Applied Ecology Final Review

Iteroparous and semelparous organisms

*(Explain how each reproductive strategy can be both beneficial and a hinderance under certain conditions) Iteroparous- reproduce more than once a year Semelparous- once a year (salmon)

Endothermic vs ectothermic

*endothermy: heat from within. Allows animals to remain active regardless of environmental temperatures. Most of caloric intake goes to temperature regulation rather than growth. *ectothermy: heat from the environment. Environmental temperatures largely dictate activity. Require fewer calories per gram of body weight.

3 photosynthetic pathways and ideal abiotic conditions for them to be maximized at

*majority of plants are C3 which have no special features to combat photorespiration *C4 plants minimize photorespiration by separating initial C02 fixation and the Calvin cycle in space, performing these steps in different cell types. Have high water-use efficiency. Found in hot, dry climates where water is limiting factor. Mostly grasses and shrubs native to tropical and subtropical regions *CAM plants minimize photorespiration and save water by separating steps between night and day. Cacti

Monogamy vs. Polygamy

*monogamy: formation of a lasting bond between one male and one female *polygamy: two or more mates.

How do plants growing in shaded environments respond developmentally through phenotypic plasticity to increase their photosynthetic capacity?

*plants growing in shade tend to have lower light compensation point, lower light saturation point, and a lower maximum rate of photosynthesis than plants growing in high light environments *they have less rubisco and more light-harvesting compounds in the leaves because creating rubisco takes a lot of energy. Less rubisco lowers rate of respiration *leaves are larger and thinner to increase surface area for capture of light

Polygyny vs. Polyandry

*polygyny: male with two females *polyandry: female with two males

Photosynthetic limitations in aquatic environments

*there is less sunlight available to plants submerged below the surface *diffusion of C02 in water is much slower than in air, which reduces rate of uptake and photosynthesis

Describe the boundary layer around a leaf, and explain how it affects a plant's moisture balance and temperature in a given environment

*transfer of heat from the plant to the surrounding environment is influenced by the existence of the boundary layer *boundary layer is a layer of still air or water adjacent to the surface of each leaf *as water is transpired from stomata, the humidity of the air within the boundary layer increases *as heat is transferred from the leaf surface to the boundary layer the air temperature of the boundary layer increases, further reducing feat transfer from the leaf surface

stochasticity

-scientific word for randomness -demographic stochasticity is the randomness within reproduction of animals such as having 1 cub or 3 cubs

List two density-dependent and two density-independent factors that might affect a population of Ponderosa Pine in a mountain ecosystem in Montana

-the greater the density of the population either it will be harder to get resources -Nutrient availability, sunlight, diseases tend to be density dependent -An abiotic factor would be a freeze killing seedlings or a fire (although intensity of fire is density dependent)

dominant vs keystone species

A dominant species in an ecosystem is the most abundant species present. It makes up the highest percentage of the total biomass in the system. A keystone species is one that has the greatest effect on all of the other species in an ecosystem, such as a main food source or an apex predator

trophic cascade

A trophic cascade is when one organism is removed from an ecosystem, and the effects ripple throughout. Trophic cascades can happen the top, bottom, or anywhere in between. Interactions of primary and secondary production involve processes that occur in food webs. Controls may be top down (predator control) or bottom up (nutrient limitation), and separating them may be difficult.

What conditions must exist for a population to experience exponential growth? Why are these rates of growth generally not sustainable?

Ample resources, safe conditions (minimal predation), no immigration or emigration. It's not sustainable because resources are not unlimited and reproduction happens all the time. Eventually will outgrow resources

aphotic

Aphotic: deep areas of a body of water where light levels are too low to support photosynthesis.

What are the two major food chains (when defined by their basal food/energy source), and how are they related?

As an example, a grazing food web has plants or other photosynthetic organisms at its base, followed by herbivores and various carnivores. A detrital food web consists of a base of organisms that feed on decaying organic matter (dead organisms), called decomposers or detritivores. How are they related? Everything turns into detritus eventually. It's the circle of life.

Under what conditions would asexual reproduction benefit the offspring? How about sexual reproduction?

Asexual: cloning, less disruptive than binary fission, slight chance of genetic variability but egg is able to pass down strong genetics

Describe the relationship between Nitrogen and Carbon in the process of decomposition

Bacteria need nitrogen, and the carbon is just off-gassing from the decaying material

basal, intermediate, predator species

Basal: Species that feed on nothing within a food web. Intermediate: Species that consist of both predators and prey within the food web. Predator: Species (essentially) eaten by nothing else in the food web.

explain in terms of resource benefits the mycorrhizal relationship between fungi and plants in terms of resource benefits to each species. is there a time when this relationship would be a disadvantage to either species?

Because the fine threads that make fungal mycelium can spread over long distances, fungi can capture water and nutrients from far away and bring them back along the fine threads and close to plant roots. After the plant dies or as it drops dead leaves, the fungi use the 'waste' as an energy source. In some cases, fungal growths can block light from plants or trap moisture causing degradation of cell-walls, making it a less symbiotic relationship.

benthic

Benthic: bottom of an aquatic ecosystem; consists of sand and sediment and supports its own community of organisms. higher nutrients

Give two biotic and abiotic conditions that can affect an organism's fecundity. How does an organism's reproductive effort influence its response to these factors?

Biotic: competition, disease/ reducing health Abiotic: anything else; ability to find food safely, predation, parasitism

density independent factors vs density dependent factors that could drive rates of dispersal from a population

Density-independent: factor would occur no matter the size of the population (i.e. forest fire, climate shifts. Density-dependent: for example: availability of resources, disease. i.e.) disease in plants that are grouped closely together can prevent a population from having the availability to reproduce.

How are constitutive defenses different from induced defenses

Each type of defense can be either constitutive meaning it was always present in the plant, or induced meaning it was produced in reaction to damage or stress (usually caused by herbivores)

What co-evolution has occurred between wolves and elks (antlers)

Elk have been holding onto their antlers longer because wolves will hunt bulls that have dropped their antlers first in the spring. If they drop them later, they have less predation pressure from wolves.

Why is a 2 gram shrew as small as an endotherm can be?

Endotherms spend 90% of their energy regulating their temperature. They would have to eat all the time to not freeze. Anything smaller than this will have to be an ectotherm.

Contrast the constraints imposed by freshwater and marine environments on the maintenance of water balance for fish

Energy balance and water balance. Freshwater fish generally have to excrete water absorbed in order to maintain osmotic balance. Whereas, saltwater fish are constantly drinking water, then they have to excrete salt pellets.

What accounts for the loss of energy between trophic levels?

Energy is lost mainly through metabolic processes as heat between trophic levels

How do demographic stochasticity and environmental stochasticity each affect population growth?

Environmental stochasticity is randomness of nature, for example a natural disaster: a frost event kills off a bunch more seedlings than normal. Some random externality Demographic stochasticity could be a mother having 1 cub one year and 3 cubs another by randomness

What makes birthrate age-specific in most populations? Are there circumstances where it is not age-specific?

Fecundity Immature female is not capable to produce enough offspring Doesn't injure itself if it does not reproduce

How does a species fundamental niches relate to its realized niche when describing community structure?

Fundamental niches represent all the environmental conditions where a species is able to live, and the realized niche is where the species actually lives.

Why do mammal populations become more female dominated as they age and birds become more male dominated?

Gender roles with reproduction as a whole. Most mammal male populations, you see that intrasexual fighting. With birds, with the exception of those relatively obscure shoreline birds, the females have the responsibility of incubating the eggs which leave them more vulnerable to predation. Male elk fighting for the right to mate- 7-8 year life-span, female elk- 10-12 years

carrying capacity

Generally determined by the resources within a given ecosystem, competition for nutrients

What is the difference between net primary productivity (NPP) of an ecosystem and gross primary productivity (GPP)

Gross Primary Productivity is the total amount of energy produced in the process. Net Primary Productivity is the total difference between GPP and the energy used by the producer for respiration. GPP is totally dependent on chlorophyll content of the plant. NPP is not dependent on the chlorophyll content.

