Applied Behavior Analysis (Cooper)

experiment

a controlled comparison of some measure of phenomena of interest (the DV) under two or more different conditions in which only one factor at a time (the IV) differs from one condition to another.

Fixed Interval (FI)

a schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement is delivered for the first response emitted following the passage of a fixed duration of time since the last response was reinforced

Fixed Ratio (FR)

a schedule of reinforcement requiring a fixed number of responses for reinforcement

clicker training

a science-based system for progressively shaping new behavior using positive reinforcement and extinction

antecedent stimulus class

a set of stimuli that share a common relationship; they will all evoke the same operant response class or elicit the same respondent behavior

count

a simple tally of the number of occurrences of a behavior

direct measurement

occurs when the behavior measured is exact the same as the behavior that is the focus of the investigation or behavior change program

indirect measurement

occurs when the researcher or practitioner measures a proxy, or stand-in, for the actual behavior of interest.

generalized imitation

often sued when a learner imitates a wide variety of unprompted, untrained, non-reinforced modeled behaviors in different settings and situations

accuracy

refers to the extent to which the observed value (i.e. the quantitative labels produced by measuring an event) match the true value of the event

magnitude

refers to the force or intensity of a response

Environment

refers to the full set of physical circumstances in which the organism exists

experimental design

refers to the particular arrangement of conditions in a study so that meaningful comparisons of the effects of the presence, absence, or different values of the IV can be made

operant conditioning

refers to the process and selective effects of consequences on behavior; "in operant conditioning we 'strengthen' an operant in the sense of making a response more probable or, in actual fact, more frequent" (Skinner, 1953)

baseline

serves as a control condition; baseline does not necessarily mean the absence of instruction or treatment, only the absence of the IV of experimental interest

functionally equivalent

serving the same function or purpose; different topographies of behavior are functionally equivalent if they produce the same consequences

Applied

signals ABA's commitment to effecting improvements in behaviors that enhance and improve people's lives; Behaviors must be significant for participants

condition labels

single words or brief descriptive phrases printed along the top of the graph and parallel to the horizontal axis

Steady state responding

"a pattern of responding that exhibits relatively little variation in its measured dimensional quantities over a period of time"

stimulus

"an energy change that affects an organism through its receptor cells"

parametric

"does more or less of the intervention work better?"

comparative

"does one intervention work better than another?"

component

"how effective is the intervention when various components are added or subtracted?"

demonstration

"to what extent will this intervention work?"

contingency contract

(also called a behavioral contract) is a document that specifies a contingent relationship between the completion of a target behavior and access to, or delivery of, a specified reward

self-monitoring

(also called self-recording or self-observation) is a procedure whereby a person systematically observes his behavior and records the occurrence or nonoccurrence of a target behavior

Multielement design

(alternating treatment design) an experimentally sound and effective method for comparing the effects of two or more treatments; Characterized by the rapid alternation of two or more distinct treatments (i.e. the IV) while their effects on the target behavior (i.e. the DV) are measured; Can be used to compare one or more treatments to a no-treatment or baseline condition

Repeatability

(countability) instances of a behavior can occur repeatedly through time (the behavior can be counted)

type 2 error

(false negative) is made when the researcher concludes that an IV did not have an effect on the DV, when in truth it did

Type 1 error

(false positive) is made when the researcher concludes that the IV had an effect on the DV, when in truth no such relation exists in nature

stimulus blocking

(sometimes called masking) even though one stimulus has acquired stimulus control over behavior, a competing stimulus can block the evocative function of that stimulus

self-contract

a contingency contract that a person makes with himself, incorporating a self-selected task and reward as well as personal monitoring of task completion and self-delivery of the reward

socially mediated contingency

a contingency in which an antecedent stimulus and/or the consequence for the behavior is presented by another person

treatment drift

occurs when the application of the IV differs from the way it was applied at the study's onset.

Treatment Integrity

refers to the extent to which the IV is implemented as planned

vertical axes

y-axis (ordinate); most often represents a range of values of the DV

sequence effects

the effects on a subjects behavior in a given condition that are influenced by the subjects experience with a prior condition

analytic

the experimenter must be able to control the occurrence and nonoccurrence of the behavior

variable-momentary DRO (VM-DRO)

1) establish a random sequence of varied interval of time, 2) deliver reinforcement at the end of each interval if the problem behavior is not occurring at that precise moment

variable-interval DRO (VI-DRO)

1) establish a random sequence or varied intervals of time and 2) deliver reinforcement at the end of each interval if the problem behavior did not occur at any time during the interval

fixed-interval DRO (FI-DRO)

1) establish a standard interval of time, 2) deliver reinforcement at the end of the interval if the problem did not occur during the interval, and 2) upon any occurrence of the problem behavior, immediately reset the timer to begin a new interval

fixed-momentary DRO (FM-DRO)

1) establish a standard interval of time; 2) observe the participant at the moment each interval ends; 3) deliver reinforcement at the end of each interval if the problem behavior is not occurring at that moment; Generally have been ineffective as treatment for problem behavior

behavior traps

1) they are "baited" with virtually irresistible reinforcers that "lure" the student to the trap, 2) only a low-effort response already in the student's repertoire is necessary to enter the trap, 3) interrelated contingencies of reinforcement inside the rap motivate the student to acquire, extend, and maintain targeted academic and/or social skills, 4) they can remain effective for a long time because students show few, if any, satiation effects

multiple schedule (mult)

A compound schedule of reinforcement consisting of two or more basic schedules of reinforcement (elements) that occur in an alternating, usually random, sequence; a discriminative stimulus is correlated with the presence or absence of each element of the schedule, and reinforcement is delivered for meeting the response requirements of the element in effect at any time.

free-operant avoidance

A contingency in which responses at any time during an interval prior to the scheduled onset of an aversive stimulus delays the presentation of the aversive stimulus.

behavior chain with a limited hold

A contingency that specifies a time interval by which a behavior chain must be completed for reinforcement to be delivered.

response deprivation hypothesis

A model for predicting whether contingent access to one behavior will function as reinforcement for engaging in another behavior based on whether access to the contingent behavior represents a restriction of the activity compared to the baseline level of engagement.

Abolishing Operation (AO)

A motivating operation that decreases the reinforcing effectiveness of a stimulus, object, or event. For example, the reinforcing effectiveness of food is abolished as a result of food ingestion.

Establishing Operation (EO)

A motivating operation that establishes (increases) the effectiveness of some stimulus, object, or event as a reinforcer. For example, food deprivation establishes food as an effective reinforcer.

Establishing Operation (EO)

A motivating operation that increases the effectiveness of some stimulus, object, or event as a reinforcer. For example, food deprivation makes food an effective reinforcer.

conditioned motivating operation (CMO)

A motivating operation whose value-altering effect depends on a learning history. For example, because of the relation between locked doors and keys, having to open a locked door is a CMO that makes keys more effective as reinforcers, and evokes behavior that has obtained such keys.

unconditioned motivating operation (UMO)

A motivating operation whose value-altering effect does not depend on a learning history. For example, food deprivation increases the reinforcing effectiveness of food without the necessity of any learning history.

conditioned punisher

A previously neutral stimulus change that functions as a punisher because of prior pairing with one or more other punishers.

Premack Principle

A principle that states that making the opportunity to engage in a high-probability behavior contingent on the occurrence of a low-frequency behavior will function as reinforcement for the low-frequency behavior.

Planned ignoring

A procedure for implementing time-out in which social reinforcers - usually attention, physical contact, and verbal interaction - are withheld for a brief period contingent on the occurrence of the target behavior.

exclusion time-out

A procedure for implementing time-out in which, contingent on the occurrence of a target behavior, the person is removed physically from the current environment for a specified period.

nonexclusion time-out

A procedure for implementing time-out in which, contingent on the occurrence of the target behavior, the person remains within the setting, but does not have access to reinforcement, for a specified period.

response blocking

A procedure in which the therapist physically intervenes as soon as the learner begins to emit a problem behavior to prevent completion of the targeted behavior.

function-altering effect

A relatively permanent change in an organism's repertoire of MO, stimulus, and response relations, caused by reinforcement, punishment, an extinction procedure, or a recovery from punishment procedure.

