APR Module 1: Body Orientation

lateral

-Away from the midline of the body (e.g., the lungs are lateral to the heart) -Opposite of medial

deep

-Away from the surface of the body (e.g., in kidney, the medulla is deep to the cortex) -Opposite of superficial

femoral region

-Location: Lower limb (proximal) -Description: Subdivision of lower limb Skin, muscle tendons, nerves, and vessels around femur

abdominopelvic region

-Location: Trunk, inferior to thoracic region -Description: Topographic (surface) subdivision of trunk

oral region

Location: Head (anterior inferior facial region) Description: Region of mouth

Parietal pleura

Location: Thorax Description: Thin, serous membrane Lines pulmonary cavity Fused to internal walls of thoracic cavity and lateral surface of mediastinum Continuous with visceral pleura at root of lung Regions include mediastinal, cervical, diaphragmatic, and costal Comment: Pleural cavity created by narrow space between parietal and visceral layers of pleura Thorax has three subdivisions: mediastinum and right and left pulmonary cavities Costal and peripheral diaphragmatic pleura innervated by intercostal nerves

epigastric region

-Location: Abdominal wall (anterior) -Description: One of nine regions of abdominal cavity Upper median region (flanked by right and left hypochondriac regions) Contents include suprarenal glands and parts of stomach, large intestine, liver and gallbladder, and pancreas

deltopectoral triangle

-Location: Anterior shoulder -Description: Narrow, triangular groove bordered by clavicle, deltoid, and pectoralis major muscles

ankle region

-Location: Foot -Description: Subdivision of foot Skin, muscles and tendons, nerves, and vessels around distal ends of tibia and fibula, and talus

sagittal plane

A plane that passes from front to back through the body, dividing it into right and left portions

midsagittal plane

A plane that passes from front to back through the midline of the body, dividing it into right and left equal halves (median plane; same as sagittal)

transverse plane

A plane that passes perpendicular to the long axis of the body, dividing it into superior and inferior portions (horizontal/cross-section)

coronal plane

A plane that passes side-to-side through the body, dividing it into anterior and posterior portions (also called frontal plane)

oblique plane

A slanted plane (i.e., not horizontal or vertical) that passes through the body

diaphragm

Action: Dome of diaphragm flattens during inspiration Contraction increases vertical dimension of thoracic cavity Comment: Primary muscle of respiration Contraction (flattening) decreases intrathoracic pressure and increases intra-abdominal pressure

anatomical position

An individual in anatomical position is standing erect with arms at sides, palms facing forward with fingers pointing downward, feet parallel to each other and flat on the floor, and eyes directed forward

lumbar region

Location: Back (inferior) Description: Subdivision of back Includes lumbar vertebrae and attached muscles

sacral region

Location: Back (inferior) Description: Subdivision of back Includes sacrum and attached muscles

neck

Location: Between head (superiorly) and thorax and shoulders (inferiorly) Description: Connects head with upper limb and trunk Skeleton formed by cervical vertebrae Contains larynx and trachea, cervical part of spinal cord, parts pharynx and esophagus, and thyroid and parathyroid glands Subdivided into anterior cervical, lateral cervical, posterior cervical, and sternocleidomastoid regions

orbital region

Location: Head (anterior) Description: Region of eye Related to the orbits, the bony cavity that contain the eyes and accessory structures

gluteal region

Location: Lower limb (proximal end) Description: Subdivision of lower limb Skin, muscle tendons, nerves, and vessels associated with posterior aspect of hip joint

cranial cavity

Location: Skull Description: Space in skull that contains brain, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Formed by frontal, occipital, sphenoid, ethmoid bones, parietal, and temporal bones

presternal region

Location: Thoracic region (anterior midline) Description: Subdivision of thoracic region over sternum

axillary region

Location: Thoracic region (inferior to shoulder joint) Between upper arm and lateral thoracic wall Description: Subdivision of thoracic region that includes axilla Axilla is a pyramidal space Anterior boundary: pectoralis muscles and clavipectoral fascia Posterior boundary: scapula and subscapularis, teres major, and latissimus dorsi muscles Medial boundary: serratus anterior and upper lateral thoracic wall (ribs 1-4 and intercostal muscles) Lateral boundary: humerus (intertubercular sulcus) Base: skin, subcutaneous tissue, and axillary (deep) fascia Apex: passage between neck and upper limb (cervicoaxillary canal) formed by rib 1, clavicle, and superior border of scapula Contents of axilla: axillary artery, vein, and lymph nodes; infraclavicular part of brachial plexus; and areolar tissue

