems of the world are produced by a combination of atmospheric convection currents and the Coriolis Effect

note #117

the world has experienced five major extinctions during the past 500 million years

note #94

the world's three largest rivers, as measured by the volume of water they carry, are the Amazon in Souther America, the Congo in Africa, and the Yangtze in China

note #72

theory of demographic transition is helpful but there are exceptions as family income increases, people tend to have fewer children as the education levels of women increase and women earn incomes of their own, fertility generally decreases

note #133

there are greater smog concentrations at higher temperatures

regulation of GMOs

there are no regulations in the United Staes that mandate the labeling of GMOs

random distribution

there is no pattern to the locations in which individuals of a certain population are found example - forest

habitat size and distance from other communities

these two factors are the basis for the theory of island biogeography

glaciers

they are melting

polar ice caps

they are melting glaciers

Sustainable Fisheries Act (1996)

this act shifted fisheries management from a focus on economic sustainability to an increasingly conservation-minded, species-sustainabilty approach calls for the protection of critical marine habitats, which is important for both commercial fish species and nontarget species for many commercial species considered to be in danger, a "sustainable" fishery means no fishing until populations recover

ecologically sustainable forestry

this approach has a goal of maintaining all species (both plants and animals) in as close to a natural state as possible

subsistence energy sources

those gathered by individuals for their own immediate needs

commercial energy sources

those that are bought and sold

climate change

threats to biodiversity come from how it will affect patterns of temperature and precipitation in different regions of the world

pollution

threats to biodiversity come from pesticides, heavy metals, acids, oil spills, endocrine disruptors, algal blooms and dead zones, and thermal pollution

note #91

three groups of organisms account for 80-90% of the biological activity in soils - fungi, bacteria, and protozoans (certain singled-celled organisms)

USFS lands

timber harvesting, grazing, and recreation

incineration disadvantages

tipping fee that is higher than the tipping fee at a landfill produces ash that is more concentrated and thus more toxic than the original MSW are extremely expensive and require a lot of MSW to operate

note #108

to combat thermal pollution, heated water has been pumped into outdoor holding ponds where it can further cool before being pumped back into natural water bodies greatest problem in the summer a solution has been the construction of cooling towers that release the excess heat into the atmosphere instead of into the water

adaptations

traits that improve an individual's fitness

West Nile Virus

transmitted among birds by mosquitoes causes an inflammation of the brain

sewage treatment plant disadvantages

treatment plants can be overwhelmed

disadvantages of wind energy

turbine noise, deaths of birds and bats, geographically limited to windy areas near transmission lines, aesthetically displeasing to some, storage batteries required for off-grid systems

intercropping

two or more crop species are planted in the same field at the same time to promote a synergistic interaction between them

synergistic interactions

two risks together cause more harm than one would expect based on their individual risks

competitive exclusion principle

two species competing for the same limiting resource cannot coexist

resource partitioning

two species divide a resource based on differences in the species' behavior or morphology example - there are two bird species, species 1 and species 2 species 1 eats mostly small seeds, but some medium seeds species 2 eats mostly big seeds, but some medium seeds species 1 is the stronger competitor when individuals of species 2 compete with species 1 for medium seeds, individuals of species 2 experience poor survival and reproduction as a result, natural selection will favor those individuals of species 2 that do not compete for medium seeds with individuals from species 1 after several generations, species 2 evolves to reduce its overlap in seed size consumption with species 1 this process of resource partitioning reduces the amount of competition between the two species

true predators

typically kill their prey and consume most of what they kill example - lion

note #67

under ideal conditions, a species grows exponentially and is stopped when the carrying capacity is reached due to a limiting factor environmental scientists have different opinions on Earth's carrying capacity some scientists believe we have outgrown, or eventually will outgrow, the available supply of resources Thomas Malthus - human population growth is exponential, food supply is linear, eventually humans will reach the carrying capacity and growth will decline others believe humans can alter Earth's carrying capacity through innovation