Explain the difference between daily torpor, brumation, and hibernation

Hibernation (internally regulated shift into that lower body temperature) is a state of inactivity and metabolic depression in endotherms. I.e. Northern Bat Torpor is a state of decreased physiological activity in an animal, usually by a reduced body temperature and metabolic rate. Torpor enables animals to survive periods of reduced food availability. I.e.: Hummingbirds Brumation is a term used for the hibernation-like state that cold-blooded animals (ectotherms) utilize during very cold weather. I.e. Reptiles: Bearded Dragons.

obligate mutualism

In obligate mutualism, one organism cannot survive without the other. This term is easy to remember because both organisms are obligated, or forced to, rely on one another

What traits/characterisitcs are common with intraspecific selection and who are these traits for? Would these traits be considered primary, or secondary sexual characteristics? what do wee with interspecific selection?

Intrasexual: male to male interactions-enlarged antlers and aggressive behavior -Primary: sexual organism itself -Secondary: anything else, the plumage, something that leads to reproduction Intersexual: what catches the eye, plumage

2 ways intraspecific competition can affect population growth rates

Intraspecific competition will drive natural selection with the species; who is best fit (1) to reach resources and (2) reproduce will survive

why is intraspecific competition generally more intense than interspecific competition?

Lack or reduced amount of resources.

Of the three main abiotic factors that limits NPP in terrestrial systems (light, temp, moisture) explain the circumstance where each could be the most limiting, and give a part of the world where this is so

Light could be most limited in an ecosystem that has a thick canopy, such as a rainforest. Rainforests are commonly located near the equator. The bottom would only select for species that can survive in a lot of shade. Temperature could be most limiting at the North and South poles. Moisture could be most limiting in deserts.

minimum viable population (MVP) and its relation to minimum dynamic areas (MDA) in relation to conservation of species

MVP: Minimum number of individuals needed to ensure the long-term survival of a species, Smallest isolated population that can be predicted to have a very high chance (90-99%) of persisting into the foreseeable future. MDA: Area of suitable habitat necessary for maintaining the minimum viable population.

contrast mark-recapture sampling of Meadowlarks with the use of indices of abundance with the same species. Under what circumstances would each be more ideal?

Mark-recapture- capturing a species, invasive. Can track trends in populations Indices-less invasive, shifts of trends. Inexact way of watching populations

How is composting different than natural decomposition?

Natural decomposition lacks human interaction. With composting, humans add ingredients and turn the pile over. Whereas natural decomposition, is just littered across a forest floor for example. They're similar in the way that they both break down organic matter over time, with the right elements.

optimal foraging theory and how it relates to predation

Natural selection favors efficient foragers, if you spend less energy foraging and forage in less dangerous ways you get to reproduce more.

Define a null hypothesis, alternative hypothesis and their purposes

Null hypothesis: an initial statistical check, claiming that there will not be a difference so we can statistically make sure there is a difference Alternative hypothesis is often a disproportion that states the opposite, such as if A=B is our null, A does not equal B is our alternative, or A is greater/less than B

How are functional responses and numerical responses connected in predator-prey relationships?

Numerical response- change in size of a population of predators in response to change in density of its prey Functional response- change in rate of exploitation of a prey species by a predator in relation to changing prey density. So functional means predators will change the rate at which they kill a prey due to a change in the density of the prey and numerical response is kind of a result from functional response where the predator density changes with the changing of the prey density.

How can parasites impact natural selection if they generally don't kill their host?

Parasites make the host weaker and can inhibit the potential for the host to reproduce and pass on their genes.

photic

Photic: regions of a body of water where light penetrates, enabling photosynthesis.

rubisco

Rubisco or rubisco, RuBPCase, or RuBPco, is an enzyme involved in the first major step of carbon fixation, a process by which atmospheric carbon dioxide is converted by plants and other photosynthetic organisms to energy-rich molecules

subpopulations vs metapopulations

Subpopulations can share genetics with each other and cross breeding, Metapopulations do not share any other genetics

distinguish between zonation and succession

Succession occurs when there is a transition between communities over time, they shape the abiotic conditions of that space Zonation is spatial more than temporal, larger scale where elevation has a great enough abiotic pressure on the biotic entities (can't be overcome or shaped by the community that is there)

Explain the obligate mutualism between the fungi and photobiont organisms that make up lichens.

The fungal component of a lichen is called the mycobiont. The photosynthesizing organism is called a photobiont. Living as a symbiont in a lichen appears to be a successful way for a fungus to derive essential nutrients since about 20% of all fungal species have acquired this mode of life.

how might climate change impact obligate mutualist relationships such as that between yucca moths and yucca

The moth's larvae depend on the seeds of the yucca plant for food, and the yucca plant can only be pollinated by the yucca moth. The moth has an obligate mutualism relationship with its host plant which is threatened by ungulate herbivory and loss of plants to human activities. Niche species like this are less adaptable to climate change, and in most butterfly/moth species if their host-plants are threatened the species will disappear.

Explain the three shapes or survivorship curves, and what each one tells us about the organism's approach to reproduction

Type I Survivorship curve shows individuals that have a high probability of surviving through early and middle life but have a rapid decline in the number of individuals surviving into late life Type II curves depict individuals whose chance of survival is independent of age. Type III curves depict individuals that mostly die in the early stages of their life.

home range vs territory

can roam w/ no conflict vs. must defend Home range (multiple individuals) is the realized niche of an organism and the territory is the part that is actively defended (never be inhabited by more than one).

lodge-poll pine ecosystems

high density, low plant diversity, moderate animal diversity, trends toward small size, naturally occurring climax community, requires high-intensity crown fire for regeneration due to serotinous cones, ideal return interval 75-125 years

light compensation point vs light saturation point

light compensation point is the light level at which the rate of carbon uptake equals the rate of carbon loss in respiration. light saturation point is the value which no further increase in photosynthesis occurs

Leachate

liquid accumulated beneath landfills 'trash juice'

Ponderosa pine ecosystems

low density, high plant diversity (forbs and grass), high animal diversity, trends toward moderate to large size, requires frequent fire return interval (8-20 years) to maintain community structure

What adaptations do plants have to moisture limited environments or nutrient limited ecosystems?

moisture limited: when atmosphere or soil is dry, plants respond by partially closing stomata and opening them for shorter periods of time. Closes stomata during the hottest part of the day. Closing the stomata reduces the loss of water through transpiration. Wilting nutrient limited: plant will have lower rate of growth and photosynthesis to reduce the need for nutrients. Plants tend to have "longer lived leaves"/ leaves that shed less. Also have increased root production.

Monecious and dioecious

monecious (mono) both sexual parts on the same plant - most able to colonize a new area. (apple trees) Dioecious have separate female and male plants - they produce more seeds

When remediating environmental toxins, three general options are physical removal, capping, and natural attenuation. What is a benefit and drawback of each technique?

physical removal: this approach literally removes the problem, but is usually expensive capping: containing problems works if its too expensive or dangerous to move but can't be permanent natural attenuation: the using of natural processes and ecosystem services, often the least expensive, doesn't work on large-scale

How are r-strategists and k-strategists different

r-strategists are short lived, high reproductive rates at low population density, rapid development, small body size, large number of offspring with low survival, and minimal parental care. k-strategists are competitive species with stable populations of long lived individuals. Slower growth rate at lower populations, maintain growth rate at high densities. Can cope with physical and biotic pressures. Poor colonizers to new habitats

Unitary vs modular organisms

unitary organisms have a determinate structure consisting usually of a strictly defined number of parts (such as legs or wings) established only during embryogenesis Most plants are modular. The zygote develops into a unit of construction that then produces further, similar modules. Growth is less limited here but structure is less complex. (to study populations of modular organisms, we most recognize two levels of population structure: the module (ramet) and the individual (genet). Ramets are often counted as individual members of the population.)