Variable Ratio (VR)

A schedule of reinforcement requiring a varying number of responses for reinforcement. The number of responses required varies around a random number; the mean number of responses required for reinforcement is used to describe the schedule (e.g., on a VR 10 schedule an average of 10 responses must be emitted for reinforcement, but the number of responses required following the last reinforced response might range from 1 to 30 or more).

Variable Interval (VI)

A schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement for the first correct response following the elapse of variable durations of time occurring in a random or unpredictable order. The mean duration of the intervals is used to describe the schedule (e.g., on a VI 10-minute schedule, reinforcement is delivered for the first response following an average of 10 minutes since the last reinforced response, but the time that elapses following the last reinforced response might range from 30 seconds or less to 25 minutes or more

behavior chain

A sequence of responses in which each response produces a stimulus change that functions as conditioned reinforcement for that response and as a discriminative stimulus for the next response in the chain; reinforcement for the last response in a chain maintains the reinforcing effectiveness of the stimulus changes produced by all previous responses in the chain.

Limited hold (LH)

A situation in which reinforcement is available only during a finite time following the elapse of an FI or VI interval; if the target response does not occur within the time limit, reinforcement is withheld and a new interval begins (e.g., on an FI 5-minute schedule with a limited hold of 30 seconds, the first correct response following the elapse of 5 minutes is reinforced only if that response occurs within 30 seconds after the end of the 5-minute interval).

unconditioned punisher

A stimulus change that decreases the frequency of any behavior that immediately precedes it irrespective of the organism's learning history with the stimulus.

Unconditioned Reinforcer

A stimulus change that increases the frequency of any behavior that immediately precedes it irrespective of the organism's learning history with the stimulus.

Discriminative Stimulus (SD)

A stimulus in the presence of which responses of some type have been reinforced and in the absence of which the same type of responses have occurred and not been reinforced; this history of differential reinforcement is the reason an SD increases the momentary frequency of the behavior.

Reflexive conditioned motivating operation

A stimulus that acquires MO effectiveness by preceding some form of worsening or improvement. It is exemplified by the warning stimulus in a typical escape-avoidance procedure, which establishes its own offset as reinforcement and evokes all behavior that has accomplished that offset; alters a relation to itself (makes its own removal effective as reinforcement)

surrogate conditioned motivating operation

A stimulus that acquires its MO effectiveness by being paired with another MO and has the same value-altering and behavior-altering effects as the MO with which it was paired.

stimulus preference assessment

A variety of procedures used to determine the stimuli that a person prefers, the relative preference values (high versus low) of those stimuli, the conditions under which those preference values remain in effect, and their presumed value as reinforcers.

single stimulus (SS) preference assessment

Also called a successive choice or single-stimulus engagement preference method, represents the most basic assessment available for determining preference; A stimulus is presented by a trained clinician and the person's reaction to, or engagement with, the stimulus is noted; Likely to identify multiple reinforcers, accommodates larger items and activities

value-altering effect (of a motivating operation)

An alteration in the reinforcing effectiveness of a stimulus, object, or event as a result of a motivating operation. For example, the reinforcing effectiveness of food is altered as a result of food deprivation and food ingestion.

Motivating Operation (MO)

An environmental variable that (a) alters (increases or decreases) the reinforcing effectiveness of some stimulus, object, or event; and (b) alters (increases or decreases) the current frequency of all behavior that have been reinforced by that stimulus, object, or event.

history of reinforcement

An inclusive term referring in general to all of a person's learning experiences and more specifically to past conditioning with respect to particular response classes or aspects of a person's repertoire.

ABC Continuous Recording

An observer records occurrences of the targeted behaviors and selected environmental events in the natural routine during a period of time; The occurrence of a specified event is marked on the data sheet (using partial interval, momentary time sampling or frequency recording); The targeted environmental events (antecedents and consequences) are recorded whenever they occur; +: use precise measures and in some cases the correlations may reflect causal relations

discriminated operant

An operant that occurs more frequently under some antecedent conditions than under others.

Seven Dimensions of ABA

Applied, Behavioral, Analytic, Technological, Conceptually Systematic, Effective, Generality

generalized behavior change

Baer, Wolf, and Risley included this as one of the seven defining characteristics of applied behavior analysis; a behavior change may be said to have generality if it proves durable over time, if it appears in a wide variety of possible environments, or if it spreads to a wide variety of related behaviors

Contingency-Shaped Behavior

Behavior acquired via immediate reinforcement contingencies.

paired stimulus (PS) preference assessment

Each trial in the paired-stimulus presentation method (forced choice method) consists of the simultaneous presentation of two stimuli; Each stimuli is matched randomly with all other stimuli in the proposed group of stimuli to be compared; Takes more time to complete; Likely to identify multiple reinforcers, accommodates larger tabletop items and a greater number of items

schedule thinning

Gradually increasing the response ratio or the duration of the time interval; 1) they thin an existing schedule by gradually increasing the response ratio or the duration of the time interval and 2) teachers often use instructions to clearly communicate the schedule of reinforcement (i.e. rules, directions, signs).

Adapted alternating treatments design

Intervention is applied to multiple behaviors that are similar in nature but functionally independent.

free operant (FO) preference assessment

Observing and recording what activities the target person engages in when she can choose during a period of unrestricted access to numerous activities is called free operant observation. A total duration measure of the time the person engages with each stimulus item or activity is recorded; Less likely to evoke problem behavior, requires minimal time, accommodates larger items and activities

Alternative schedule (alt)

Provides reinforcement whenever the requirement of either a ratio schedule or an interval schedule—the basic schedules that make up the alternative schedule—is met, regardless of which of the component schedule's requirements is met first; Ex: alt FR50/FI5-minute, reinforcement is delivered whenever either of these two conditions has been met a) 50 correct responses provided the 5 minute interval of time has not elapses; or b) the first response after the elapse of 5 minutes, provided that fewer than 50 responses have been emitted.

Reinforcer Assessment

Refers to a variety of direct, empirical methods for presenting one or more stimuli contingent on a target response and measuring their effectiveness as reinforcers.

Least to most prompting

The analyst gives the participant an opportunity to perform the response with the least amount of assistance on each trial. The participant receives greater degrees of assistance with each successive trial without a correct response. Requires the participant to make a correct response within a set time limit (e.g. 3 seconds); Verbal --> gesture --> partial physical --> full physical

Most to least prompting

The analyst physically guides the participant through the entire performance sequence, and then gradually reduces the amount of physical assistance provided as training progresses from trial to trial; Physical --> visual --> verbal --> none

mean count-per-interval IOA

The average percentage of agreement between the counts reported by two observers in a measurement period comprised of a series of smaller counting times; Int 1 IOA + int 2 IOA + int N IOA divided by n intervals = mean count-per-interval IOA %

three-term contingency

The basic unit of analysis in the analysis of operant behavior; encompasses the temporal and possibly dependent relations among an antecedent stimulus, behavior, and consequence.

sensory extinction

The process by which behaviors maintained by automatic reinforcement are placed on extinction by masking or removing the sensory consequence.

Multiple Stimulus without Replacement (MSWO)

The chosen item is removed from the array, the order or placement of the remaining items is structurally rearranged, and the next rial begins with a reduced number of items in the array; May identify stimuli that function as reinforcers, may require fewer sessions or less time to complete than other variations of preference assessment, yields a hierarchy of student preference, and appears to be suitable for a wide range of students due to the fast administration and accuracy in identifying potential reinforcers.

response cost

The contingent loss of reinforcers (e.g. a fine), producing a decrease of the frequency of behavior; a form of negative punishment

multiple stimulus with replacement (MSW)

The item chosen by the learner remains in the array and the items that were not selected are replaced with new items

Post-Reinforcement Pause (PRP)

The pause in responding after the consumption of the reinforcer and before the next ratio of responses, or ratio run, begins. These are found with fixed-ratio schedules of reinforcement.

behavioral contrast

The phenomenon in which a change in one component of a multiple schedule that increases or decreases the rate of responding on that component is accompanied by a change in the response rate in the opposite direction on the other, unaltered component of the schedule.

