Applied Psychology - December 2020

horizontal cultures

accept equality as a given.

vertical cultures

accept hierarchy as a given

Peer assessment

actually refers to three of the more basic methods used by members of a well-defined group in judging each other's job performance.

erroneous acceptance

an individual who is passed on from a preceding stage, but who fails at the following stage.

erroneous rejection

an individual who is rejected at one stage, but who can succeed at the following stage if allowed to continue.

Psychological contract

an unwritten agreement in which the employee and employer develop expectations about their mutual relationship.

Polygraph instruments

are intended to detect deception and are based on the measurement of physiological processes (e.g., heart rate) and changes in those processes. An examiner infers whether a person is telling the truth or lying based on charts of physiological measures in response to the questions posed and observations during the polygraph examination.

Observation processes

are more basic and include the detection, perception, and recall or recognition of specific behavioral events.

Personality-based measures

are not designed as measures of honesty per se, but rather as predictors of a wide variety of counterproductive behaviors, such as substance abuse, insubordination, absenteeism, bogus workers' compensation claims, and various forms of passive aggression.

Employee referrals, direct applications (mail or Web based), and walk-ins

are the cheapest sources of candidates.

Training or learning objectives

are the intended measurable outcome that your learners will achieve once they've finished a course. They should detail the information that will be acquired and what learners will be able to accomplish through learning this information.

❑ Cognitive Ability Tests

assess abilities involved in thinking (e.g., reasoning, perception, memory, verbal and mathematical ability, and problem solving). Such tests pose questions designed to estimate applicants' potential to use mental processes to solve work-related problems or to acquire new job knowledge

Competency models

attempt to identify variables related to overall organizational fit and to identify personality characteristics consistent with the organization's vision - a form of job analysis that focuses on broader characteristics of individuals and on using these characteristics to inform HR practices. They focus on the full range of KSAOs (e.g., motives, traits, attitudes and personality characteristics) that are needed for effective performance on the job, and that characterize exceptional performers

360-degree feedback systems

broaden the base of appraisals by including input from peers, subordinates, and customers, certainly increase the types and amount of information about performance that is available.

Internet Revolution

changes occur at a dizzying pace as fluid organizations fighting to stay competitive require their people to adapt constantly. They need to adapt to strategic initiatives like empowerment, reengineering, automation, intranet-based self-service HR, the use of self-managed teams that push authority and responsibility down to lower levels, and alternative work arrangements such as virtual teams and telework. Technologies that enhance communications and information management.

Globalization

commerce without borders; interdependence of business operations

position

consists of one or more duties performed by a given individual in a given firm at a given time

Performance management

continuous process of identifying, measuring, and developing the performance of individuals and teams and aligning performance with the strategic goals of the organization

Outsourcing

contracting outside the organizations to have work done that formerly was done by internal employees

career

covers a sequence of positions, jobs, or occupations that one person engages in during his or her working life.

Task performance

describes the core job responsibilities of an employee. It is also called "in-role prescribed behavior" (Koopmans et al. 2011) and is reflected in specific work outcomes and deliverables as well as their quality and quantity.

Power distance

describes the degree to which people in a country accept that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally.

Performance appraisal

describes the job-relevant strengths and weaknesses of each individual

Job analysis

describes the work and personal requirements of a particular job

Definitions

descriptions of areas of study, search, reflection, or testing, including lists of activities, experiences, or questions that can help achieve these aims.

Job activities and procedures

descriptions of the tasks performed, the materials used, the machinery operated, the formal interactions with other workers, and the nature and extent of supervision given or received.

Statements of aims

desired changes in knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, or relationships with others.

Individualistic cultures

emerge in societies that are complex (many subgroups with different attitudes and beliefs) and loose (relatively few rules and norms about what is correct behavior in different types of situations).

Collectivism

emerges in societies that are simple (individuals agree on beliefs and attitudes) and tight (many rules and norms about what is correct behavior in different types of situations).

Simple rank order (system)

employees are simply ranked from best performer to worst performer

Written

employers should keep written records of the information obtained to support the ultimate hiring decision made.

Relevant

employers should stick to items of information that really distinguish effective from ineffective employees.

Geopolitical conflict

ethnic & regional tensions; terrorism

Paired comparisons

explicit comparisons are made between all pairs of employees to be evaluated. ▪ Supervisors systematically compare the performance of each employee against performance of all other employees.

Rater error training (RET)

exposes raters to the different errors and their causes.

Ideas about priorities

feelings of preference or urgency about what should be learned first.

performance management

focus on improving performance at the level of the individual or team every day

Contextual performance

goes beyond formal job responsibilities. Also referred to as "discretionary extra-role behavior" (Koopmans et al. 2011). It is also known as organizational citizenship behavior.

Biographical information

has been used widely in managerial selection—capitalizing on the simple fact that one of the best predictors of future behavior is past behavior.

Consistent

if an item is grounds for denial of a job to one person, it should be the same for any other person who applies.

forced-choice personality test items

improved validity in both warning and no-warning conditions.

Subjective criteria

include judgments, usually by local executives, of factors such as the expatriate's leadership style and interpersonal skills. Subjective criteria can be used to complement objective criteria and take into account areas that are difficult to quantify, such as integrity, customer orientation, and teamwork.

Objective Measures

include production data (dollar volume of sales, units produced, number of errors, amount of scrap), as well as employment data (accidents, turnover, absences, tardiness). • These variables directly define the goals of the organization, but they often suffer from several glaring weaknesses, the most serious of which are performance unreliability and modification of performance by situational characteristics. focus not on behavior, but rather on the direct outcomes or results of behavior

Objective criteria

include such measures as gross revenues, market share, and return on investment.

Judgment processes

include the categorization, integration, and evaluation of information.

duty

includes a large segment of the work performed by an individual and may include any number of tasks.

Office politics

includes efforts made in an attempt to improve one's status or to increase one's power in the organization.

Business Game

is a "live" case. A desirable feature of the business game is that intelligence, as measured by cognitive ability tests, seems to have no effect on the success of players is a simulation with the aim of training players in both hard and soft business skills. This game can be used for learning about business and testing different solutions to business problems.

Employment Interviews

is a communication process, whereby the applicant learns more about the job and the organization and begins to develop some realistic expectations about both.

task

is a distinct work activity carried out for a distinct purpose.

labor market

is a geographical area within which the forces of supply (people looking for work) interact with the forces of demand (employers looking for people) and thereby determine the price of labor.

job

is a group of positions that are similar in their significant duties

occupation

is a group of similar jobs found in different organizations at different times.

job family

is a group of two or more jobs that either call for similar worker characteristics or contain parallel work tasks as determined by job analysis

ASSESSMENT CENTERS (AC)

is a method, not a place. It brings together many of the instruments and techniques of managerial selection. By using multiple assessment techniques, by standardizing methods of making inferences from such techniques, and by pooling the judgments of multiple assessors in rating each candidate's behavior, the likelihood of successfully predicting future performance is enhanced considerably. consists of a standardized evaluation of behavior based on multiple evaluations including: job-related simulations, interviews, and/or psychological tests. Job Simulations are used to evaluate candidates on behaviors relevant to the most critical aspects (or competencies) of the job.

Conditional reasoning

is a new measurement technique used to measure cognitive biases associated with latent personality motives. This procedure is based on the premise that individuals with different standings on a specific personality trait are likely to develop different justification mechanisms to explain their behaviors

Conscientiousness

is a valid predictor of performance across all criterion types and all occupational groups. Its validity is the highest overall and underscores its importance as a fundamental individual-difference variable that has numerous implications for work outcomes.

weighted application blank (WAB)

is an approach to collecting and scoring background information from job applicants. It involves scoring applicant background in a quantitative manner based on the proven "best responses" to each application item.

third-country national

is an expatriate who has transferred to an additional country while working abroad.

Behavior modeling

is based on social-learning theory. Social-learning theory holds that we learn by observing others.

Biographical Information Blank (BIB)

is closely related to the WAB. Like the WAB, it is a self-report instrument; although items are exclusively in a multiple-choice format, typically a larger sample of items is included, and, frequently, items are included that are not normally covered in a WAB.

Succession planning

is considered by many firms to be the sum and substance of WP. The actual mechanics for developing such a plan include steps such as the following: setting a planning horizon, assessing current performance and readiness for promotion, identifying replacement candidates for each key position, identifying career-development needs, and integrating the career goals of individuals with company goals.

Networking

is crucially important because it's often casual contacts that point people to their next jobs. Social-networking sites like LinkedIn, Twitter, or Facebook can facilitate virtual networks.

Intrinsic unreliability

is due to personal inconsistency in performance

extrinsic unreliability

is due to sources of variability that are external to job demands or individual behavior.

Goal setting

is founded on the premise that an individual's conscious goals or intentions regulate his or her behavior.

Performance management

is just as important in the international context as it is in domestic operations. The major difference is that implementation is much more difficult in the international arena.

Composite criterion

is that the criterion should provide a yardstick or overall measure of "success" or "value to the organization" of each individual. Such a single index is indispensable in decision making and individual comparisons, and even if the criterion dimensions are treated separately in validation, they must somehow be combined into a composite when a decision is required.

Host country

is the country in which the expatriate is working.

Home country

is the expatriate's country of residence.

element

is the smallest unit into which work can be divided without analyzing the separate motions, movements, and mental processes involved.

application form

is used to collect relevant and required information from an applicant. is a minor test of the individual's ability to follow instructions, penmanship, literacy, and communication skills.