Gause experiment

under low-food conditions, the populations of both species of paramecium grew rapidly at first, then reached a plateau with twice as much food, the populations of both species of paramecium grew twice as large, but still reached a plateau food was the limiting resource a lot of food and few individuals made for rapid growth, but then as food remained constant and the number of individuals increased, there came a point at which no more individuals could survive because there was not enough food for everyone, known as the carrying capacity

permafrost

underlying subsoil that is an impermeable, permanently frozen layer that prevents water from draining and roots from penetrating

note #135

until a society becomes relatively wealthy, it generates little waste after WWII and the rapid population growth that occurred in the United States, consumption patterns changed people began to purchase household conveniences that could be used and thrown away planned obsolescence "throw-away society"

chemosynthesis

used by some species of bacteria that can use the energy contained in the bonds of methane and hydrogen sulfide, which are both found in the deep ocean

geologic time scale

used to measure earth's history

fertilizers

used to replace lost organic matter and nutrients, contain essential nutrients for plants (primarily nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium), and foster plant growth when one or more of these nutrients are lacking synthetic fertilizers are designed for easy application, their nutrient content can be targeted to the needs of a particular crop or soil, plants can easily absorb them producing synthetic fertilizers uses fossil fuels, can runoff into nearby bodies of water and cause algae blooms

Richter scale

used to report the magnitude of an earthquake, a measure of the largest ground movement that occurs during an earthquake, logarithmic

subsurface mining

used when the desired resource is more than 100 m (328 feet) below earth's surface a tunnel is dug horizontally and then a vertical shaft with an elevator is established

drip irrigation

uses a slowly dripping hose that is either laid on the ground or buried beneath the soil, also reduces weed growth (95% efficient)

integrated pest management (IPM)

uses a variety of techniques (crop rotation, intercropping, use of pest-resistant crop varieties, creating habitats for predators of pests, and limited use of pesticides) designed to minimize pesticide inputs

concentrating solar thermal (CST) systems

uses mirrors or lenses to collect sunlight

integrated waste management

using several waste reduction, management, and disposal strategies in order to reduce the environmental impact of MSW

bogs (freshwater wetlands)

very acidic wetlands that typically contain sphagnum moss and spruce trees

age structure diagrams

visual representations of age structure within a country for males and females

natural sources of greenhouse gases

volcanic eruptions, decomposition, digestion, denitrification, evaporation, and evapotranspiration

water vapor capacity

warm air has a higher capacity for water vapor than cold air hot summer days are associated with high humidity when the temperature of air falls, its saturation point decreases, water vapor condenses into liquid water, clouds form, and precipitation occurs

marshes (freshwater wetlands)

wetlands that contain primarily nonwoody vegetation, including cattails and sedges

independent variable

what you are testing

cultural eutrophication

when a body of water experiences an increase in fertility due to anthropogenic inputs of nutrients

coral reefs

warm shallow waters beyond the shoreline most diverse marine biome corals are tiny animals that secrete a layer of limestone to form an external skeleton the animal living inside is a hollow tube with tentacles that draw in plankton and detritus water is relatively low in nutrients and food single-celled algae live in the tissues of corals, when corals eat they release carbon dioxide which is used by the algae to photosynthesize, and the sugar that is created can be eaten by corals therefore, corals must live in shallow water that can be penetrated by light live in vast colonies coral die and leave behind skeleton which create vast colonies Great Barrier Reef in Australia facing challenges such as pollutants and sediments

tropical seasonal forest/savanna

warm temperatures, distinct wet and dry seasons, tress drop their leaves during the dry season to survive the drought, also called tropical deciduous forests Central America, Atlantic coast of South America, southern Asia, northwestern Australia, sub-Saharan Africa areas with the longest dry seasons have savannas, or relatively open landscapes with grasses and scattered trees grasses, shrubs, trees, acacia, baobab good decomposition, fertile soil agriculture and grazing

grey water

waste water generated from processes such as washing dishes, bathing, and laundry which can be reused

reclaimed water

wastewater that has been treated and purified for reuse

note #7

water boils at 100C or 212F water freezes at 0C or 32F water expands when it freezes water = universal solvent

terminal lake

water flows into it but does not flow out

springs

water from some aquifers that naturally percolates up to the ground surface

note #93

water in an unconfined aquifer is much younger than water in a confined aquifer water in an unconfined aquifer has a greater chance of being polluted the largest aquifer in the United States is the Ogallala aquifer

Mono Lake

water moves through the desert and deposits salt in the lake water evaporates and minerals are left behind really high salt concentration, very few species can tolerate these conditions such as Mono Brine Shrimp Los Angeles redirected water that would go to the lake, ecosystem suffered, environmentalists were able to convince Los Angeles to reduce the water diverted from the lake

veins

water running through fractures may dissolve valuable metals, which may precipitate out in the fractures to form concentrated deposits

runoff

water that flows across the land into lakes, streams, and rivers

water vapor

water vapor is the most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere and the greatest natural contributor to global warming

note #106

ways to remediate oil pollution for contaminated mammals and waterfowl, clean by hand oil spilled in the ocean can either float on the surface or remain far below in the form of underwater plumes on the surface - contain within an area and suck it off the surface, apply chemicals to break up the oil, or use genetically engineered bacteria to contain surface oil, you lay out oil containment booms that consist of plastic barriers floating on the surface of the water and extending down into the water for several meters the chemicals can harm marine life rare bacteria that naturally consume oil from natural seeps exist, we can use these genes in genetically engineered bacteria no agreed-upon method from removing underwater plumes debate over the best way to treat rocky coastlines after an oil spill used high-pressure hot water, but this removed organisms living on the rocks and the nutrients in the rocks, making it difficult for the organisms to come back

sixth mass extinction

we are currently experiencing it happening over a relatively short period of time first to occur since humans have been present on Earth caused by humans

note #47

we are currently experiencing the sixth global mass extinction the current mass extinction has human causes causes include habitat destruction, overharvesting, introduction of invasive species, climate change, and emerging diseases

note #116

we are currently in the sixth mass extinction all the causes are related to human activities (habitat destruction, overharvesting plants and animals) Yellowstone National Park was the first national park in the United States

note #68

we can view the human population as a system with inputs and outputs, like all biological systems inputs are births and immigration outputs are deaths and emigration growth rate is positive when inputs are greater than outputs growth rate is negative when outputs are greater than inputs

note #37

we do not know how many species are on Earth to date, scientists have named approximately 2 million species the insect group contains more species than most other groups current estimates for the total number of species on Earth range from 5 million to 100 million, but most scientists estimate that there are about 10 million species since species are not uniformly distributed, the number of species on Earth is not a useful indicator of local or regional species diversity

note #2

we use science and technology to increase the amount of food we can produce world grain production has increased fairly steadily since 1950 as a result at the same time, worldwide production of grain per capita has leveled off since about 1985 why food shortages? climate conditions, quality of land, soil degradation, crop diseases, demand outpacing supply, food going to livestock, and government policies

note #5

weight and mass are different weight - the force that results from the action of gravity on mass weight changes based on if you are on the moon or on Earth, but your mass does not change because no matter where you are, the amount of matter in you does not change

artesian well

well that goes into a confined aquifer, some confined aquifers are under tremendous pressure because of the impermeable layer so drilling a hole through this layer can release the pressure and in some cases cause the water to rise up through the well to the surface, therefore not requiring a pump

note #150

when assessing the risk of different environmental hazards, regulatory agencies, environmental scientists, and policy makers follow three steps... risk assessment, risk acceptance, risk management

second law of thermodynamics

when energy is transformed, the quantity of energy remains the same, but its ability to do work diminishes example - car burns gasoline, releases heat but the heat is not used

note #84

when granitic rock breaks down due to weathering, it from sand soils that develop from granitic rock tend to be more permeable than those that develop from basaltic rock, but both types of rock can form fertile soil

evolution by artificial selection

when humans determine which individuals breed, typically with a preconceived set of traits in mind examples of the negative impacts of artificial selection - herbicide-resistant weeds, drug-resistant bacteria

steady state

when inputs equal outputs, so that the system is not changing over time

landfills 2.0

when landfills are not aerated properly, they create a low-oxygen environment, like wetlands, in which decomposition causes the production of methane as a by-product

malnourished

when regardless of the number of calories a person consumes, his or her diet lacks the correct balance of proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals

fracture

when rock cools, it is subject to stress that causes it to break

growing season

when the temperature is warm enough for plants to grow, or the months when it is above 32F

reproductive isolation

when two populations become so different that even if the physical barrier were removed, they could no longer interbreed and produce viable offspring

spatial resource partitioning

when two species reduce competition by using different habitats example - desert plants compete for water and soil nutrients; black grama grass has shallow roots that extend over a large area while tarbush has roots deep in the ground

temporal resource partitioning

when two species reduce competition by utilizing the same resource but at different times example - wolves and coyotes hunt at different times of the day

morphological resource partitioning

when two species reduce competition through the evolution of differences in body size or shape example - Darwin's finches, finches evolved morphologically to eat different things to reduce competition for food

cone of depression

when water is being rapidly withdrawn from a well, the water table adjacent to this well is lowered the most, creating an area where there is no longer any groundwater

note #124

while coal, oil, and natural gas are primary sources of energy, electricity is a secondary source of energy, meaning that we obtain it from the conversion of a primary source electricity is an energy carrier

FWS lands

wildlife conservation, hunting, and recreation

precipitation patterns

will be altered

storm intensity

will increase

time 2.0

young soils are not great old soils are good too old soils have had their nutrients leached out of them and are not so great