Recovery from Punishment

The process by which a previously punished behavior is strengthened by withholding punishment.

differential negative reinforcement of alternative behavior (DNRA)

When differential reinforcement uses escape from a task or demand situation as a reinforcer, the procedure is sometimes identified as this term

figure caption

a concise statement that, in combination with the axis and condition labels, provides the reader with sufficient information to identify the independent and dependent variables; should explain any symbols

modeling

a behavior change strategy in which learners acquire new skills by imitating demonstrations of the skills by live or symbolic models

Extinction

a behavior change tactic occurs when reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior is discontinued; as a result, the occurrence of that behavior decreases in the future

Overcorrection

a behavior reduction tactic in which, contingent on each occurrence of the problem behavior, the learner is required to engage in effortful behavior that is directly or logically related to the problem behavior

pivotal behavior

a behavior that, once learned, produces corresponding modification or covariation in other adaptive untrained behaviors; once a behavior is learned, it is likely to produce adaptive variations in untrained settings

Good Behavior Game (GBG)

a class (or group) is divided into two or more teams. Prior to the game being played, the teams are told that whichever team has the fewest marks against it at the end of the game will earn a reward. Each team is also told that it can win a reward if it has fewer than a specified number of marks (DRL

group contingency

a common consequence (usually, but not necessarily, a reward intended to function as reinforcement) is contingent on the behavior of one member of the group, the behavior of part of the group, or the behavior of everyone in the group

reinforcer-abolishing effect (of a motivating operation)

a decrease in the reinforcing effectiveness of a stimulus, object, or event caused by a MO. For example, food ingestion abolishes (decreases) the reinforcing effectiveness of food.

descending baseline

a decreasing trend in the behavior over time

cumulative records

a device that automatically draws a graph of a subject's rate of behavior; constructed by adding the number of responses recorded during each observation period to the total number of responses recorded during all previous observation periods

matching to sample (MTS)

a discrete trial procedure for investigating conditional relations and stimulus equivalence. It begins with the participant making a response that presents or reveals the sample stimulus; next, the sample stimulus may or may not be removed, and two or more comparison stimuli are presented. The participant then selects one of the comparison stimuli. Responses that select a comparison stimulus that matches the sample stimulus are reinforced; no reinforcement is provided for responses selecting the nonmatching comparison stimuli

explanatory fiction

a fictitious variable that often is simply another name for the observed behavior that contributes nothing to an understanding of the variables responsible for developing or maintaining a behavior

Radical Behaviorism

a form of behaviorism that attempts to understand all human behavior, including private events such as thoughts and feelings, in terms of controlling variables in the history of the person and the species; Skinner

Contingency Space Analysis

a graphic display of the probability of one event given the occurrence (or not) of another event. Contingencies are considered positive, negative, or neutral

scatterplots

a graphic display that shows the relative distribution of individual measures in a data set with respect to the variables depicted by the x- and y-axes; Data points are unconnected; Shows how much changes in the value of the variable depicted by one axis correlate with changes in the value of the variable represented by the other axis

Ecological assessment

a great deal of info is gathered about the person and the various environments in which that person lives and works

response class

a group of responses with the same function (that is, each response in the group produces the same effect on the environment)

time delay

a lack of response during a period of time between the input of a feedback stimulus and the system's response to it.

true value

a measure accepted as a quantitative description of the true state of some dimensional quantitate of an event as it exists in nature. Obtaining a true value requires special observation and recording procedures that "must be at least somewhat different from those used to produce the data being evaluated, and the differences must have the effect of minimizing the possibility of error to an uncommon degree"

Celeration

a measure of how rates of response change over time; a measure of count per unit time/per unit of time

interresponse time (IRT)

a measure of the amount of time that elapses between two consecutive instances of a behavior; Shorter IRT = higher rates of response; Longer IRT = lower rates of response

latency

a measure of the elapsed time between the onset of a stimulus and a subsequent response

trials-to-criterion

a measure of the number of response opportunities needed to achieve a predetermined level of performance

token

a medium of exchange

trail-by-trial IOA

a more conservative and meaningful index of interobserver agreement for discrete trial data; Number of trials (items) agreement divided by total number of trials (items) X 100 = trial-by-trial IOA %

self-evaluation

a person using this (also called self-assessment) compares her performance with a predetermined goal or standard

methodological behaviorism

a philosophical position that views behavioral events that cannot be publicly observed as outside the realm of science.

conditioned reinforcers

a previously neutral stimulus change that has acquired the capability to function as a reinforcer through stimulus-stimulus pairing with one or more unconditioned reinforcers or conditioned reinforcers

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response

response interruption/redirection (RIRD)

a procedural variation of response blocking that includes interrupting stereotypic behavior at its onset and redirecting the individual to compete high-probability behaviors instead

scatterplot recording

a procedure for recording the extent to which a target behavior occurs more often at particular times than others

percentage

a ratio formed by combining the same dimensional quantities, such as count or time

positive reinforcement

a response is followed immediately by the presentation of a stimulus that results in similar responses occurring more often

avoidance contingency

a response prevents or postpones the presentation of a stimulus

schedule of reinforcement

a rule that describes a contingency of reinforcement, the environmental arrangements that determine conditions by which behaviors will produce reinforcement

multiple baseline across settings design

a single behavior of a person (or group) is targeted in two or more different settings or conditions (e.g. locations, times of day). After steady state responding has been obtained under baseline conditions, the investigator applies the IV to one of the settings while baseline conditions remain in effect in the other settings. When steady state performance has been reached for the 1st settings the IV is applied to the 2nd setting and then so on.

Video self-modeling (VSM)

a specific application of video modeling that allows the individual to imitate target behaviors by observing her or himself successfully performing a behavior

punishers

a stimulus change that decreases the future occurrences of behavior that immediately precedes it

consequence

a stimulus change that follows a behavior of interest

unconditioned reinforcers

a stimulus change that functions as reinforcement even though the learner has had no particular history with it

generalized conditioned punisher

a stimulus change that has been paired with numerous forms of unconditioned and conditioned punishers; Ex: reprimands and disapproving gestures

reinforcers

a stimulus change that increases the future frequency of behavior that immediately precedes it

Stimulus delta (SΔ)

a stimulus in the presence of which a given behavior has not produced reinforcement, or has produced reinforcement of lesser quality in the past

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

reflex

a stimulus-response relation consisting of an antecedent stimulus and the respondent behavior it elicits. Unconditioned and conditioned reflexes protect against harmful stimuli, help regulate the internal balance and economy of the organism, and promote reproduction

respondent conditioning (Pavlovian conditioning/classical conditioning)

a stimulus-stimulus pairing procedure in which a neutral stimulus (NS) is presented with an unconditioned stimulus (US) until the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits the conditioned response

science

a systematic approach to understanding natural phenomena- as evidenced by description, prediction and control- that relies on determinism as its fundamental assumption, empiricism as its prime directive, experimentation as its basic strategy, replication as its necessary requirement for believability, parsimony as its conservative value, and philosophical doubt as its guiding conscience

general case analysis

a systematic method for selecting teaching examples that represent the full range of stimulus variations and response requirements in the generalization setting

Imitation training

a systematic, research-based set of steps for teaching a non-imitative learner to imitate models of novel behavior

relevance of behavior rule

a target behavior should be selected only when it can be determined that the behavior is likely to produce reinforcement in the person's natural environment

Video modeling

a technique that involves demonstration of desired behaviors through video representation of the behavior

unchained

a term introduced by Kuhn et al. (2006) for a procedure described by Michael (2000)- occurs when, in the case of a two-response chain, R2 produces reinforcement not only in the presence of S2 (as usual) but also in the absence of S2.

Naïve Observer

a trained observer who is unaware of the study's purpose and/or the experimental conditions in effect during a given phase or observation period

level systems

a type of token economy in which participants move up (and sometimes down) a hierarchy of tiers contingent on meeting specific performance criteria with respect to the target behaviors

Interview-informed synthesized contingency analysis

a variation of a FBA designed to increase efficiency. In the test condition, multiple contingencies are implemented simultaneously (i.e. attention and escape) when the problem behavior is demonstrated. In the control condition, those same contingencies are presented noncontingently and continuously

Total Task Chaining

a variation of forward chaining in which the learner receives training on each step in the task analysis during every session. The trainer provides assistance for any steps the leaner is unable to perform independently, and the chain is trained until the leaner is able to perform all of the behaviors in the sequence

planned activity check (PLACHECK)

a variation of momentary time sampling, which uses head counts to measure "group behavior"; a teacher observes a group of students at the end of each interval, counts the number of students engaged in the targeted activity, and records the tally with the total number of students in the group

terminate specific reinforcer contact

a variation of time-out whereby each occurrence of the target behavior immediately stops an activity or sensory reinforcer.

Errorless learning

a variety of techniques for gradually transferring stimulus control with a minimum of errors; ensures success, early immediate prompts, prompts faded over time, decreases frustration/increases motivation

Matching Law

addresses response allocation to choices available with concurrent schedules of reinforcement. Typically the rate of responding is proportional to the rate of reinforcement received from each choice alternative.

Constant time delay

after the student has responded correctly to several 0-sec delay trials, presentation of the response prompt follows the instructional stimulus by a predetermined and fixed delay (usually 3 or 4 seconds) for all subsequent trials.

backward chaining

all the behaviors identified in the task analysis are initially completed by the trainer, except for the final behavior in the chain. When the learner performs the final behavior in the sequence at the predetermined criterion level, reinforcement is delivered; Advantage of backward chaining: the learner contacts the chain's terminal reinforcer on every instructional trial; Limitation of backward chaining: the potential passive participation of the learner in earlier steps in the chain may limit the total number of response made during any given training session

response

an "action of an organisms effector"

model

an antecedent stimulus with topographical similarity to the behavior the analyst wants to be imitated

independent group contingency

an arrangement in which contingency is delivered only to those group members who meet criterion outlined in the contingency; Frequently combined with contingency contracting and token reinforcement programs because these programs usually establish reinforcement schedules

A-B-A Design

an experiment entailing one reversal

interval validity

an experiment that shows convincingly that changes in the DV are a function of the IV and not the result of uncontrolled or unknown variables = high internal validity

extinction burst

an increase in the frequency of responding when an extinction procedure is initially implemented.

reinforcer-establishing effect (of a motivating operation)

an increase in the reinforcing effectiveness of a stimulus, object, or event caused by a MO. For example, food deprivation establishes (increases) the reinforcing effectiveness of food

ascending baseline

an increasing trend in the behavior over time

Precision Teaching

an instructional decision-making system was developed for use with the standard celeration chart

Socially mediated contingency

another person presents an antecedent stimulus and/or the consequence for the behavior

Contingency adduction

another types of rapid learning that appears to be a generalized outcome of other events; a process whereby behaviors initially established under one set of contingency conditions and take on a new function in a person's repertoire

Functional (Experimental) Analysis

antecedents and consequences representing those in the person's natural environment are arranged so that their separate effects on problem behavior can be observed and measured

contrived contingency

any contingency of reinforcement (or punishment) designed and implemented by a behavior analyst or practitioner to achieve the acquisition, maintenance, and/or generalization of a target behavior change

Naturally existing contingency

any contingency of reinforcement (or punishment) that operates independent of the behavior analysts or practitioners efforts

Component Analysis

any experiment designed to identify the active elements of a treatment package, the relative contributions of different components in a treatment package, and/or the necessity and sufficiency of treatment components

discontinuous measurement

any form of measurement in which some instances of the response class(es) of interest may not be detected

discrete trails

any operant whose response rate is controlled by a given opportunity to emit the response. Each discrete response occurs when an opportunity to respond exists.

generalized setting

any place or stimulus situation that differs from the instructional setting in some meaningful way and in which performance of the target behavior is desired

add-in component analysis

assess components individually or in combination before the complete treatment package is presented

B-A-B design

begins with the application of the IV: the treatment. After stable responding has been achieved during the initial treatment phase (B), the IV is withdrawn; Weaker because it does not enable an assessment of the effects of the IV on the preintervention level of responding

multiple baseline across behaviors design

begins with the concurrent measurement of two or more behaviors of a single participant. After steady state responding has been obtained under baseline conditions, the investigator applies the IV to one of the behaves and maintains baseline conditions for the other behavior(s). When steady state performance has been reached for the 1st behavior the IV is applied to the 2nd behavior and then so on.

behavioral

behavior analysts conduct studies of behavior, not about behavior; The behavior must be measurable

Visual Analysis

behavior analysts employ a systematic form of examination to interpret graphically displayed data

automaticity of reinforcement

behavior is modified by its consequences regardless of whether the individual is aware that her behavior is, or has been, reinforced.

rule-governed behavior

behavior that has been generated through exposure to rules

stimulus control

behavior that occurs more often in the presence of an SD than in its absence is said to be under stimulus control

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

respondent extinction

is the cessation of a behavior that can be conditioned into animal or human behavior through behavioral conditioning

escape extinction

behaviors maintained with negative reinforcement are placed on escape extinction when those behaviors are not followed by termination of the aversive stimulus; emitting the target behavior does not enable the person to escape the aversive situation

axis labels

brief descriptions of the dimension represented by and scaled along each axis

Verification

can be accomplished by demonstrating that the prior level of baseline responding would have remained unchanged had the IV not been introduced.

prediction

can be defined as "the anticipated outcome of a presently unknown or future measurement. It is the most elegant use of quantification upon which validation of all scientific and technological activity rests"

discriminative stimulus for punishment (SDP)

can be defined as a stimulus condition in the presence of which a response has a lower probability of occurrence than it does in its absence as a result of response-contingent punishment delivery in the presence of the stimulus; Ex: grandma in the kitchen before dinner --> reach into cookie jar --> grandma scolds

Delayed Multiple Baseline Design

can be use when planned reversal design is no longer possible or proves ineffective; it can also add additional tiers to an already operational multiple baseline design, as would be the case if new subject were added to an ongoing study; An experimental tactic in which an initial baseline and intervention are begun, and subsequent baselines are added in a staggered or delayed fashion

Changing Criterion Design

can be used to evaluate the effects of treatment that is applied in a graduated or stepwise fashion to a single target behavior

ratio strain

can result from abrupt increases in ratio requirements when moving from denser to thinner reinforcement schedules

noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) reversal technique

can show that behavior change is the result of contingent reinforcement, not simply the presentation of or contact with the stimulus event

Good student game

combines an interdependent group contingency with an added self-monitoring twist. Intended for implementation during independent seatwork periods when problematic behaviors surface. The teacher 1) chooses target behaviors to modify, 2) determines goals and rewards, 3) determines whether group or individual monitoring (or both) will occur

compound schedules of reinforcement

combining two or more basic schedules of reinforcement- CRF, FR, VR, FI, VI, differential reinforcement of various rates of responding (DRH, DLR), and extinction (EXT)- to form compound schedules of reinforcement

stimulus equivalence

complex components of a person's repertoire sometimes appear quickly with little or no apparent direct conditioning; this term is a verity of such emergent performances.

total duration IOA

computed by dividing the shorter of the two durations reported by the observers by the longer duration and multiplying by 100

Naturalistic free operant observation

conducted in the learner's everyday environment. The observer notes how the learner allocates his time and records the number of minutes the learner devotes to each activity

data path

connecting successive data point within a given condition with a straight line creates a data path; represents the level and trend of behavior between successive data points and is a primary focus of attention in the interpretation and analysis of graphed data

shaping

consists of a 3 part process whereby the analyst a) detects a change in the learners environment, b) makes a discriminated judgement about whether that change is a progressively closer approximation to a terminal behavior of interest, and then c) differentially reinforces that closer successive approximation

nonconcurrent multiple baseline across participants design

consists of a related series of A-B (baseline-intervention) sequences conducted across subjects at different points in time; Weaker than other MB designs

Trial Based Functional Analysis

consists of a series of trails interspersed among classroom activities. Each trial consists of two 1-minute components: 1) the EO and contingency for problem behavior (test condition) and 2) continuous access to the reinforcer (control condition)

self-instruction

consists of self-generated verbal response, covert to overt, that function as response prompts for a desired behavior; often used to guide oneself through a behavior chain or sequence of tasks

teach enough examples

consists of teaching the student to respond to a subset of all the possible stimulus and response examples and then probing the student's performance on untrained examples

token economy

consists of three major components: 1) a list of target behaviors; 2) tokens, points, or marks participants earn for emitting the target behaviors; 3) a menu of backup reinforcers- preferred items, activities, or privileges- that participants obtain by exchanging earned tokens

escape contingency

contingency in which a response terminates (produces escape from) an ongoing stimulus-compare with avoidance contingency

positive practice overcorrection

contingent on an occurrence of the problem behavior, the learner is required to repeatedly perform a correct form of the behavior, or a behavior incompatible with the problem behavior, for a specified duration of time or number of responses

restitutional overcorrection

contingent on the problem behavior, the learner is required to repair the damage caused by the problem behavior by returning the environment to its original state and then to engage in additional behavior that brings the environment to a condition better than it was prior to the misbehavior

rate

defined as the number of responses per unit of time; combining count and observation time = rate

spaced-responding DRL

deliver reinforcement following an occurrence of a response that is separated from the previous response by at least a specified amount of time; The longer the IRT, the lower the overall rate of responding; the shorter the IRT, the higher the rate of responding; When reinforcement is contingent on longer IRTs, response rate will decrease; An important intervention for diminishing problem behaviors, but not completely eliminating them

differential reinforcement of low rates of responding (DRL)

delivers reinforcement 1) following each occurrence of the target behavior that is separated from the previous response by a minimum amount of time or 2) contingent on the number of responses within a period not exceeding a predetermined criterion

functional analysis

denotes demonstrations of functional relations between environmental variables and behavior; an experimental methodology for determining environmental variables and contingencies maintaining problem behavior.

instructional setting

denotes the environment where teaching occurs, including all planned or unplanned aspects of the environment that may influence the learner's acquisition and generalization of the target behavior

contingent

dependent; possible

function-based definition

designates responses as members of the targeted response class solely by their common effect on the environment

interval DRL

divide the total session into a series of equal intervals of time and provide reinforcement at the end of each interval in which the number of occurrences of the problem behavior was equal to or below a criterion limit

range-bound changing criterion design

each intervention sub-phase includes both a lower and an upper criterion within which the participant is expected to perform

latency-based functional analysis

each session is terminated as soon as a problem behavior occurs. However, the session may last longer than 1 minute, because the EO is present as long as necessary to evoke the problem behavior (or until a pre-established time limit has expired)

functional behavioral assessment (FBA)

enables hypotheses about the relations among specific types of environmental events and behaviors; designed to obtain information about the purposes (functions) a behavior serves for a person

multiple probe design

enables the behavior analyst to extend the operation and logic of the multiple baseline tactic to behaviors or situations in which concurrent measurement of all behaviors constituting the design is unnecessary, potentially reactive, impractical or too costly

descriptive functional behavior assessment

encompasses direct observation of behavior; unlike functional analyses, however, observations are made under naturally occurring conditions; All the forms of descriptive assessments explained below are generally considered invalid for detecting behavior function. This is because they tend to yield false positives for an attention function

imitation

entails 4 criteria: 1) the imitation behavior is occasioned by another person's model of the behavior, 2) the imitative behavior has formal similarity with the model, 3) the imitative behavior follows the modeled behavior closely in time, and 4) the model is the primary controlling variable for the imitative behavior.

interrupted chain procedure (ICP)

entails arranging the environment such that the learner is unable to continue the chain at a predetermined step

Calibration

entails comparing the data produced by a measurement system to a known standard or true value and, if necessary, adjusting the measurement system so the data it produces match the known standard

observational learning

entails detecting another person's behavior and its consequence(s) and using that information to determine whether or not to imitate the behavior

Steady State Strategy

entails exposing a subject to a given condition while trying to eliminate or control any extraneous influences on the behavior and obtaining a stable pattern of responding before introducing the next condition

reversal design

entails repeated measures of behavior in a given setting that require at least three consecutive phases: 1) an initial baseline phase in which the IV is absent, 2) an intervention phase during which the IV is introduced and remains in contact with the behavior, and 3) a return to baseline conditions accomplished by withdrawal of the IV

self-control [as impulse control]

entails responding to achieve a delayed, but larger or higher quality, reinforcer instead of acting to obtain an immediate, less valuable, reinforcer

Baseline Logic

entails three elements- prediction, verification, and replication- each of which depends on an overall experimental approach called steady state strategy

equal interval scale

equal distances on the axis represent equal absolute amounts of behavior change

mean duration-per-occurrence IOA

equals average percentage of agreement of the durations reported by two observers for each occurrence of the target behavior; Dur IOA R1 + Dur IOA R2 + Dur IOA Rn divided by n responses with Dur IOA X 100

Stimulus-stimulus pairing

essentially the association of two different stimuli

temporal locus

every instance of behavior occurs at a certain point in time with respect to other events (when behavior occurs can be measured)

Temporal Extent

every instance of behavior occurs during some amount of time (the duration of the behavior)

functional relation

exists when a well-controlled experiment demonstrated the a specific change in one event (the DV) is reliably produced by specific manipulations of another event (IV), and that the change in the DV was unlikely to be the result of other extraneous factors (confounding variables)

Multiple treatment reversal design

experiments that use the reversal design to compare the effects of two or more experimental conditions to baseline and/or to one another

total count IOA

expressed as a percentage of agreement between the total number of responses recorded by two observers and is calculated by dividing the smaller of the counts by the larger count and multiplying by 100

massed practice

forcing oneself to perform an undesired behavior again and again, which sometimes decreases the future occurrence of the behavior

line graphs

frequency polygon; the most common graphic format in ABA; a 2D area formed by the intersection of two perpendicular reference lines, called axes. Any point within the area enclosed by the two axes represents a specific relationship between values of the two dimensions (or variables) described by the intersecting lines

stimulus generalization gradient

graphically depicts the degree of stimulus generalization and discrimination by showing the extent to which responses reinforced in one stimulus control condition are emitted in the presence of untrained stimuli; When the slope of the gradient is relatively flat, little stimulus control is evident; An increasing slope of the gradient shows more stimulus control

parsimony

great frugality; requires that all simple, logical explanations for the phenomenon under investigation be rules out, experimentally or conceptually, before more complex or abstract explanations are considered.

variable baseline

highly unstable; the data points do not consistently fall within a narrow range of values, nor do they suggest any clear trend

bar graphs

histograms; a simple and adaptable format for graphically summarizing data

generality

it must last over time, appears in environments other than the one in which the intervention that initially produced it was implemented, and/or spreads to other behaviors not directly treated by the intervention.

topography-based definition

identifies instances of the target behavior by the shape or form of the behavior; should be used when the behavior analyst a) does not have direct, reliable, or easy access to the functional outcome of the target behavior and/or b) cannot rely on the function of the behavior because each instance of the target behavior does not produce the relevant outcome in the natural environment or the outcome might be produced by other events

generalization probe

if the results of this generalization probe show that the student response correctly to untaught examples, then instruction can be halted on this class of problems. If the student performs badly on the generalization probe, the practitioner teaches additional examples before again assessing the student's performance on a new set of untaught examples