Organization Analysis

link strategic workforce-planning considerations with training needs-assessment results. Another objective is to pinpoint inefficient organizational units to determine whether training is the appropriate antidote to performance problems.

Personality-based job analysis (PBJA)

may be particularly useful for cross-functional and difficult-to-define jobs that cannot be described in terms of simple tasks or discrete KSAs

multiple criteria

measures of demonstrably different variables should not be combined

Leadership-Ability Tests

o Scales designed to measure two major constructs underlying managerial behavior, providing consideration (one type of "getting along" construct) and initiating structure (one type of "getting ahead" construct), have been developed and used in many situations (Fleishman, 1973).

Alternation rank order (procedure)

o The supervisor initially lists all employees. Then, the supervisor selects the best performer (#1), then the worst performer (#n), then the second best (#2), then the second worst (#n-1), and so forth, alternating from the top to the bottom of the list until all employees have been ranked.

cost of recruiting and selection ratio

o Two basic decisions that the organization must make at this point involve ___ and _____.

Temporal dimensionality

o a broad concept, and criteria may be "dynamic" in three distinct ways: (1) changes over time in average levels of group performance, (2) changes over time in validity coefficients, and (3) changes over time in the rank ordering of scores on the criterion (Barrett, Caldwell, & Alexander, 1985).

Forced Choice System

o a technique developed specifically to reduce leniency errors and establish objective standards of comparison between individuals (Sisson, 1948). In order to accomplish this, checklist statements are arranged in groups, from which the rater chooses statements that are most or least descriptive of the ratee. An overall rating (score) for each individual is then derived by applying a special scoring key to the rater descriptions.

REPATRIATION

o experience some degree of anxiety in three areas: personal finances, reacclimation to the home-country lifestyle, and readjustment to the corporate structure. o face the loss of foreign-service premiums (e.g., for children's education, maid service, clubs) and the effect of inflation on home purchases.

SHRM competency model

o is designed for all HR professionals. It is designed to serve as a resource for HR professionals - from those entering their HR career to those at the executive level. o It can help create a road map for developing proficiency in each critical competency to achieve his/her professional goals.

Critical Incidents

o reports by knowledgeable observers of things employees did that were especially effective or ineffective in accomplishing parts of their jobs

Cognitive biases

occur if interviewers distort information to support pre-interview impressions or use selective attention and recall of information. This sequence of behavioral and cognitive biases produces a self-fulfilling prophecy

Behavioral biases

occur when interviewers behave in ways that confirm their pre-interview impressions of applicants (e.g., showing positive or negative regard for applicants).

CRITERION DEFICIENCY

occurs when the criterion measure fails to include or underrepresents important aspects of the criterion construct.

expatriate

or foreign-service employee is a generic term applied to anyone working outside her or his home country with a planned return to that or a third country.

group exercises

participants are placed in a situation in which the successful completion of a task requires interaction among the participants.

individual exercises

participants complete a task independently.

Individual Development Plans (IDPs)

provide a road map for self-development

Active Practice

provides the internal cues that regulate motor performance. As their practice continues and as they are given appropriate feedback, trainees discard inefficient motions and retain the internal cues associated with smooth and precise performance.

Reliability

refers to the consistency or stability of job performance over time.

Recruitment

refers to the process of identifying, attracting, interviewing, selecting, hiring and onboarding employees. the first step in building an organization's human capital. At a high level, the goals are to locate and hire the best candidates, on time, and on budget.

Perceived friendship bias

related negatively to user acceptance

Overhead costs

rental expenses for temporary facilities, office furniture, equipment, etc.

JOB SPECIFICATIONS

represent the KSAOs deemed necessary to perform a job. identify the personal characteristics that are valid for screening, selection, and placement. How are these specifications set, and how does one define "minimal qualifications (MQs)"?

criterion

represents something important or desirable. It is an operational statement of the goals or desired outcomes of the program under study.

Personnel Psychology

represents the overlap between psychology and HRM. Ø excludes, for example, such topics as labor and compensation law, organization theory, industrial medicine, collective bargaining, and employee benefits.

Peer nomination

requires each group member to designate a certain number of group members (excluding himself or herself) as being highest (lowest) on a particular dimension of performance (e.g., handling customers' problems).

peer ranking

requires each group member to rank all the others from best to worst on one or more factors

Peer rating

requires each group member to rate every other group member on several performance dimensions using, for example, some type of graphic rating scale

Immediate Supervisor

responsible for managing the overall appraisal process

General Mental Ability

robust predictors for expatriate assignments across these two continents, although the same findings have not yet been demonstrated elsewhere

Staff costs

salaries, benefits, and overtime premiums.

selection ratio

selection ratio (the number hired relative to the number that apply) will be high or unfavorable from the organization's point of view.

Offshoring

shifting work to locations abroad

Yield ratios

show what percentage of candidates pass from one stage of the hiring process to another. It shows the efficiency of your hiring process.

Performance appraisals

signal importance to the ultimate success and survival of a reward system based on merit.

criteria

standards that can be used as yardsticks for measuring employees' degree of success on the job Ø It is an evaluative standard that can be used to measure a person's performance, attitude, motivation, and so forth

Based on public records, if possible

such records include court records, workers' compensation, and bankruptcy proceedings

changing subjects model

suggests that while specific abilities required for effective performance remain constant over time, each individual's level of ability changes over time, and that is why validities might fluctuate

Job analysis

supports many organizational activities, but one of the most basic is job evaluation.

Contextual criteria

take into consideration factors that result from the situation in which performance occurs. They include organizational citizenship behaviors (helping and cooperating with others, working with enthusiasm, volunteering for activities, being flexible and open to change), as well as indicators of cross-cultural skill development (e.g., language, host culture, communication, networking)

supervisor

the person best able to evaluate each subordinate's performance in light of the organization's overall objectives must be able to tie effective (ineffective) performance to the employment actions taken.

CHOICES

the range of choices can be narrowed once the job analyst identifies the specific purpose for collecting work-related information

Essay

the rater is asked to describe, in writing, an individual's strengths, weaknesses, and potential, and to make suggestions for improvement. they can provide detailed feedback to ratees regarding their performance almost totally unstructured, and they vary widely in length and content. It provides only qualitative information.

Behavioral Checklist

the rater is provided with a series of descriptive statements of job-related behavior. His or her task is simply to indicate ("check") statements that describe the ratee in question. In this approach, raters are not so much evaluators as they are reporters of job behavior.

HR strategy

the set of priorities a firm uses to align its resources, policies, and programs with its strategic business plan. It requires a focus on planned major changes in the business and on critical issues.

Time lapse data

the time period between the dates of demand for manpower requirement from a department to the actual date of filling the vacancies in that department.

Transfer of Training

the usefulness of organizational training programs depends on the effective transfer of training—the application of behaviors learned in training to the job itself. Transfer may be positive (i.e., improve job performance), negative (i.e., hamper job performance), or neutral.

Talent inventory

to assess current resources (skills, abilities, and potential) and analyze current use of employees.

Action plans

to enlarge the pool of qualified individuals by recruitment, selection, training, placement, transfer, promotion, development, and compensation

Workforce forecast

to predict future HR requirements (numbers, skills mix, internal versus external labor supply).

Control and evaluation

to provide closed-loop feedback to the rest of the system and to monitor the degree of attainment of HR goals and objectives

Accelerated global competition

trade agreements; free markets; free labor markets

Performance standards

translate job requirements into levels of acceptable or unacceptable performance

Overt integrity tests

typically include two types of questions. One assesses attitudes toward theft and other forms of dishonesty (e.g., endorsement of common rationalizations of theft and other forms of dishonesty, beliefs about the frequency and extent of employee theft, punitiveness toward theft, perceived ease of theft). The other deals with admissions of theft and other illegal activities (e.g., dollar amount stolen in the last year, drug use, gambling).

Trait activation

which implies that personality traits are expressed in response to specific situational cues.

changing task model

while the relative amounts of ability possessed by individuals remain stable over time, criteria for effective performance might change in importance. Hence, the validity of predictors of performance also might change.

Graphic Rating Scale

§ Is the most popular tool used to measure performance. § The aim is to ensure that the response categories (ratings of behavior) are clearly defined, that interpretation of the rating by an outside party is clear, and that the supervisor and employee understand the rating. § each point is defined on a continuum. Hence, in order to make meaningful distinctions in performance within dimensions, scale points must be defined unambiguously for the rater.

PRACTICALITY

§ It is important that management be informed thoroughly of the real benefits of using carefully developed criteria. Management may or may not have the expertise to appraise the soundness of a criterion measure or a series of criterion measures, but objections will almost certainly arise if record keeping and data collection for criterion measures become impractical and interfere significantly with ongoing operations.

BARS (Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale)

§ This method takes aspects from both the graphic rating scale and the critical incident method. § Consists of a series of vertical scales, one for each dimension of job performance; typically developed by a committee that includes both subordinates and managers.

Organizational psychology

§ are concerned with the issues of leadership, job satisfaction, employee motivation, organizational communication, conflict management, organizational change, and group processes within an organization.

Human Factors/Ergonomics

§ the area of human factors concentrates on workplace design, human-machine interaction, ergonomics, and physical fatigue and stress

aggregate (average)

· One solution is to ____ behavior over situations or occasions, thereby canceling out the effects of incidental, uncontrollable factors.

PROTOTYPES AND STEREOTYPES

· To the extent that the interviewers hold negative stereotypes of a group of applicants, and these stereotypes deviate from the perception of what is needed for the job or translate into different expectations or standards of evaluation for minorities

CONTRAST EFFECTS

· When interviewers evaluate more than one candidate at a time, they tend to use other candidates as a standard. Whether they rate a candidate favorably, then, is determined partly by others against whom the candidate is compared.

Environmental Safety

× Injuries and loss of time may also affect job performance × Factors such as a positive safety climate, a high management commitment, and a sound safety communications program that incorporates goal setting and knowledge of results tend to increase safe behavior on the job (Reber & Wallin, 1984) and conservation of scarce resources.

Lifespace variables

× measure important conditions that surround the employee both on and off the job. They describe the individual employee's interactions with organizational factors, task demands, supervision, and conditions of the job

INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY (I/O)

Ø "to enhance the dignity and performance of human beings, and the organizations they work in, by advancing the science and knowledge of human behavior".

Ultimate criterion

Ø (also known as conceptual criterion) is very complex and never completely accessible. It is a theoretical construct that we develop as a guide or a goal to shoot for in measuring job success.

PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY

Ø A subfield of applied psychology, concerned with individual differences in behavior and job performance and with methods for measuring and predicting such differences. § study and practice in such areas as analyzing jobs, recruiting applicants, selecting employees, determining salary levels, training employees, and evaluating employee performance.

Utopian Ideal

Ø In an idealized situation, the goal is to assess each person, profile them, and then place all individuals in jobs perfectly suited to them and to society. Ø Each person would make the best and wisest possible use of his or her talents. Ø In reality, there are mismatches between individual capabilities and organizational roles.

the time, the money, and the staff necessary to achieve a given hiring rate.

Ø In recruitment planning, three key parameters must be estimated: the time, the money, and the staff necessary to achieve a given hiring rate.

organization

Ø It is a collection of people working together in a division of labor. Ø It is an open system.

UTILITY THEORY

Ø It provides a framework for making decisions by forcing the decision maker to define clearly his or her goal, to enumerate the expected consequences or possible outcomes of the decision, and to attach differing utilities or values to each.

APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY

Ø The area of psychology in which basic theory and research are applied to the actual problems faced by individuals on a daily basis.

RECRUITMENT PLANNING

Ø The process of recruitment planning begins with a clear specification of HR needs (numbers, skills mix, levels) and the time frame within which such requirements must be met.

digital revolution

Ø breaking down departmental barriers, enhancing the sharing of vast amounts of information, creating "virtual offices" for workers on the go, collapsing product development cycles, and changing the ways that organizations service customers and relate to their suppliers and to their employees.

Core self-evaluation

Ø is a broad, higher-order latent construct indicated by selfesteem (i.e., the overall value one places on oneself as a person), generalized self-efficacy (i.e., one's evaluation regarding how well one can perform across a variety of situations), neuroticism (i.e., one of the Big Five traits as described earlier), and locus of control (i.e., one's beliefs about the causes of events in one's life, and where locus is internal when one believes that events are mainly caused by oneself as opposed to external causes)

General cognitive ability

Ø is a powerful predictor of job performance. It has a strong effect on job knowledge, and it contributes to individuals being given the opportunity to acquire supervisory experience. General cognitive ability is also a good predictor for jobs with primarily inconsistent tasks and unforeseen changes.

Flattened hierarchies

Ø mean that there are fewer managers and more empowered workers.

Workforce diversity

Ø more multiethnic, multicultural workers; older workers; more workers with disabilities; robots; and contingent workers.

REALISTIC JOB PREVIEWS (RJP)

Ø reflect ways that organizations can ensure employees fully understand what the job entails, as well as how they might fit within their department and the company as a whole. Ø any video (e.g. testimonial videos) or simulation designed to teach prospective applicants about a job's duties, expectations, and daily activities.

Cost per Hire

Ø the average amount of money you spent on making a hire. This metric is useful when you are creating or tracking your recruiting budget. For example, if you plan to hire 100 people in a year, and your cost per hire is $4,000, you can estimate a total spend of $400,000 for recruiting. You can compare annual cost per hire over several years to spot any significant changes.

Performance appraisal

Ø the systematic description of job-relevant strengths and weaknesses within and between employees or groups, is a critical, and perhaps the most delicate, topic in HRM. Ø It is a more limited approach which involves managers making top-down assessments and rating the performance of their subordinates at an annual performance appraisal meeting.

Chief Executive Officer (CEO) Succession

• Successors may be outsiders or insiders. Insider successors may be followers who were promoted to CEO positions following the ordinary retirements of their predecessors. Alternatively, they may be contenders who were promoted to CEO positions following the dismissals of their predecessors.

Workforce demand forecasts

• affect a firm's programs in many different areas, including recruitment, selection, performance management, training, transfer, and many other types of career-enhancement activities. These activities all comprise "action programs." Action programs help organizations adapt to changes in their environments.

Control and evaluation

• are necessary features of any planning system, but organization-wide success in implementing HR strategy will not occur through disjointed efforts.

subjective Measures

• depend on human judgment, they are prone to the kinds of biases • To be useful, they must be based on a careful analysis of the behaviors viewed as necessary and important for effective job performance • may be relative (in which comparisons are made among a group of ratees), or absolute (in which a ratee is described without reference to others).

talent inventory

• fundamental requirement of an effective WP system. It is an organized database of the existing skills, abilities, career interests, and experience of the current workforce

Alternative Approach

• or values-based, approach to developing strategy, organizations begin with a set of fundamental values that are energizing and capable of unlocking the human potential of their people.

Workforce Planning (WP)

• to anticipate and respond to needs emerging within and outside the organization, to determine priorities, and to allocate resources where they can do the most good.

CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING

• usually includes several components. The first is awareness or orientation—helping trainees to become aware of their own cultural values, frameworks, and customs. A second is behavioral—providing opportunities for trainees to learn and practice behaviors that are appropriate to the culture in question.

Leaderless Group Discussion (LGD)

▪ A group of participants simply is asked to carry on a discussion about some topic for a period of time . ▪ No one is appointed leader. Raters do not participate in the discussion, but remain free to observe and rate the performance of each participant.

Political Barriers

▪ Appraisals take place in an organizational environment that is anything but completely rational, straightforward, or dispassionate. It appears that achieving accuracy in appraisal is less important to managers than motivating and rewarding their subordinates. ▪ Many managers will not allow excessively accurate ratings to cause problems for themselves, and they attempt to use the appraisal process to their own advantage.

Forced Distribution

▪ Employees are apportioned according to an approximately normal distribution. It assumes, however, that ratees conform to a normal distribution, and this may introduce a great deal of error if a group of ratees, as a group, is either superior or substandard.

Clients Served

▪ In jobs that require a high degree of interaction with the public or with particular individuals (e.g., purchasing managers, suppliers, and sales representatives), appraisal sometimes can be done by the "consumers" of the organization's services. ▪ cannot be expected to identify completely with the organization's objectives, they can, nevertheless, provide useful information. ▪ Such information may affect employment decisions (promotion, transfer, need for training), or as a basis for self-development activities.

Reinforcement

▪ In order for behavior to be acquired, modified, and sustained, it must be rewarded (reinforced). ▪ that punishment results in only a temporary suppression of behavior and is a relatively ineffective influence on learning.

self

▪ On the positive side, we can see that the opportunity to participate in performance appraisal, especially if it is combined with goal setting, should improve the individual's motivation and reduce his or her defensiveness during an appraisal interview.

comparisons

▪ The rater's task is simply to choose the better of each pair, and each individual's rank is determined by counting the number of times he or she was rated superior.

❑ The In-Basket Test

▪ This is an individual work sample designed to simulate important aspects of the manager's position. : It permits direct observation of individual behavior within the context of a highly job-relevant, yet standardized, problem situation ▪ It assesses a candidate's ability to perform a manager's job from an administrative perspective. In the exercise, the candidate is confronted with issues and problems that have accumulated in the manager's xxx after returning to work from an extended absence. memos, correspondence, e-mails, directives, requests, reports, forms, messages, minutes, hand-written notes, etc., from management, supervisors, staff members, inmates, and other stakeholders.

Situational Judgment Tests (SJT)

▪ assess your ability to choose the most appropriate action in workplace situations. These assessments are designed to assess how you would handle situations that you could encounter in the job you are applying for. It is a type of psychometric test employers use to examine the ways a candidate approaches specific (and often work related) situations. ▪ Because they consist of a series of job-related situations presented in written, verbal, or visual form, it can be argued that SJTs are not truly work samples, in that hypothetical behaviors, as opposed to actual behaviors, are assessed.

Adaptive Guidance

▪ is designed to provide trainees with information about future directions they should take in sequencing study and practice in order to improve their performance

Interpersonal Barriers

▪ may hinder the performance management process. Because of a lack of communication, employees may think they are being judged according to one set of standards when their superiors actually use different ones. Furthermore, supervisors often delay or resist making face-to-face appraisals.

Knowledge of results (KR)

▪ provides information that enables the learner to correct mistakes (as long as the learner is told why he or she is wrong and how he or she can correct the behavior in the future) and reinforcement (which makes the task more intrinsically interesting, thereby motivating the learner).

n(n-1)/2

▪ the number of pairs of employees to be compared is computed by:

Self-Regulation to Maintain Changes in Behavior

▪ trainees are asked to pinpoint situations that are likely to sabotage their attempts to maintain new learning

Person Analysis

✔ Having identified the kinds of characteristics required to perform effectively on the job, emphasis shifts to assessing how well each employee actually performs his or her job, relative to standards required by the job. This is the purpose of person analysis.

Operational costs

✔ recruiting staff travel and living expenses; professional fees and services (agency fees, consultant fees, etc.); advertising expenses (radio and TV, newspapers, technical journals, ads for field trips, etc.); information services (brochures describing the company and its environment); and supplies, materials, etc.

Operations Analysis

✔ requires a careful examination of the work to be performed after training. ✔ It involves (1) a systematic collection of information that describes how work is done, (2) determination of standards of performance for that work, (3) how tasks are to be performed to meet the standards; and (4) the competencies necessary for effective task performance.

360 Degree Feedback System

⮚ This method provides well-rounded feedback from peers, reporting staff, coworkers and supervisors and can be a definite improvement over feedback from a single individual. ⮚ allows each individual to understand how his effectiveness as an employee, coworker or staff member is viewed by others.

Rater Training

⮚ has focused on teaching raters to eliminate judgmental biases. ⮚ there are three broad objectives: (1) to improve the observational skills of raters by teaching them what to attend to, (2) to reduce or eliminate judgmental biases, and (3) to improve the ability of raters to communicate performance information to ratees in an objective and constructive manner.

frame-of-reference (FOR) training.

⮚ provides trainees with a "theory of performance" that allows them to understand the various performance dimensions, how to match these performance dimensions to rate behaviors, how to judge the effectiveness of various ratee behaviors, and how to integrate these judgments into an overall rating of performance Awareness is certainly a good first step, but we need to go further if we want to minimize unintentional errors. One fruitful possibility is the implementation of _____________.

HONESTY TESTS

(also known as integrity tests) fall into two major categories: overt integrity tests and personality-oriented measures.

tacit knowledge

(i.e., knowledge gained from everyday experience that has an implicit and unarticulated quality, often referred to as "learning by doing" or "professional intuition") and practical intelligence (i.e., ability to find an optimal fit between oneself and the demands of the environment, often referred to as being "street smart" or having "common sense").

Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (F-JAS)

- Its objective is to describe jobs in terms of the abilities required to perform them. The ability-requirements taxonomy is intended to reflect the fewest independent ability categories that describe performance in the widest variety of tasks.

Job Analysis Wizard (JAW)

- JAW is a World Wide Web- based database system designed to systematize and automate the acquisition of job requirement information, provide previous products (tests, courses, job aides, realistic job previews, ADA accommodations) constructed from these data and allow for strategic queries. The system uses fuzzy-logic as a decision-aide to manage the appropriate placement of new dimensions (e.g. knowledge) into pre-existing taxonomies.

SME Panels

- Panels of 6 to 10 SMEs are often convened for different purposes in job analysis: (1) to develop information on tasks or KSAOs to be used in constructing job-analysis questionnaires, and (2) in test development, to establish linkages between tasks and KSAOs, KSAOs and test items, and tasks and test items. - Failure to include a broad cross-section of experience in a sample of SMEs could lead to distorted ratings.

Position Analysis Questionnaire

- Worker-oriented information describes how a job gets done and is more concerned with generalized worker behaviors. One instrument that is based on statistical analyses of primarily worker-oriented job elements and lends itself to quantitative statistical analysis is the_________________.

critical-incidents approach

- involves the collection of a series of anecdotes of job behavior (collected from supervisors, employees, or others familiar with the job) that describe especially good or especially poor job performance

Personality

- set of characteristics of a person that account for the consistent ways that he or she responds to situations. In recent years, there has been a revival of interest in personality as a determinant of work performance, largely because of the demonstrated positive relationship between some personality characteristics and job performance in some contexts

Questionnaires

- usually are standardized and require respondents either to check items that apply to a job or to rate items in terms of their relevance to the job in question.

adaptability

A key characteristic of successful international managers is ____.

Halo Error

A rater who is subject to the halo bias assigns ratings on the basis of a general impression of the ratee.

Thoroughness

All employees should be evaluated, all key job-related responsibilities should be measured, and evaluations should cover performance for the entire time period included in any specific review.

Conceptual criterion

An abstract idea that can never be actually be measured

Response Distortion in Application forms and Biographical Data

Application forms and biographical data be distorted intentionally by job applicants

Organizational Barriers

Common causes are faults that are built into the system due to prior decisions, defects in materials, flaws in the design of the system, or some other managerial shortcoming. Special causes are those attributable to a particular event, a particular operator, or a subgroup within the system.

Ø (1) They add positive economic benefits to the process of producing goods or delivering services; (2) the skills of the workforce are distinguishable from those of competitors (e.g., through education and workplace learning); and (3) such skills are not easily duplicated.

Human resources can be sources of sustained competitive advantage as long as they meet three basic requirements:

Overlearning

If trainees are given the opportunity to practice far beyond the point where they perform a task correctly several times, the task becomes "second nature"—they have overlearned it.

SENSITIVITY OR DISCRIMINABILITY

In order to be useful, any criterion measure also must be sensitive—that is, capable of discriminating between effective and ineffective employees.

As provided under Republic Act 9165, otherwise known as the "Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002".

In the Philippines, the conduct of random drug-testing is not only a management prerogative that every employer may exercise so as to assure that each and every member of the company or agency is drug-free, but it is also mandated under our laws.

Individualism vs. Collectivism

Individualism is the degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups and believe in individual rights above all else. Collectivism emphasizes a tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them.

THE STRATEGIC PLANNING PROCESS

It is the process of setting organizational objectives and deciding on comprehensive action programs to achieve these objectives.

✔ (1) by allocating ratings into a forced distribution, in which ratees are apportioned according to an approximately normal distribution; (2) by requiring supervisors to rank order their subordinates; (3) by encouraging raters to provide feedback on a regular basis, thereby reducing rater and ratee discomfort with the process; and (4) by increasing raters' motivation to be accurate by holding them accountable for their ratings.

Leniency and severity biases can be controlled or eliminated in several ways:

Masculinity vs. Femininity

Masculinity is the degree to which the culture favors traditional masculine roles such as achievement, power, and control, as opposed to viewing men and women as equals. Men dominate the society. A high femininity rating means the culture sees little differentiation between male and female roles and treats women as the equals of men in all respects.

Fairness and Acceptability

Participants should view the process and outcomes of the system as being just and equitable.

Long-term vs. Short-term orientation

People in a culture with long-term orientation look to the future and value thrift, persistence, and tradition. In a short-term orientation, people value the here and now; they accept change more readily and don't see commitments as impediments to change.

(1) observation and (2) judgment.

Performance appraisal involves two distinct processes:

Meaningfulness

Performance measurement should include only matters under the control of the employee; appraisals should occur at regular intervals; the system should provide for continuing skill development of raters and ratees; the results should be used for important HR decisions; and the implementation of the system should be seen as an important part of everyone's job.

Reliability and Validity

Performance scores should be consistent over time and across raters observing the same behaviors and should not be deficient or contaminated.

LEVELS OF PLANNING

Planning may take place at strategic, operational, or tactical levels.

Length of the Practice Session

Practice may be distributed, involving rest intervals between sessions, or massed, in which practice sessions are crowded together.

Inclusiveness

Successful systems allow for the active participation of raters and ratees, including in the design of the system. This includes allowing ratees to provide their own performance evaluations and to assume an active role during the appraisal interview, and allowing both raters and ratees an opportunity to provide input in the design of the system.

Uncertainty avoidance

The degree to which people in a country prefer structured over unstructured situations. In cultures that score high on uncertainty avoidance, people have an increased level of anxiety about uncertainty and ambiguity and use laws and controls to reduce uncertainty.

private employment agencies and executive-search firms.

The most expensive sources generally are

Offer Acceptance Rate

The offer acceptance rate compares the number of candidates who successfully accepted a job offer with the number of candidates who received an offer. A low rate is indicative of potential compensation problems.

Actual Criterion

The operational or actual standard of measure

RELEVANCE

The principal requirement of any criterion is its judged relevance (i.e., it must be logically related to the performance domain in question).

Discriminability

The system should allow for clear differentiation between effective and ineffective performance and performers.

Practicality

The system should be available, plausible, acceptable, and easy to use, and its benefits should outweigh its costs.

Congruence with Strategy

The system should measure and encourage behaviors that will help achieve organizational goals.

Specificity

The system should provide specific guidance to both raters and ratees about what is expected of them and also how they can meet these expectations

Subordinates

They know directly the extent to which a manager does or does not delegate, the extent to which he or she plans and organizes, the type of leadership style(s) he or she is most comfortable with, and how well he or she communicates. This approach is used regularly by universities (students evaluate faculty) and sometimes by large corporations, where a manager may have many subordinates. In small organizations, however, considerable trust and openness are necessary before subordinate appraisals can pay off

❖ Central Tendency

When political considerations predominate, raters may assign all their subordinates ratings that are neither too good nor too bad. They avoid using the high and low extremes of rating scales and tend to cluster all ratings about the center of all scales. "Everybody is average" is one way of expressing the _________bias.

Leniency

a rater is pre-disposed to rating employees higher than may be deserved there for inflating performance appraisal ratings.

Severity

a rater is pre-disposed to rating employees lower than may be deserved there for deflating performance appraisal ratings.

Personality-Related Position Requirements Form (PPRF)

a worker-oriented job-analysis method that assesses the extent to which each of the "Big Five" personality traits is needed for a particular job.