Pericardial cavity

Location: Thorax, around heart Description: Potential space between parietal and visceral layers of serous pericardium Comment: Visceral layer of serous pericardium is on surface of heart; parietal layer fused to inner aspect of fibrous pericardium

vertebral canal

Location: Vertebral column Description: Canal formed by combined vertebral foramina

foot region

--Location: Lower limb (distal end) -Description: Subdivision of lower limb Subdivisions include: ankle, heel, dorsum, sole, metatarsal, and digits (toes) Anatomical and functional subdivisions: hindfoot (talus and calcaneus), midfoot (navicular, cuboid, and cuneiforms), and forefoot (metatarsals and phalanges of toes) Includes skin, muscles, tendons, nerves, and vessels around tarsal bones, metatarsals, and phalanges of toes

proximal

-Closer to trunk or origin of a structure (e.g., the elbow is proximal to the wrist) -Opposite of distal

inferior

-Description: Downward or below (e.g., the diaphragm is inferior to the heart) Opposite of superior -Comment: In humans, synonymous with caudal (toward the tail)

anterior

-Description: Toward the front of the body (e.g., the sternum is anterior to the heart) Opposite of posterior -Comment: Ventral, sometimes used synonymously with anterior, relates to the belly

distal

-Farther from trunk or origin of a structure (e.g., the wrist is distal to the elbow) -Opposite of proximal

abdominal cavity

-Location: Abdominal region -Description: Bounded by abdominal walls, thoracic diaphragm (superior), and pelvic brim (inferior) Major organs include: stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, spleen, pancreas, kidneys and ureters, suprarenal glands, aorta, inferior vena cava, and lumbar nerve plexus

digits of foot

-Location: Foot (distal end) -Description: Distal subdivision of foot Includes: great (digit 1 or hallux), second (digit 2), third (digit 3), fourth (digit 4), and fifth or little (digit 5) toes Skin, muscle tendons, nerves, and vessels around phalanges of toes

dorsum of foot

-Location: Foot (dorsal) -Description: Dorsal aspect of foot (i.e., directed superiorly in anatomical position) Skin, muscle tendons, nerves, and vessels on dorsal aspect of foot

carpal region

-Location: Hand -Description: Proximal subdivision of hand Skin, muscles, nerves, and vessels around carpal bones and distal ends of radius and ulna

digits of hand

-Location: Hand (distal end) -Description: Distal subdivision of hand Includes: thumb (digit 1 or pollex), and index (digit 2), middle (digit 3), ring (digit 4), and little (digit 5) fingers Skin, muscle tendons, nerves, and vessels around phalanges of fingers

dorsum of hand

-Location: Hand (proximal) -Description: Subdivision of hand Subdivisions include: carpal and metacarpal regions, and digits Skin, muscles and tendons, nerves, and vessels on posterior aspect of carpal bones, metacarpals, and phalanges

facial region

-Location: Head (anterior inferior part) -Description: Region of face, including: eyes, nose, mouth, cheeks, and chin

frontal region

-Location: Head (anterior superior part of cranial region) -Description: Region of forehead Related to frontal bone

auricular region

-Location: Head (lateral cranial region) -Description: Region of external ear

buccal region

-Location: Head (lateral face) -Description: Region of cheek

cranial region

-Location: Head (superior part) -Description: Region of cranial cavity (i.e., surrounding brain)

popliteal fossa

-Location: Knee region (posterior) -Description: Subdivision of posterior knee region Skin, muscles, nerves, and vessels associated with diamond-shaped region on posterior aspect of knee region Bounded by biceps femoris, semimembranosus and semitendinosus, gastrocnemius, skin and popliteal fascia (roof), and posterior capsule of knee joint (floor) Important structures include: small saphenous vein, popliteal artery and vein, tibial and common fibular nerves, posterior cutaneous nerve of thigh, and popliteal lymph nodes

anterior leg region

-Location: Leg (anterior) -Description: Subdivision of leg Includes anterior and lateral muscular compartments Anterior border of shaft of tibia (shin) is subcutaneous Skin, muscles, tendons, nerves, and vessels anterior to intermuscular septum of leg and interosseous membrane of leg

anterior cervical region

-Location: Neck Anterior to sternocleidomastoid region -Description: Anterior subdivision of neck Anterior boundary: midline of neck Posterior boundary: anterior edge of sternocleidomastoid Superior boundary: inferior edge of mandible Apex: jugular notch Roof: subcutaneous tissue (with platysma muscle) and investing layer of deep cervical fascia Floor: pharynx, larynx, and thyroid gland

pectoral region

-Location: Thoracic region (anterior) -Description: Subdividion of thoracic region over pectoralis major muscle

back

-Location: Trunk (posterior) Between neck region and tip of coccyx -Description: Formed by skin and subcutaneous tissue, muscles, vertebral column (inferior to cervical region), ribs (thoracic region), and spinal cord and meninges

cubital region

-Location: Upper limb Anterior and posterior aspects of elbow -Description: Subdivision of upper limb Skin, muscles, nerves, and vessels around distal end of humerus and proximal ends of radius and ulna Includes cubital fossa, a shallow triangular depression on anterior aspect of elbow Important structures related to cubital fossa include: median cubital vein, brachial artery and its primary branches (e.g., radial and ulnar arteries), median and radial nerves, and biceps brachii tendon

antebrachial region

-Location: Upper limb (distal) Between elbow and wrist joints -Description: Subdivision of upper limb Skin, muscles, nerves, and vessels around radius and ulna

deltoid region

-Location: Upper limb (proximal end) -Description: Subdivision of upper limb over deltoid muscle Skin, muscles, nerves, and vessels around glenohumeral joint

brachial region

-Location: Upper limb (proximal) Between glenohumeral (shoulder) and elbow joints -Description: Subdivision of upper limb Skin, muscles, nerves, and vessels around humerus

posterior

-Toward the back of the body or relating to the back (e.g., the heart is posterior to the sternum) Opposite of anterior -Comment: Dorsal, sometimes used synonymously with posterior, relates to the back (L. dorsum = back of the body)

medial

-Toward the midline of the body (e.g., the heart is medial to the lungs) -Opposite of lateral

large intestine

Large intestine Location: Abdomen Pelvis In all abdominal quadrants; in all abdominal regions Description: Part of gastrointestinal tract Composed of cecum, colon (ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid), rectum, and anal canal Characteristic features include vermiform appendix, taeniae coli, haustra (sacculations), and omental appendices (epiploic appendages or appendices epiploicae) Approximately 1.5 m in length Function: Water and electrolyte absorption Absorption of vitamin B and vitamin K produced by bacteria in colon (normal gut flora) Storage of feces for defecation (sigmoid colon and rectum) Defecation

liver

Liver Location: Abdomen Immediately inferior to diaphragm In upper abdominal quadrants; in epigastric and right hypochondriac regions Description: Accessory digestive organ Four lobes: right, left, quadrate, and caudate Largest visceral organ Suspended from diaphragm by peritoneum Function: Produces and secretes bile and plasma proteins Stores glycogen, minerals, and vitamins Detoxifies drugs and alcohol Modifies hormones Removes (phagocytizes) bacteria Comment: Adult liver typically does not project inferior to costal margin Alcoholism, drug abuse, and liver disease can lead to destruction of hepatocytes (liver cells) resulting in cirrhosis

perineal region

Location: -Between proximal thighs, from coccyx to pubic symphysis Inferior to pelvic diaphragm Description: -Subdivision of trunk -Forms diamond-shaped area when thighs abducted -Anterior boundary: mons pubis -Lateral boundary: medial surface of thigh -Posterior boundary: gluteal folds and superior end of intergluteal (natal) cleft -subdivided into anal and urogenital triangles -Contents of anal triangle: anus -Contents of urogenital triangle: clitoris, external urethral and vaginal orifices (female); penis, scrotum and its contents (male)

parotid region

Location: -Head (lateral) -Inferior to auricular region Description: -Part of facial region related to parotid salivary gland and ramus of mandible

pelvic cavity

Location: -Pelvic region Description: -Bounded by pelvic inlet (superiorly) and pelvic outlet (inferiorly) -Major organs include: urinary bladder, loops of small intestine, inferior part of sigmoid colon, rectum, and reproductive organs (ovaries, uterus, vagina in female; prostate and seminal glands in male) -Continuous superiorly with abdominal cavity

mesentery of small intestine

Location: Abdomen Between posterior abdominal wall (root) and small intestine (jejunum and ileum) Description: Double layer of peritoneum Function: Support for small intestine Contains blood, nerve, and lymphatic supply for small intestine

lesser omentum

Location: Abdomen Between stomach (lesser curvature), duodenum, and liver Description: Double layer of peritoneum Two parts: hepatogastric and hepatoduodenal ligaments Comment: Hepatoduodenal ligament contains hepatic artery proper, bile duct, and hepatic portal vein

greater omentum

Location: Abdomen Description: Double-layered fold of peritoneum Suspended ("apron-like") from greater curvature of stomach Attached to anterior surface of transverse colon Function: Capable of storing large amounts of fat Limits spread of peritoneal infection Comment: Highly mobile Contains gastro-omental vessels

kidney

Location: Abdomen (posterior wall) Retroperitoneal Left kidney higher than right Description: Paired, bean-shaped organ Concave, medial border is point of entrance/exit of renal vessels and ureter Contains cortex, medulla, and renal sinus Function: Removes excess water, electrolytes, and wastes of protein metabolism from blood Urine formation Synthesizes calcitrol, a form of vitamin D, which stimulates uptake of calcium and phosphate by intestinal cells Releases erythropoietin (EPO) in response to low blood oxygen (EPO causes increased production and maturation of erythrocytes) Produces renin, an enzyme that helps form angiotensin II, a hormone involved in blood pressure regulation and water (fluid) balance Comment: Surrounded and supported by layers of connective tissue and fat

gallbladder

Location: Abdomen (right upper quadrant) Inferior to liver in shallow fossa on quadrate lobe In right upper abdominal quadrant; in epigastric and right hypochondriac regions Description: Pear shaped, hollow, muscular organ Cystic duct connects to neck of gallbladder Function: Storage, concentration, and release of bile Comment: Bile passes from the liver to gallbladder for storage and from the gallbladder to the duodenum for emulsification and digestion of lipids Precipitation of bile salts or cholesterol forms gallstones (cholelithiasis)

left flank region

Location: Abdominal wall (anterior) Description: One of nine regions of abdominal cavity Left lateral region Contents include parts of small and large intestines, and left kidney

left inguinal region

Location: Abdominal wall (anterior) Description: One of nine regions of abdominal cavity Left lower lateral region Contents include parts of small and large intestines

left hypochondriac region

Location: Abdominal wall (anterior) Description: One of nine regions of abdominal cavity Left upper lateral region Contents include spleen and parts of stomach, large intestine, pancreas (tail), and left kidney

pubic region

Location: Abdominal wall (anterior) Description: One of nine regions of abdominal cavity Lower median region (flanked by right and left inguinal regions) Contents include urinary bladder (when distended), and parts of small and large intestines

umbilical region

Location: Abdominal wall (anterior) Description: One of nine regions of abdominal cavity Median region (flanked by right and left flank regions) Contents include parts of small and large intestines

right flank region

Location: Abdominal wall (anterior) Description: One of nine regions of abdominal cavity Right lateral region Contents include parts of small and large intestine, and right kidney

right inguinal region

Location: Abdominal wall (anterior) Description: One of nine regions of abdominal cavity Right lower lateral region Contents include parts of small and large intestine (including cecum and vermiform appendix)

right hypochondriac region

Location: Abdominal wall (anterior) Description: One of nine regions of abdominal cavity Right upper lateral region Contents include parts of large intestine, liver and gallbladder, and right kidney

visceral peritoneum

Location: Abdominopelvic cavity Description: Coats outer surface of many abdominal organs Single layer of serous membrane with surface epithelium (mesothelium) Function: Secretes and absorbs serous fluid within peritoneal cavity Comment: Peritoneal cavity is potential space between parietal and visceral parts of peritoneum Other parts of peritoneum include parietal peritoneum, greater and lesser omenta, mesenteries, ligaments, and mesocolons

parietal peritoneum

Location: Abdominopelvic cavity Description: Lines wall of abdomen Single layer of serous membrane with surface epithelium (mesothelium) Function: Secretes and absorbs serous fluid within peritoneal cavity Comment: Peritoneal cavity is potential space between parietal and visceral parts of peritoneum Other parts of peritoneum include visceral peritoneum, greater and lesser omenta, mesenteries, ligaments, and mesocolons

peritoneal cavity

Location: Abdominopelvic cavity Description: Potential space between parietal and visceral layers of peritoneum Comment: Visceral layer of peritoneum coats surface of some abdominal organs (e.g., stomach, spleen, liver, and parts of small and large intestines); parietal layer lines walls of abdominal cavity

breast

Location: Anterior thoracic wall Axilla Description: Pyramidal structure Composed of skin with areola and nipple; fat and connective tissue; mammary gland, and associated ducts Base located over pectoralis major muscle Extends into axilla (armpit) as "tail" Divided into lobes by suspensory ligaments (connective tissue septae) Function: Milk production Fat storage (determines breast size and shape in non-lactating female) Comment: Amount of fat determined by genetics, hormones, and dietary habits Fat partially replaced by glandular tissue during pregnancy and lactation

triangle of ausculation

Location: Back Description: Small, triangular gap between trapezius and latissimus dorsi muscles and inferior part of medial scapular border Floor of triangle formed by rhomboid major muscle and thoracolumbar fascia

scapular region

Location: Back (superolateral) Description: Subdivision of back over scapula Comment: Scapula also known as "shoulder blade"

esophagus

Location: Cervical part: neck (inferior) Thoracic part: thorax (posterior mediastinum) Abdominal part: abdomen (left upper quadrant) Description: Muscular tube Superior third: striated muscle Middle third: striated and smooth muscle Inferior third: smooth muscle Passes through diaphragm (esophageal hiatus) Function: Conveys food from pharynx to stomach Peristaltic (wave-like) contractions during swallowing Comment: "Heartburn" (reflux esophagitis) results from regurgitation of stomach contents

central nervous system (CNS)

Location: Cranial cavity (brain) Vertebral canal (spinal cord) Description: Division of nervous system Includes brain and spinal cord Function: Integrates and processes nervous information Brain considered the seat of consciousness, intelligence, learning, emotion, and memory Control center (i.e., hypothalamus) for endocrine system Spinal cord provides a pathway for sensory and motor impluses, and mediates some reflexes

hair follicule

Location: Dermis May extend into hypodermis Description: Tube that surrounds hair root Courses obliquely through dermis Two coats: epidermic (inner) and dermic (outer) Characteristic parts include: dermal papilla bulb, hair shaft, cuticle layer, internal follicular sheath, and external follicular sheath Associated with hair receptors and arrector muscle of the hair Function: Hair formation and growth Comment: Hair follicle develops as invagination from epidermis Follicle associated with a sebaceous gland, an arrector muscle of the hair, and an apocrine gland (in axilla and anogenital regions) Apocrine glands release part of apical cytoplasm with secretion Arrector muscle of the hair also known as arrector pili (piloerector) muscle

cerebellum

Location: Dorsal to brainstem Description: Composed of many lobes with highly folded cortex Attached to pons via cerebellar peduncles Function: Coordinates complex movements Monitors muscles to ensure fluid movements Comment: Receives extensive sensory input from body and CNS Cerebellar cortex has folds known as folia White matter of cerebellar lobes resembles branching tree and is called arbor vitae Influences motor function through connections with thalamus and motor cortex

integumentary system

Location: External surface of body Organs and tissues: Skin Hair Nails Exocrine glands (sweat, sebaceous, ceruminous, and mammary glands) Description: Skin has two distinct layers (superficial to deep): epidermis and dermis Function: Protection (e.g., prevents trauma) Immune defense (e.g., prevents infection) Barrier function (e.g., prevents water loss) Secretion (e.g., sweat, sebum) Thermoregulation Vitamin D synthesis Cutaneous sensation Social functions (e.g., facial expression)

sole of foot

Location: Foot (inferior) Description: Plantar surface of foot (i.e., directed inferiorly in anatomical position) Skin, muscles, nerves, and vessels on sole of foot

heel region

Location: Foot (proximal) Description: Subdivision of foot Skin, muscle tendons, nerves, and vessels around hindfoot (talus and calcaneus)

palmar region

Location: Hand (proximal) Description: Subdivision of hand Subdivisions include: carpal and metacarpal regions, and thenar and hypothenar regions Skin, muscles and tendons, nerves, and vessels on anterior aspect of carpal bones and metacarpals

gastrointestinal tract

Location: Head Neck Thorax Abdomen Pelvis Description: Oral cavity Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small intestine (duodenum, ileum, and jejunum) Large intestine Function: Ingestion Digestion Propulsion Secretion Absorption Elimination of wastes Comment: GI tract also known as alimentary tract or canal The colon is part of large intestine from the cecum to the sigmoid colon

endocrine system

Location: Head Neck Thorax Abdomen Pelvis Scrotum Organs and tissues: Head: hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and pineal gland Neck: thyroid and parathyroid glands Thorax: thymus and heart Abdomen: pancreas, suprarenal glands, gastrointestinal (GI) tract, and kidneys Pelvis: ovaries Scrotum: testes Description: Collection of organs (glands) and cells that secrete hormones Endocrine glands are ductless Function: Regulate body functions Secrete hormones into bloodstream

axial skeleton

Location: Head Neck Trunk Description: Skull-cranial cavity bones: frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, parietal (2), occipital, and temporal (2) Skull-facial bones: maxilla (2), mandible, vomer, inferior nasal concha (2), nasal (2), lacrimal (2), palatine (2), and zygomatic (2) Vertebral column bones: vertebrae (cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, and coccyx) Thoracic cage bones: ribs and sternum

mental region

Location: Head (anterior inferior part of facial region) Description: Region of chin Related to anterior aspect of mandible

nasal region

Location: Head (anterior) Description: Part of facial region that includes nose

parietal region

Location: Head (lateral superior) Description: Part of cranial cavity related to parietal bone

zygomatic region

Location: Head (lateral) Inferior to orbital region Superior to buccal region Description: Part of cranial region related to zygomatic bone

temporal region

Location: Head (lateral) Superior to zygomatic arch and auricular region Description: Part of cranial region related to temporal bone

occipital region

Location: Head (posterior) Description: Part of cranial cavity related to occipital bone

digestive system

Location: Head,Neck, Thorax, Abdomen, Pelvis Organs and tissues: Oral cavity, Pharynx. Esophagus, Stomach, Small intestine, Large intestine, Teeth, Tongue, Salivary glands, Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas Description: Muscular tube lined by epithelium Gastrointestal (GI) tract: oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus. stomach, small intestine, and large intestine Accessory digestive organs: teeth, tongue, salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual), liver, gallbladder, and pancreas Function: Ingestion Digestion Propulsion Secretion Absorption Elimination of wastes

left lower quadrant

Location: Left of midline, inferior to transverse plane through umbilicus Description: Lower left lateral area of abdominopelvic cavity Contents include parts of small intestine, large intestine, urinary bladder (when distended), and left uterine tube and ovary

left upper quadrant

Location: Left of midline, superior to transverse plane through umbilicus Description: Upper left lateral area of abdominopelvic cavity Contents include spleen, left kidney and suprarenal gland, and parts of liver, stomach, pancreas, and small and large intestines

posterior leg region

Location: Leg (posterior) Description: Subdivision of leg Includes posterior muscular compartment Skin, muscle tendons, nerves, and vessels posterior to posterior intermuscular septum of leg and interosseous membrane of leg

lower limb

Location: Limb that, in anatomical position, extends inferiorly from trunk Description: Subdivisions: gluteal region (buttock), femoral region (thigh), leg, and foot (including ankle)

upper limb

Location: Limb that, in anatomical position, is suspended from the shoulder and lies along lateral aspect of trunk and superior aspect of lower limb Description: Consists of deltoid, brachial (arm), antebrachial (forearm), and hand regions

hip region

Location: Lower limb (lateral proximal) Description: Lateral subdivision of lower limb from iliac crest ("waist") to proximal thigh Skin, muscle tendons, nerves, and vessels around ilium, ischium, and proximal end of femur (especially head, neck, and greater trochanter)

knee region

Location: Lower limb (middle) Description: Subdivision of lower limb Skin, muscles, nerves, and vessels around knee joint Includes popliteal fossa on posterior aspect

exocrine glands of skin

Location: Merocrine sweat glands: most numerous (3-4 million in the adult) and widely distributed sweat gland Apocrine sweat glands: hair follicles of axillae (armpits), areolae (nipples), and the pubic and anal regions Sebaceous glands are associated with hair follicles Description: Merocrine sweat glands have coiled, tubular secretory part in dermis or subcutaneous tissue and a duct that carries secretion to epidermal surface Apocrine sweat glands have coiled, tubular secretory part in dermis or subcutaneous tissue and a duct that carries secretion into hair follicle Sebaceous glands are acinar ("grape-shaped") and have short ducts that open into hair follicle Function: Merocrine sweat gland secretion (99% water) functions in thermoregulation, secretion (excess water and electrolytes), and protection Apocrine sweat gland secretion is a viscous, cloudy liquid that contains protein and lipids; when secretion acted upon by bacteria, it produces distinct odor that may function in signaling and communication Sebaceous glands secrete sebum, an oily substance that waterproofs and lubricates hair shaft Comment: Other integumentary glands: ceruminous glands, in the external acoustic meatus that produce ear wax; and mammary glands, which are modified apocrine sweat glands that produce milk

cervical plexus

Location: Neck Composition: Motor General sensation Motor: Phrenic n. (C3-5) supplies diaphragm Other nerves supply rhomboids (dorsal scapular n.), serratus anterior (long thoracic n.), and prevertebral mm. General sensation: Nerves derived from cervical plexus (esp. C2-4) distribute to skin over shoulder, anterior and lateral neck, and parts of head (auricle and posterior scalp) Comment: A plexus is a network of nerves, blood vessels, or lymphatic vessels

sternocleidomastoid region

Location: Neck Between anterior and lateral cervical regions Description: Subdivision of neck related to sternocleidomastoid (SCM) muscle SCM divides anterior and lateral cervical regions

larynx

Location: Neck Between pharynx and trachea Description: Skeleton formed by nine cartilages Contains vocal cords Mucous membrane-lined cavity Superior end of lower respiratory tract Function: Conducts air to and from lower respiratory tract Sound production ("voice box") Prevents swallowed food from entering lower respiratory tract Comment: Laryngeal cartilages include: paired arytenoid, corniculate, and cuneiform cartilages, and unpaired thyroid, cricoid, and epiglottic cartilages

lateral cervical region

Location: Neck Between posterior cervical and sternocleidomastoid (SCM) regions Description: Lateral subdivision of neck Anterior boundary: posterior edge of SCM Posterior boundary: anterior edge of trapezius Inferior boundary: middle third of clavicle Apex: superior nuchal line at junction of SCM and trapezius Roof: subcutaneous tissue (with platysma muscle) and investing layer of deep cervical fascia Floor: cervical muscles covered by prevertebral layer of deep cervical fascia

brachial plexus

Location: Neck (inferior) Axilla Shoulder Upper limb Composition: Motor General sensation Motor: Nerves derived from brachial plexus distribute to muscles of upper limb General sensation: Nerves derived from brachial plexus distribute to skin of upper limb

posterior cervical region

Location: Neck (posterior aspect) Description: Subdivision of neck Deep to trapezius Contents include: greater occipital n., occipital a., and suboccipital muscles

female reproductive system

Location: Pelvis Perineum Anterior thoracic wall Organs and tissues: Oocytes Ovaries Uterine (Fallopian) tubes Uterus Vagina External genitalia Mammary glands Description: Gonads (ovaries) Accessory glands (greater vestibular glands) Uterus External genitalia (mons pubis, labia majora and minora, vestibule (between labia minora), bulb of vestibule, greater vestibular glands, vaginal and external urethral orifices, hymen, and clitoris) Mammary glands (in breast on anterior thoracic wall) Function: Produces oocytes (gametes or female sex cells) Produces estrogen and progesterone, and inhibin (female sex hormones) Receives sperm from male Site of fertilization of oocyte Site of growth of embryo and fetus Lactation Comment: Perineum in female is area between thighs that includes anus, external urethral and vaginal orifices, clitoris, labia minora and majora, and perineal muscles Perineum in male is area between thighs that includes anus, distal urethra, penis, scrotum, and perineal muscles

vertebral region

Location: Posterior cervical and back regions (midline) Description: Subdivision of neck and back over vertebral column Includes cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal vertebrae

right lower quadrant

Location: Right of midline, inferior to transverse plane through umbilicus Description: Lower right lateral area of abdominopelvic cavity Contents include parts of small intestine, large intestine (including cecum and vermiform appendix), urinary bladder (when distended), and right uterine tube and ovary

right upper quadrant

Location: Right of midline, superior to transverse plane through umbilicus Description: Upper right lateral area of abdominopelvic cavity Contents include right kidney and suprarenal gland, gallbladder, and parts of liver, stomach, pancreas, and small and large intestines

cerebrum

Location: Rostral portion of brain Description: Includes two large cerebral hemispheres separated by longitudinal fissure Hemispheres connected by corpus callosum Surface gray matter of each hemisphere is known as cerebral cortex Within each hemisphere there is a core of white matter Additional masses of gray matter located within cerebrum include basal nuclei Comment: Rostral = toward the nose (Latin: rostrum = beak)

epididymus

Location: Scrotum Description: Convoluted muscular tube along posterolateral surface of testis Between efferent ducts of testis and vas deferens Divided into head, body, and tail Function: Site for maturation and storage of sperm Comment: Plural of epididymis is epididymides Sperm can be stored in epididymis for 5-6 weeks

dermis

Location: Skin (between epidermis and hypodermis) Description: Two layers: papillary (superficial), composed of areolar connective tissue; and reticular (deep), composed of dense irregular connective tissue Contains appendages of skin: hair follicles and glands (sweat and sebaceous) Contains sensory nerve endings and dense network of blood and lymphatic vessels Includes part of hair follicle (which develops as invagination from epidermis) Function: Supports epidermis Dense concentration of collagen and elastin gives skin strength Receives general sensory stimuli (pain, touch, and temperature) via nerve endings and specialized receptors Regulates body temperature Comment: Muscles of facial expression insert on dermis

epidermis

Location: Skin (superficial to dermis) Description: Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium of variable thickness Avascular Major cell type is keratinocyte Thick skin has five layers (superficial to deep): stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale Thin skin has four layers (stratum lucidum is missing) Cells of stratum lucidum and stratum corneum lack nuclei Function: Physical barrier Protection of underlying structures Comment: Also contains stem cells, melanocytes, Merkel cells, and dendritic cells Depends on underlying dermis for nutrients (i.e., vascular supply)

thoracic region

Location: Superior part of trunk Between neck and abdomen Description: Topographic (surface) subdivision of trunk

head

Location: Superior to neck region Description: Skeleton includes skull and associated bones (hyoid and auditory ossicles) Soft tissues and bones form cranial cavity, oral cavity, nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses, orbits, and ears Contains brain and organs of special sense (vision, hearing and equilibrium, smell, and taste)

hair

Location: Thin skin Description: Accessory organ of skin Fine, keratinized filament Grows from oblique tube in skin called hair follicle Each hair has three zones: bulb, root, and shaft Projects from epidermal surface (length varies by body region) Usually pigmented (hair color due to melanin pigment granules in hair cortex) Function: Protection (e.g., from sunburn) Heat retention (esp. on scalp) Cutaneous sensation Dispersion of chemical signals Facial recognition/visual identification Comment: Hair not found in thick skin of palms (hands) or soles (feet) Genetic and hormonal factors determine body hair distribution Single hair also known as pilus (plural, pili)

Visceral pleura

Location: Thoracic cavity Description: Thin, serous membrane Fused to surface of lung Continuous with parietal pleura at root of lung Separated from parietal pleura by pleural cavity Comment: Thoracic cavity divided into midline mediastinum and right and left pulmonary cavities

pulmonary cavity

Location: Thorax Description: Bilateral subdivision of thoracic cavity (separated by mediastinum) Contain lungs and plurae Lined by parietal pleura

thoracic cavity

Location: Thorax Description: Cavity of the chest Bounded by sternum, ribs and costal cartilages, intercostal muscles, thoracic vertebrae, and diaphragm Three subdivisions: a central mediastinum (contains heart and thoracic parts of great vessels, trachea, esophagus, and thymus) and bilateral pulmonary cavities (contains lungs and plurae)

Parietal layer of serous pericardium

Location: Thorax (mediastinum) Description: Thin, serous membrane fused to inner surface of fibrous pericardium Outer limit of pericardial cavity Continuous with visceral layer of serous pericardium

Visceral layer of serous pericardium

Location: Thorax (mediastinum) Description: Thin, serous membrane fused to surface of heart (myocardium) Inner limit of pericardial cavity Continuous with parietal layer of serous pericardium Also known as: Epicardium (outer layer of muscular wall of heart)

bronchi

Location: Thorax (mediastinum) Lung Description: Continuation of trachea into right and left lungs Bifurcation from trachea called main bronchi Each main bronchus branches sequentially into lobar (secondary), and segmental (tertiary) bronchi, followed by smaller branches that end in bronchioles Terminal bronchioles form respiratory bronchioles that lead eventually to alveoli Function: Conduct air between trachea and lungs Comment: Gas exchange occurs along airway between respiratory bronchiole and alveoli

heart

Location: Thorax (middle mediastinum) Description: Conical, muscular organ with four chambers: two atria and two ventricles Function: Pumps blood to body

pleural cavity

Location: Thorax (pulmonary cavity), around lung Description: Bilateral potential spaces between parietal and visceral layers of pleura Comment: Visceral pleura on surface of lung; parietal pleura (costal, diaphragmatic, mediastinal, and cervical parts) lines pulmonary cavity

cardiovascular system

Location: Throughout body (blood and blood vessels) Thorax (heart) Organs and tissues: Blood Blood vessels (arteries and veins) Heart Description: Two circulatory divisions: pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation Function: Heart moves blood through blood vessels Blood and blood vessels distribute hormones, nutrients, and gases, and transport waste products Pulmonary circulation: movement of blood between heart and lungs Systemic circulation: movement of blood between heart and peripheral tissues

abdominopelvic cavity

Location: Trunk, between thoracic and pelvic diaphragms Description: Continuous cavity formed by abdominal and pelvic cavities Major abdominal organs include: stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, spleen, pancreas, kidneys and ureters, suprarenal glands, aorta, inferior vena cava, and lumbar nerve plexus Major pelvic organs include: urinary bladder, loops of small intestine, inferior part of sigmoid colon, rectum, and reproductive organs (ovaries, uterus, vagina in female; prostate and seminal glands in male)

hand region

Location: Upper limb (distal end) Description: Subdivision of upper limb Subdivisions include: carpal (wrist), palmar, dorsum, and digits (fingers) Includes skin, muscles, tendons, nerves, and vessels around carpal bones, metacarpals, and phalanges of fingers

hypothalamus

Location: Ventral diencephalon Description: Collection of nuclei located inferior to thalamus Includes infundibulum and mammillary bodies Function: Considered master control center for endocrine system Secretes releasing and inhibiting hormones that control anterior pituitary gland Produces hormones that are transported to and stored in posterior pituitary gland Controls autonomic nervous system Regulates body temperature, food, and water intake Regulates emotional behavior Maintains sleep/wake cycle

lumbosacral plexus

Lumbosacral plexus Location: Abdominal wall (posterior) Pelvic wall (posterior) Contributions: Ventral rami of L1-S4 spinal nerves Branches: Iliohypogastric Ilioinguinal Lateral cutaneous nerve of the thigh Femoral Genitofemoral Obturator Superior gluteal Inferior gluteal Pudendal Common fibular (part of sciatic) Tibial (part of sciatic) Posterior cutaneous nerve of the thigh Muscular Comment: Innervates all muscles of pelvic floor, perineum, and lower limb Innervates skin on lower anterior abdominal wall, lower back, perineum, and lower limb A plexus is a network of blood vessels, or lymphatic vessels

lungs

Lungs Location: Pulmonary cavity (in lateral thoracic cavity) Surrounded by pleural cavity Description: Cone shape with dome-shaped apex and convex base (rests on diaphragm) Left lung has two lobes: upper (or superior) and lower (or inferior), separated by oblique fissure Right lung has three lobes: upper (or superior), middle, and lower (or inferior), separated by two fissures - oblique and horizontal Two lung surfaces: costal (anterior, lateral, and posterior) and mediastinal (medial) Medial surface has hilum with airway and pulmonary vessels Surface of lung covered with visceral pleura Function: Primary organ of respiration Comment: Thoracic cavity divided into three parts: mediastinum, and right and left pulmonary cavities

lymph nodes

Lymph nodes Location: Along pathways of lymphatic vessels throughout body (except brain and spinal cord) Description: Small, round or oval (usually bean-shaped) lymphatic organ (1-25 mm in length) Surrounded by connective tissue capsule Two regions: cortex (outer) that contains lymphoid nodules and medulla (inner) comprised of connective tissue cords lined by lymphatic cells Found in prominent clusters (e.g., in axillary, inguinal and cervical regions) Function: Production of new lymphocytes Filtration of antigens and other foreign matter from lymph Initiation of immune responses Comment: Can become enlarged when cancerous cells, white blood cells, or infectious agents become trapped Lymph nodes filter lymph, whereas the spleen filters blood

respiratory system

Respiratory system Location: Head Neck Thorax Organs and tissues: Nose Paranasal sinuses Pharynx Larynx Trachea Bronchi Lungs Description: Upper respiratory tract: nose (external nose and nasal cavity), paranasal sinuses, and pharynx Lower respiratory tract: larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs Function: Air passes through nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs Air is cleaned, warmed, and humidified Phonation Lungs are primary organs of respiration (gas exchange) Acid-base balance

salivary glands

Salivary glands Location: Head Oral cavity Description: Parotid gland Submandibular gland Sublingual gland Function: Salivary glands produce and secrete components of saliva Parotid gland produces 25-30% of saliva (serous secretions only) Submandibular gland produces 60-70% of saliva (primarily serous secretions; some mucous secretions) Sublingual gland produces 3-5% of saliva (primarily mucous secretions; some serous secretions) Comment: Functions of salivary glands and saliva include: moistening and lubrication of food before swallowing; secretion of amylase for initial digestion of polysaccharides; dissolving some food molecules to aid in taste; and secretion of lysozyme, which has antibacterial activity

seminal vesicle

Seminal vesicle Location: Pelvis (between bladder and rectum) Description: Paired, sacculated, contorted muscular tube Duct connects to vas deferens Function: Accessory reproductive gland Contributes 60% of semen volume Secretes thick, alkaline fluid that contains fructose and prostoglandins Also known as: Seminal gland Comment: Duct of seminal vesicle and vas deferens unite to form ejaculatory duct

skeletal muscle

Skeletal muscle Location: Axial and appendicular muscles Description: Skeletal muscles composed of multiple muscle fascicles (bundles) