APK Final

What are the structural classifications of joints?

**Based on the presence or absence of a synovial cavity AND the type of connective tissue binding the bones together Fibrous Joints: NO synovial cavity, bones held together by dense collagen fibers Cartilaginous Joints: NO synovial cavity, bones held together by some type of cartilage (either hyaline or fibril) Synovial Joints: Synovial cavity, bones held together by dense collagen fibers forming ligaments

What is an articulation?

-A joint; where the rigid elements of the skeleton meet

Components of a synovial joint

-Synovial cavity -Synovial capsule: sleeve-like capsule enclosing the synovial cavity -Two layers: Fibrous layer (outer layer): continuous with periosteum; made of dense irregular connective tissue proper; gives the joint strength and the ability to resist pressure Synovial membrane (inner layer): made of loose connective tissue proper; secretes synovial fluid **Highly vascular -Synovium (aka synovial fluid): viscous fluid secreted by synovial membrane; located in joint cavity and articular cartilages ~Function: reduce friction between bones and nourish joint cartilage -Articular disc: space made of fibrocartilage in between synovial membranes ~Function: shock absorption, enhancing fit of joint -Reinforcing ligaments: band like ligaments that strengthen the joint

Hierarchy of structural organization in the body

1) Chemical Level. Atoms make up Molecules 2) Cellular Level. Organelles makeup Cells 3) Tissue Level. Similar types of Cells make up Tissues. 4) Organ Level. Different types of Tissue make up Organs. 5) Organ System Level. Different Organs with similar functions work together in an Organ System. 6)Organismal Level. Many Organ Systems make up an individual, the Organism.

The meninges

3 connective tissue sheaths that surround the brain and spinal cord Dura mater - most external and toughest Arachnoid mater - weblike middle layer Pia mater - deepest meninx, richly vascularized with fine blood vessels

Nervous tissue

A body tissue that carries electrical messages back and forth between the brain and every other part of the body.

Muscle tissue

A body tissue that contracts or shortens, making body parts move.

Epithelial tissue

A body tissue that covers outside of the body and lines organs and cavities.

Connective tissue

A body tissue that provides support for the body and connects all of its parts

What is myelin?

A multi-layered lipro protein sheath.

What is a tendon?

A tendon connects muscle to bones. It dense regular connective tissue proper interacts with the dense irregular connective tissue proper of the above periosteum.

Anatomical positions and terminology

Anatomical position: The body is standing, the head is forward, the feet are facing forward in neutral position, the palms are facing outwards. Palms are intentionally turned forwards so that we are able to describe body parts relative to one another.

Types of membrane junctions and their functional differences: Desmosomes

Anchoring junctions.They bind adjacent cells together and help form an internal tension-reducing network of fibers. Desmosomes are abundant in tissues subjected to great mechanical stress, such as skin and heart muscle.

What organs make up the skeletal system?

Bones, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons

What are the smallest living units in our bodies?

Cells are the smallest living units in the body.

Cilia vs. flagella vs. microvilli

Cilia wave rhythmically to move dirt and mucus out. Flagella are found on some bacteria and allow them to swim. microvilli are found in the small intestine, and increase the surface area for nutrient absorption.

Describe the fiber types found in CT

Collagen Fibers- largest diameter (rope-like structures), strongest, function: tensile strength Elastic Fibers- Intermediate diameter (long, thin fibers), branches from networks, function: Recoil Reticular Fibers- Smallest diameter, special collagen fibrils, cluster into networks, function: Support

Types of membrane junctions and their functional differences: Gap Junctions

Communicating junctions allow ions and small molecules to pass from one cell to the next for intercellular communications

Trabecular vs. compact bone (differences in microscopic anatomy and locations)

Compact Bone- Dense outer layer Trabecular Bone- Internal, spongy bone tissue

What is the most abundant and diverse type of tissue?Connective Tissue

Connective Tissue

Properties of muscle tissue

Contractility - muscle's ability to get shorter and thicker Excitability - muscles ability to produce electric signals in response to a stimulus require an electrical signal Extensibility - muscle's ability to stretch without damage Elasticity - muscle's ability to recoil, go back to normal shape after distention

Define origin and insertion

Contraction of bones cause one bone to move while the other remains fixed Origin - immovable bone Insertion - movable bone

What are spinal vs. cranial nerves?

Cranial nerves: 12 pairs (24 total) attached/associated with the brain each nerve is either sensory, motor, or both. Spinal nerves: 31 pairs (62 total) named according to associated spinal cord segment; C1-C7 nerves run above C1-C7 vertebrae accordingly, then C8 nerve runs above T1, so the rest of the spinal nerves (T2-S5) run under each of the vertebrae.

Which parts of the integumentary system are vascularized?

Dermis and Hypodermis

Functional difference between dorsal and ventral roots, spinal nerves, and rami

Dorsal roots are sensory Ventral roots are motor Rami are both motor and sensory Spinal nerves - 31 pairs (PNS structures) attach to the spinal cord through dorsal and ventral nerve roots; they are named based on the vertebral location they lie in

Organization of the spinal nerves (roots, spinal nerves, rami, plexuses)

Each spinal nerve is attached to the spinal cord by a ventral root (motor axons) and a dorsal root (sensory axons) (the axons traveling in the roots meet to form the nerve. Spinal nerves split into branches of called rami; the dorsal rami continues to innervate the skin and muscles of the back, while the ventral rami (besides T2-T12) branch and join each other to form network of axons called plexuses

Gross anatomy of a nerve (epi, peri, endo)

Endoneurium - loose connective tissue that covers the Schwann cells Perineurium - sheath of connective tissue surrounding the fascicle Epineurium - tough fibrous sheath that surrounds the entire nerve

General type of tissue associated with epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis

Epidermis- Keratinized Stratified squamous epithelium Dermis- Connective Tissue Hypodermis- Adipose loose CT proper

Know all the layers of the skin

Epidermis- Most superficial layer of the skin. Avascular, keratinized stratified squamous epithelium Dermis- The middle layer. Mostly connective tissue (very tough). Other structures in the dermis include blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves. Hypodermis- Subcutaneous layer of the skin. NOT considered part of the skin. Consists mostly of adipose loose CT proper, varies in thickness, protects underlying structures, insulates and stores energy. Contains large blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerves whose branches extend into the dermis

CT components of a skeletal muscle (epi, peri, endo)

Epimysium - outermost connective tissue sheath surrounding skeletal muscle Perimysium - connective tissue surrounding fascicles- bundles that consists of 10 or more myocytes Endomysium - connective tissue found within fascicle surrounding sarcolemma surrounding individual myocyte

Epiphyseal plate vs. line

Epiphyseal plate is a hyaline cartilage plate in the metaphysis at each end of a long bone found in children's bones. Epiphyseal line is a line at the end of long bones that are found in adults. The line replaces the epiphyseal plate

4 basic tissue types and their one-word functions

Epithelial tissue: Covering Connective tissue: Support Muscle tissue: Movement Nervous tissue: Control

What is the general arrangement of all types of CT? (Hint: how is CT diff from epithelium or muscle?)

Few cells, lots of extracellular matrix

General structure of the plasma membrane - fluid mosaic model

Fluid: it's a very movable, pliable, dynamic type of structure. Mosaic: lots of little pieces that make up the big picture. There is a two-layer sea of lipids (the fluid part) with a mosaic of proteins embedded in those lipids. The tail ends of the phospholipid molecules are the squiggly parts and the head ends are the round balls. These phospholipids make up a "sea of lipids" which contains proteins and other kinds of lipids embedded in the layers.

General functions of the major organelles: Cytoskeleton

Functions like the bones, muscles, and ligaments do in an organism as well as supporting the cell's shape and producing movement

Be able to name all types of epithelium based on descriptions: Stratified Cuboidal

Generally two layers of cubelike cells

General familiarity with the major landmarks

Head Frontal bone - Find the two or more round edges in the forehead. Asian have them closer together then westerners Temporal line Nasal Zygomatic Mandible. More corned by male Clavicle Font Body Acromion process Sternum Ribs, Costal Cartilage Iliac crest ASIS Pubic bone Backside body 7Th Cervical Vertebra Medial Border of Scapula Spine of Scapula PSIS Sacrum Tailbone Arms and hands Olecranon Medial Epicondyle of the Humerus Ulna Furrow Styloid Process of Ulna Styloid of process Radius Phalanges Legs Greater Trochanter Medial Epicondyle of Femur Lateral Epicondyle Medial condyle of Tibia Medial Malleolus Lateral Malleolus Head of Fibula Foot Phalanges Calcaneus 5th Metatarsal

Special features of epithelium

High cellularity, Special contacts, Polarity (apical surface, Basal surface), Support by connective tissue (basement membrane), Avascular, nervous innervation, and Regeneration.

Types of membrane junctions and their functional differences: Tight Junctions

Impermeable junctions prevent molecules from passing through the intercellular space (epithelial cells). Example: tight junctions between epithelial cells lining the digestive tract keep digestive enzymes and microorganisms in the intestine from leaking into the bloodstream

General functions of the major organelles: Nucleus

It is the main controlling organelle which dictates what goes on inside the rest of the cell.

Type of cells hair and nails are made of

Keratinocytes

Classification of bones

Long bones, Short bones, Flat bones, Irregular bones (vertebrae)

General functions of the major organelles: Lysosomes

Lysosomes are a specific type of membrane bound organelle that contains hydrolase enzymes (digestive enzymes) which break things like bacteria, macromolecules, etc. down.

Myofibrils and protein components - including arrangement into sarcomeres

Myofibrils are contractile organelles extending the length of the entire fiber consisting of Contractile Proteins muscles pulling force containing myofilaments made of Thin Filaments - Actin molecules strung together in a double helix twisted that have a myosin binding site Thick Filaments - Myosin molecules that are long globular proteins with two heads that stick out form myosin filaments and interact with actin during muscle contraction. Sarcomere - basic repeating unit of a myofibril, smallest unit of the whole skeletal muscle, formed by overlapping thin and thick filaments Regulatory Proteins tell contractile proteins to contract or not Tropomyosin covers actin monomers, blocking myosin binding sites Troponin attaches to tropomyosin after calcium binds to it and initiates a muscle contraction Structural Proteins hold everything together Titin very elastic and helpful in anchoring thick myosin filaments to the Z-discs and the end of the sarcomere Dystrophin attaches myofibrils to the sarcolemma, without it cells would get shorter

Nerve vs. tract and nucleus vs. ganglia

Nerve - a collection of axons in the PNS Tract - a collection of axons in the CNS Nucleus - collection of neuron cell bodies in the CNS Ganglia - areas where the cell bodies of neurons are clustered and lie along the nerves in the PNS

Neuromuscular junction components

Neuromuscular Junction - location of interaction between an axon terminal of a somatic motor neuron and a muscle Axon terminals or Terminal Boutons projections of myelinated axons at the end that are separated from sarcolemma by synaptic cleft Motor End Plates at site of synapse have kinky borders of junctional folds that function to increase surface area in order to house more receptors for neurotransmitters

Is the hypodermis part of skin?

No, it is not considered part of the skin.

3 main structural components of ANY cell

Nucleus, Cytoplasm, Plasma Membrane

Oligodendricytes vs. Schwann cells

Oligodendrocytes are a type of neuroglia found in the CNS, they line up in small groups and wrap themselves around thicker axons in the CNS and producing insulating coverings called myelin sheaths. Schwann cells are a type of neuroglia found in the PNS, they surround all axons in the PNS and form myelin sheaths around many of those axons.

Periosteum vs. endosteum

Periosteum- thick membrane that covers external bone surface. Not present at sites, covered by articular cartilage. 2 layers: Superficial layer- dense irregular CT and Deep layer- osteogenic. Sharpey's fibers attach the periosteum to the bone tissue. Endosteum-Thin osteogenic membrane that covers/laines the internal bone surfaces. Locations: central canal of osteons. Covering all spongy bone trabeculae (medullary cavity, epiphysis of long bones, inside short, irregular, and flat bones)

Movements that occur at synovial joints (EX: flexion, extension, abduction, etc.)

Planar Joints: gliding movement Hinge Joints: flexion/extension (unaxial) Pivot Joints: rotational movement Condylar Joints: flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, circumduction Saddle Joints: abduction/adduction AND flexion/extension Ball and Socket Joints: abduction/adduction, flexion/extension, circumduction, medial/lateral rotation

Five components of the reflex arc

Receptor - site where the stimulus acts Sensory neuron - transmits the afferent impulses to the CNS Integration center - consists of one or more synapses in the gray matter of the CNS Motor neuron - conducts efferent impulses from the integration center to an effector Effector - muscle or gland cell that responds to the efferent impulses by contracting or secreting

General functions of the major organelles: Peroxisomes

Removes toxic wastes by using special enzymes, oxidase and catalase

General functions of the major organelles: Ribosomes

Ribosomes make important proteins and some ribosomes, that are on the rough endoplasmic reticulum, are either secreted from the cell as a chemical messenger or they're incorporated into the plasma membrane.

Define rostral and caudal

Rostral - higher or more anterior regions toward the brain (toward the snout) in the CNS Caudal - the inferior or more posterior parts of the CNS (toward the tail)

General functions of the major organelles: Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Rough ER ‐protein synthesis. It is an outward projection of the nucleus. Smooth ER - making or breaking down fats AND calcium storage

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

Saclike membrane adjacent to T-tubules that functions primarily to store calcium which causes a conformational change in tropomyosin upon binding to troponin, uncovering myosin binding sites on actin heads. Gets thicker near T-tubule area - terminal cisternae

Microscopic anatomy of a skeletal muscle: Sarcolemma and T-tubules

Sarcolemma - plasma membrane of skeletal muscle cell T-tubules - invagination of sarcolemma integral to signal transmission between sarcolemma and myofibrils

Sebaceous and sweat glands

Sebaceous Gland- located everywhere except the plantar and palmar regions. Duct dumps into a hair follicle Sweat glands: Eccrine Sweat gland- palms, soles, forehead. 'True' sweat. Duct opens directly onto skin surface Apocrine Sweat gland- axillary, anal, and genital areas only. Duct opens to hair follicle. Milky 'sweat'.

Be able to name all types of epithelium based on descriptions: Stratified Columnar

Several cell layers basal cells usually cuboidal superficial cells elongated and columnar

General hair anatomy

Shaft Root Hair Matrix

Be able to name all types of epithelium based on descriptions: Pseudostratified Columnar

Single layer of cells of differing heights

Be able to name all types of epithelium based on descriptions: Simple Cuboidal

Single layer of cubelike cells with large, spherical central nuclei

Be able to name all types of epithelium based on descriptions: Simple Squamous

Single layer of flat cells with disc-shaped central nuclei

Be able to name all types of epithelium based on descriptions: Simple Columnar

Single layer of tall cells with round oval nuclei

Types and differences between muscle tissues

Skeletal Muscle- body- In skeletal muscles attached to bones of occasionally to skin **voluntary control Cardiac Muscle- blood- the walls of the heart Smooth Muscle-lots of stuff- mostly in the walls of the hollow organs

Which muscles have voluntary and/or involuntary control?

Skeletal voluntary movement Cardiac involuntary muscle only in heart Smooth involuntary walls of hollow organs

What are the functional classifications of joints?

Synarthroses: No movement Amphiarthrosis: Slight movement Diarthroses: Free movement

General functions of the major organelles: Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi Apparatus further enhances proteins that are coming from the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

Define "extracellular matrix"

The extracellular matrix is the non-cellular portion of a tissue. It is a collection of extracellular material produced and secreted by cells into the surrounding medium

General functions of the major organelles: Mitochondria

The mitochondria are the powerhouse of the cell because they make the energy of the cell, the adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Why is skin considered an organ?

The skin is considered an organ because it contains several types of tissues and a membrane and it covers the body.

Gross anatomy of the spinal cord (grey vs. white matter arrangement, names of horns and columns)

The spinal cord functions in three ways: Through the spinal nerves that attach to it, the spinal cord is involved in the sensory and motor innervation of the entire body inferior to the head. Through the ascending and descending tracts traveling within its white matter, the spinal cord provides a two-way conduction pathway for signals between the body and the brain. Through sensory and motor integration in its gray matter, the spinal cord is a major center for reflexes

Body planes and sections

The transverse plane is also called the horizontal plane. It separates a body into superior and inferior portions. Cross section! The frontal plane is also called the coronal plane. It separates and creates an anterior and posterior side of the body. The median plane is also called the sagittal plane. It divides something into a right and a left half. Midsagittal: divides the body into equal left and right halves. Parasagittal: divides the body into unequal left and right halves. The oblique plane cuts something at an angle and is looked at generally in a time of trauma.

General functions of the major organelles: Centriole

These "sprout" the microtubules. They also play a large part in cellular division.

Be able to name all types of epithelium based on descriptions: Stratified Squamous

Thick membrane composed of several cell layers; basal cells are cuboidal or columnar and metabolically active; surface cells are flattened squamous

Define "tissue"

Tissue is a group of cells, in close proximity, organized to perform one or more specific functions. There are four basic tissue types: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue.

If given a muscle name, be able to identify the limb compartment or general location of the body where you would find that muscle Based on conventions of origins and insertions, be able to predict the action a muscle will have at a joint

Upper Limb Compartments Anterior Brachial Compartment: FLEXION Biceps Brachii: shoulder and elbow flexion Coracobrachialis: shoulder flexion Bracialis: elbow flexion **Musculocutaneous Nerve Posterior Brachial Compartment: EXTENSION Triceps Brachii: shoulder and elbow extension Anconeus: synergist to triceps **Radial Nerve Anterior Antebrachial Compartment: FLEXION **Median/ Ulnar Nerves Posterior Antebrachial Compartment: EXTENSION and Supination/Pronation **Radial Nerve Lower Limb Compartments Anterior Thigh Compartment Quadriceps Femoris: HIP FLEXION AND KNEE EXTENSION **Femoral Nerve Posterior Thigh Compartment: HIP EXTENSION AND KNEE FLEXION Hamstrings Semitendinosus Semimembranosus **Tibial Nerve Medial Thigh Compartment: ADDUCTORS **Obturator Nerve Anterior Leg Compartment: ANKLE AND FOOT FLEXION Tibialis Anterior: ANKLE FLEXION Extensor Hallucis Longus: ANKLE AND BIG TOE FLEXION Extensor Digitorum Longus: ANKLE AND DIGIT FLEXION **Deep fibular nerve Lateral Leg Compartment: EVERSION OF FOOT Fibularis Longus Fibularis Brevis **Superficial Fibular Nerve Posterior Leg Compartment: FLEXION Gastrocnemius: KNEE AND ANKLE FLEXION Solaris: ANKLE FLEXION Tibialis Posterior: ANKLE FLEXION Flexor Digitorum Longus Flexor Hallucis Longus **Tibial Nerve

Define white matter and grey matter

White matter - white substance of CNS; contains fiber tracts of myelinated and nonmyelinated axons and neuroglia Gray matter - gray area that surrounds the hollow central cavity of the CNS (butterfly-shaped region); contains short nonmyelinated interneurons, cell bodies of interneurons and motor neurons and neuroglia

Define afferent vs. efferent

afferent - travelling towards CNS, afferent neurons are sensory neurons; efferent - travelling away from CNS; efferent neurons are motor neurons

Anatomy of a multipolar neuron

have more than two processes, usually have numerous dendrites and a single axon; some multipolar neurons have no axon and rely strictly on their dendrites for conducting signals; over 99% of neurons in the body are multipolar.

What are the general effectors of the nervous system?

muscles or glands