Functional Assessment

includes indirect and direct procedures such as interviews, checklist, and tests to identify and define specific target behavior

negative punishment

includes taking away a certain reinforcing item after the undesired behavior happens in order to decrease future responses

multiple exemplar training

instruction that provides practice with a variety of response topographies helps ensure the acquisition of desired response forms and promotes response generalization in the form of untrained topographies; this tactic typically incorporates both stimulus and response variations

positive punishment

involves adding an aversive consequence after an undesired behavior is emitted to decrease future responses

task analysis

involves breaking a complex task into smaller, teachable units, the product of which is a series of sequentially ordered steps or tasks

stimulus fading

involves highlighting a physical dimension (e.g. color, size, position) of a stimulus to increase the likelihood of a correct response. The highlighted or exaggerated dimension is faded gradually in or out

systematic desensitization

involves substituting one behavior, generally muscle relaxation, for the unwanted behavior- the fear or anxiety

teach enough stimulus examples

involves teaching the learner to respond correctly to multiple examples of antecedent stimulus conditions and probing for generalization to untaught stimulus examples

Generalized Conditioned Reinforcer

is a conditioned reinforcer that as a result of having been paired with many unconditioned reinforcers does not depend on a current EO for any particular form of reinforcement for its effectiveness (i.e. social attention, money)

experimental control

is achieved when a predictable change in behavior (DV) is reliably produced by the systematic manipulation of some aspect of the environment (IV)

behavior-altering effect (of a motivating operation)

is either a) an increase in the current frequency of behavior that has been reinforced by some stimulus, object, or event called an evocative effect; or b) a decrease in the current frequency of behavior that has been reinforced by some stimulus, object, or event, called an abative effect.

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response. In other words, the response takes place without any prior learning

program common stimuli

means incorporating typical features of the generalization setting into the instructional setting; Programming common stimuli is a two-step process of 1) identifying salient stimuli that characterize the generalization setting(s) and 2) incorporating those stimuli into the instructional setting

replication

means repeating the IV manipulations conducted previously in the study ad obtaining similar outcomes

Irreversibility

means that a level of behavior observed in an earlier phase cannot be reproduced even though the experimental conditions are the same as they were during the earlier phase

observer reactivity

measurement error resulting from an observer's awareness that others are evaluating the data he reports

Validity

measurement has validity when it yields data directly relevant to the phenomenon measured and to the reason(s) for measuring it

continuous measurement

measurement that detects all instances of the target behavior during the observation period

measurement by permanent product

measuring behavior after it has occurred by observing the effects the behavior produced on the environment

Indirect Functional Behavior Assessment

methods use structured interviews, checklists, rating scales, or questionnaires to obtain information from those who are familiar with the person exhibiting the problem behavior to identify possible conditions or events in the natural environment that correlate with the problem behavior

contrived mediating stimulus

must be 1) made functional for the target behavior during instruction and 2) easily transported to the generalization settings; The mediating stimulus is functional for the learner if it reliably prompts or aids the learner in performing the target behavior; the mediating stimulus is transportable if it easily goes with the learner to all important generalization settings

effective

must improve the behavior under investigation to a practical degree; the extent to which changes in the target behaviors result in noticeable changes in the reasons those behaviors were selected for change originally.

DRI/DRA reversal technique

occurrences of a specified behavior that is either incompatible with the target behavior or an alternative to the target behavior are immediately followed by the same consequence previously delivered as contingent reinforcement for the target behavior

concurrent schedules (CONC)

occurs when 1) two or more contingencies of reinforcement 2) operate independently and simultaneously 3) for two or more behaviors

Faulty stimulus control

occurs when a behavior comes under the restricted control of an irrelevant antecedent stimulus

behavior cusp

occurs when a learner performs a new behavior that sets the occasion to access reinforcers that otherwise would not have been available; a behavioral cusp can be claimed when what has been learned exposes the individual to an array of contingencies that go beyond the reinforcers that would have been delivered had only the target behavior occurred

resistance to extinction

occurs when an organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer has been terminated

Anecdotal observation (ABC recording)

one basic form of direct continuous observation (ABC); the observer records a descriptive, temporally sequenced account of all behaviors of interest and the antecedent conditions and consequences for those behaviors as those events occur in the client's natural environment.

interdependent group contingency

one in which all members of a group must meet the criterion of the contingency (individual and as a group) before any member earns the reward

Self-control [Skinner's analysis]

one response, the controlling response affects variables in such a way as to change the probability of the other, the controlled response. The controlling response may manipulate any of the variables of which the controlled response is a function; hence there are a good many different forms of self-control

multiple baseline across subjects design

one target behavior is selected for two or more subjects in the same setting. After steady state responding has been obtained under baseline conditions, the investigator applies the IV to one subject while baseline conditions remain in effect for the other subject(s). When steady state performance has been reached for the 1st subject the IV is applied to the 2nd subject and then so on.

unscored-interval IOA

only intervals in which either or both observers recorded the nonoccurrence of the target behavior are considered when calculating unscored-interval IOA; For behaviors that occur at high rates, unscored-interval IOA provides a more stringent assessment of IOA than does interval-by-interval IOA

Brief Functional Analysis

only one or two 5- to 10-minute sessions are conducted for each condition. A convincing demonstration of function may be achieved by either alternating a condition that procures problem behavior with one that does not or conducting a contingency reversal. These may reveal a functional relation in fewer sessions that a full functional analysis

scored-interval IOA

only those intervals in which either or both observers recorded the occurrence of the target behavior are used; For behaviors that occur at low rates, scored-interval IOA is a more conservative measure of agreement that interval-by-interval IOA

Stimulus prompts

operate directly on the antecedent task stimuli to cue a correct response in conjunction with the critical SD

Response prompts

operate directly on the response to cue a correct response

tandem schedule (tand)

operates like the chained schedules, except that discrimination stimuli are not used with the elements in the chain; Ex: Tand FR15/FI2 schedule, after a participant makes 15 responses the first correct response following an elapse of 2 minutes produces reinforcement

bonus response cost

operates when practitioners made additional reinforcers available noncontingently to the participant, specifically for removal when a target behavior occurs

differential reinforcement

presenting an unconditioned or conditioned reinforcer only to those emitted members of a response class that share a specified dimension or quality, while placing all other emitted response class members on extinction

Hypothetical constructs

presumed but unobserved entities that could not be manipulated in an experiment.

conditioned negative reinforcers

previously neutral events that acquire their effects through pairing with an existing negative reinforcer

behavior checklist

provides a description of specific behaviors and the conditions under which each behavior occurs

Standard Celeration Chart

provides a standardized means of charting and analyzing how frequency of behavior changes over time

differential reinforcement of diminishing rates (DRD)

provides reinforcement at the end of a predetermined time interval when the number of responses is less than a criterion that is gradually decreases across time intervals based on the individual's performance

continuous reinforcement

provides reinforcement for each occurrence of behavior

Teach loosely

randomly varying noncritical aspects of the instructional setting within and across teaching sessions

Momentary Time Sampling

records whether the target behavior occurred at the moment the timer interval ends; Advantage = the observer does not have to attend continuously to measurement; Not recommended for measuring low-count or short-duration behaviors

practice effects

refer to improvements in performance resulting from repeated opportunities to emit the behavior so that baseline measurements can be obtained

higher-order conditioning

refers to a situation in which a stimulus that was previously neutral (e.g., a light) is paired with a conditioned stimulus (e.g., a tone that has been conditioning with food to produce salivating) to produce the same conditioned response as the conditioned stimulus

time sampling

refers to a variety of methods for observing and recording behavior during intervals or at specific moments in time; the basic procedure involves dividing the observation periods into time intervals and then recording the presence of absence of behavior within or at the end of each interval

Overgeneralization

refers to an outcome in which the behavior has come under the control of an overly broad stimulus class

stimulus class

refers to any group of stimuli sharing a predetermined set of common elements in one or more of these dimensions (physical features, by when they occur with respect to a behavior of interest, and by their effects on behavior

free operant

refers to behaviors that have discrete onsets and offsets, do not depend on discriminative stimuli, involve minimal displacement of the organism in time and space, and can be emitted over a wide range of response rates

generalization across subjects

refers to changes in the behavior of people not directly treated by an intervention as a function of treatment contingencies applied to other people

antecendent

refers to environmental conditions or stimulus changes that exist or occur prior to the behavior of interest

measurement bias

refers to nonrandom measurement error- that an error in measurement that is likely to be in one direction

aversive stimulus

refers to stimulus conditions whose termination functioned as reinforcement

Automatic Reinforcement

refers to the behavior-stimulus change relation that occurs without the presentation of consequences by other people

Reliability

refers to the consistency of measurement, specifically, the extent to which repeated measurement of the same event yields the same value

external validity

refers to the degree to which a study's results are generalizable to other subjects, settings, and/or behaviors

Interobserver Agreement (IOA)

refers to the degree to which two or more independent observers report the same observed values after measuring the same events

Reactivity

refers to the effects that an assessment has on the behavior being assessed

Procedural Fidelity

refers to the extent to which procedures in all conditions of an experiment, including baseline, are correctly implemented

stimulus generalization

refers to the extent to which stimuli other than the SD acquire stimulus control over the behavior

social validity

refers to the extent to which target behaviors are appropriate, intervention procedures are acceptable, and important and significant changes in target and collateral behavior are produced.

local response rate

refers to the rate of response during periods smaller than that for which an overall rate has been given; Cumulative records are preferred when the total number of responses emitted over time is important or when progress toward a specific goal can be measured in cumulative units of behavior

resurgence

refers to the reoccurrence of a previously reinforced behavior when reinforcement for an alternative behavior is terminated or decreased and to the three-phase procedure that produces the effect: 1) a target behavior is reinforced, 2) the target behavior is placed on extinction and reinforcement provided for an alternative behavior, and 3) both responses are placed on extinction

normalization

refers to the use of progressively more typical environments, expectations, and procedures "to establish and/or maintain personal behaviors which are as culturally normal as possible"

Chaining

refers to various methods for linking specific sequences of stimuli and responses to form a new performance

respondent behavior

reflexive behavior; they are elicited, or "brought out", by stimuli that immediately precede it

Lag Schedule

reinforcement contingent on response being different from previous response

full session DRL

reinforcement is delivered when responding during an entire instructional or treatment session is equal to or below a predetermined criterion. If the number of responses exceeds the specific limit during the session, reinforcement is withheld

differential reinforcement of high rates (DRH)

reinforcement of responses higher than a predetermined criterion; Produce a higher rate of responding; Responding on a DRH schedule produces reinforcement whenever a response occurs before a time criterion has elapsed

graphs

relatively simple formats for visually displaying relationships among and between a series of measurement and relevant variables

Behavior Chain Interruption Strategy (BCIS)

relies on the participant's skill to initially perform all of the critical elements of a chain independently, but the chain is then interrupted, or a link in the chain is made unavailable, at a predetermined link so that another behavior can be emitted or prompted

Replication

repeating of experiments; primary method in which scientists determine the reliability of usefulness of their findings and discover their mistakes

data points

represents two facts: 1) quantifiable measure of the target behavior recorded during a given observation period and 2) the time and/or experimental conditions under which that particular measurement was conducted

ratio schedules

require a number of responses before one response produces reinforcement

interval schedules

require an elapse of time before a response produces reinforcement

philosophical doubt

requires the scientist to continually question the truthfulness of what is regarded as fact

discriminated avoidance

responding in the presence of a signal prevents the onset of a stimulus from which escape is a reinforcer.

parametric study

seeks to discover the differential effects of a range of values of the IV; Multiple manipulations of the independent variable to determine the differential effects of a range of values of the independent variable

intermittent reinforcement

some, but not all, occurrences of the behavior are reinforced o Used to maintain an established behavior, especially during maintenance stages of learning

reserach questions

specifies what the investigator wants the experiment to answer

Progressive Time Delay

start with 0 seconds, after a specific number of trials, move to 2 seconds, 3, etc. (after 3 trials vs. 3 sessions)

unconditioned negative reinforcers

stimuli whose removal strengthens behavior in the absence of prior learning

transitive conditioned motivating operation

stimulus that makes something else effective as reinforcement, a stimulus that alters the value of another stimulus

progressive schedules of reinforcement

systematically thins each successive reinforcement opportunity within the session independent of the participant's behavior

behavior

that portion of an organism's interaction with its environment that involves movement of some part of the organism

duration

the amount of time from the onset to the end point of a response, is the basic measure of temporal extent

determinism

the assumption that the universe is a lawful and orderly place in which phenomena occur in relation to other events and not in a willy-nilly, accidental fashion

overall response rate

the average rate of response over a given time period; The steeper the slope = the higher the response rate

stimulus discrimination training

the basic procedure of stimulus discrimination training entails a multiple schedule with antecedent stimulus conditions representing each component schedule. Responses in the presence of one stimulus condition (SD) are reinforced, and responses in the presence of the other stimulus (S-Delta) are not reinforced. When this procedure is applied appropriately and consistently, responding in the presence of the SD will come to exceed responding in the presence of the S-Delta

Chained schedule of reinforcement (chain)

the basic schedule in a chained schedule always occur in a specific order, never in the random or unpredictable order of multiple schedules. The behavior may be the same for all elements of the chain, or different behaviors may be required for different elements in the chain. Conditioned reinforcement for responding in the first element in a chain is the presentation of the second element.

forward chaining

the behaviors identified in the task analysis are taught in their naturally occurring order. Specifically, reinforcement is delivered when the predetermined criterion for the performance of the first behavior in the sequence is achieved; Advantages of forward chaining: 1) it can be used to link smaller chains into larger ones, 2) it is easy, so teacher implementation in the classroom is enhanced, 3) it can be combined with other behavior change procedures (e.g. fading); Limitations of forward chaining: it is possible that the analyst, after noting the learner has performed the targeted training steps, may eliminate opportunities for additional practice of these steps, thus risking extinction of the chain due to lack of reinforcement or the weakening of an SD.

DRO reversal technique

the control condition consists of delivering the event suspected of functioning as reinforcement following the emission of any behavior other than the target behavior; One way to ensure that reinforcement will not immediately follow the target behavior is to deliver reinforcement immediately following the subject's performance of any behavior other than the target behavior

stable baseline

the data present no evidence of an upward or downward trend and all of the measures fall within a small range of values

Habituation

the degree to which the person's repertoire maximizes short- and long-term reinforcers for that individual and for others, and minimizes short- and long-term punishers

response maintenance

the extent to which a learner continued to perform a target behavior after a portion or all of the intervention responsible for the behavior's initial appearance in the learner's repertoire has been terminated

setting/situation generalization

the extent to which a learner emits a target behavior in a setting or stimulus situation that differs from the instructional setting in any meaningful way

response generalization

the extent to which a learner emits untrained responses that are functionally equivalent to the trained target behavior

successive approximations

the gradual and progressive criterion change for delivering reinforcement for a behavior that is closer to the terminal behavior than the response it replaces

time-out from positive reinforcement (time-out)

the immediate response-contingent withdrawal of the opportunity to earn positive reinforcers or the immediate loss of access to positive reinforcers for a specified time.

extraneous variable

the investigator must control, by holding constant, all other aspects of the experimental setting- extraneous variables- to prevent unplanned environmental variation

drop-out component analysis

the investigator presents the treatment package and then systematically removes components. If the treatments effectiveness wanes when a component is removed, the researcher has identified a necessary component.

Conditional Probability

the likelihood that a target problem behavior will occur in a given circumstance

overshadowing

the most salient component of a compound stimulus arrangement controls responding and interferes with the acquisition of stimulus control by the more relevant stimulus

A-B-A-B design

the most straightforward and generally most powerful within-subjects design for demonstrating a functional relation between an environmental manipulation and a behavior

whole interval recording

the observation period is divided into a series of brief time intervals, at the end of each interval, the observer records whether the targeted behavior occurred throughout the interval; Often used to measure continuous behaviors and behaviors that occur at such high rates that observers have difficulty distinguishing one response from another, but can detect whether the behavior is occurring at any given time; Usually underestimate the overall % of the observation period in which the behavior actually occurred; The longer the observation intervals = greater the degree to which whole-interval recording may underestimate the actual occurrence of the behavior; Yields an estimate of total duration

Partial Interval Recording

the observer records whether the behavior occurred at any time during the interval; Not concerned with how many times the behavior occurred during the interval or how long the behavior was present, just that it occurred at some point during the interval; Often times this measure overestimates the overall % of the observation period

independent variable

the particular aspect of the environment that the experimenter manipulates to find out whether it affects the subjects behavior

exact count-per-interval IOA

the percentage of total intervals in which two observers recorded the dame count; Number of intervals of 100% IOA divided by n intervals X 100 = exact count-per-interval IOA %

contingent observation

the person is repositioned within an existing setting such that he or she can observe ongoing activities, but access to available reinforcers is lost.

self-management

the personal application of behavior change tactics that produce a desired improvement in behavior

Extinction induced variability

the phenomenon of non-reinforcement of a response class whereby a temporary increase in the changeability of the response class topography occurs, and which may produce, by chance alone, a closer approximation to the terminal behavior; addresses a change in the form of the response whereas extinction burst addresses a change in the rate of the response

pragmatism

the philosophical position that "the truth value of a statement is a function of how well the statement promotes effective action"; a primary criterion by which behavior analysts judge the value of their findings

Behaviorism

the philosophy of science of behavior; Watson

Topography

the physical form or shape of a behavior, is a measurable dimension of behavior

Response Topography

the physical shape or form of the behavior

differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA)

the potential reinforcer is presented contingent on occurrences of a desirable alternative to the target behavior

Empiricism

the practice of objective observation and measurement of the phenomena of interest

differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO)

the practitioner delivers a potential reinforcer whenever the target behavior has NOT occurred during a set time interval or at a specific point in time; Allows for the continued presentation of the reinforcement contingency during the reversal phases of the control procedure

affirmation of consequent

the predictive power pf steady state responding enables the behavior analyst to employ a form of inductive logic known as affirmation of consequent; the reasoning behind affirmation of consequent begins with a true antecedent-consequent (if A- then- B) statements and proceeds as follows: If A is true, then B is true (if the IV is a controlling factor for the behavior (A), then the data obtained in the presence of the IV will show that the behavior has changed (B); B is found to be true (when the IV is present, the data show that the behavior has changed); Therefore, A is true (therefore, the IV is a controlling variable for the behavior

Noncontingent Reinforcement (NCR)

the presentation of a potential reinforcer on a fixed-time (FT) or variable-time (VT) schedule independent of the occurrence of the target behavior; Often produces persistent responding, perhaps because of accidental reinforcement that sometimes occurs with a response-independent schedule, or because similar Eos and antecedent stimulus conditions evoke the persistent responding

interval-by-interval IOA

the primary observers record for each interval is matched to the secondary observers record for the same interval; Overestimates; Number of interval agreed divided by number of intervals agreed + number of intervals disagreed X 100

Conceptually Systematic

the procedures for changing behavior and any interpretations of how or why those procedures were effective should be described in terms of the relevant principle(s) from which they were derived.

habituation

the process of gradually diminishing response strength

overselective stimulus control

the range of discriminative stimuli or stimulus features controlling behavior is extremely limited

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

direct replication

the researcher makes every effort to duplicate exactly the conditions of an earlier experiment; If the same subject is used = intra-subject direct replication

systematic replication

the researcher purposefully varies one of more aspects of a pervious experiment; Any aspect of a previous experiment can be altered: subjects, setting, administration of the IV, target behaviors; Good for generality

variable schedule

the response ratio or time requirement can change from one reinforced response to another

fixed schedule

the response ratio or time requirement remains constant

progressive ratio schedule of reinforcement

the response requirements for reinforcement are increased systematically over time independent of the participant's behavior

conditioned discrimination

the response that will produce reinforcement in the presence of a particular stimulus depends on (is conditional on) the presence or absence of other stimuli

data

the results of measurement, usually in quantifiable form; in applied behavior analysis, it refers to measures of some quantifiable dimension of a behavior

dependent group contingency

the reward for the whole group is dependent on the performance of an individual student or small group

target behavior

the specific behavior selected for change

partition/select space time-out

the student remains within the time-in setting, but his view within the setting is restricted by a panel or cubicle, or a select space is arranged to serve as the time-out area (i.e. a carpet, or corner).

dependent variable

the target behavior in an ABA experiment, or more precisely a measurable dimensional quantity of that behavior

level

the value on the vertical axis scale around which a set of behavior measures converge

single-case experimental design

they denote an experimental logic for detecting and analyzing functional relations between environmental variables and behavior change that employs each subject as her own control

Joint Control

two discriminative stimuli can combine to evoke a common response class

A-B design

two-phase experiment consisting of a pretreatment baseline condition followed by a treatment condition

confounding variables

uncontrolled variables known or suspected to exert an influence on the DV

Contrived Free-Operant Observation

used to determine whether, when, how and the extent to which the person engages with each of a predetermined set of activities and materials

Mixed Schedule of Reinforcement (mix)

uses a procedure identical to that of the multiple schedules, except no SD signal the presence of the independent component schedules; Ex: with a mix FR10/FI1 schedule, reinforcement sometimes occurs after the completion of 10 responses and sometimes occurs with the first response after 1-minute interval from the preceding reinforcement

Condition Change Lines

vertical lines drawn upward from the horizontal axis to show points in time at which changes in the IV occurred

ratio charts

well suited for displaying proportional change; equal vertical distances correspond to equal ratios of change in the variable being measured; Used for detecting relative behavior change as opposed to absolute change

differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI)

when DRA is implemented by reinforcing a behavior that cannot occur simultaneously with the problem behavior

negative reinforcement

when a behavior occurs more often because past responses have resulted in the withdrawal or termination of a stimulus, the operation is called negative reinforcement

treatment package

when a behavioral intervention consists of multiple components

reinforcement

when a response is followed by a stimulus change that results in similar responses occurring more often, reinforcement has taken place

punishment

when a response is followed immediately by a stimulus change that results in similar responses occurring less often, punishment has taken place

technological

when all of the operative procedure are identified and described with sufficient detail and clarity "such that a reader has a fair chance of replicating the application with the same results"

hero procedure

when an individual, or small group, earns a reward for a class, the contingency is sometimes referred to as this

response differentiation

when differential reinforcement is applied consistently within a response class, its triple effect results in a new response class composed primarily of responses sharing the characteristics of the previously reinforced subclass, this emergence of a new response class is called response differentiation

placebo effect

when medical researchers design experiments to test the effects of a drug, they use a technique called a placebo control to separate effects that may be produced by a subject's perceived expectations of improvement because of taking the drug apart from the effects actually produced by the drug

double-blind control

when neither the subject(s) not the observers know whether the IV is present or absent from session to session. This eliminates confounding by subject expectations, parent, and teacher expectations, differential treatment by others, and observer bias.

stimulus discrimination

when one stimulus (the SD) signals the availability of reinforcement and the absence of that stimulus the (S-Delta) signals a zero or reduced chance of reinforcement, response will occur more often in the presence of the SD than in its absence (S-Delta)

differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL)

when response are reinforced only when they are lower than the criterion; Produces a lower rate of responding; A response produces reinforcement when it occurs after a time criterion has elapsed

conjunctive schedules (conj)

whenever reinforcement follows the completion of response requirements for two or more schedules of reinforcement; Ex: conj FI2/FR50 = The first response following the conclusion of time interval produces reinforcement if the criterion number of responses has been completed

habit reversal

which clients are taught to self-monitor their nervous habits and interrupt the behavior chain as early as possible by engaging in behavior incompatible with the problem behavior

horizontal axes

x-axis (abscissa); most often represents the passage of time and the presence, absence, and/or value of the IV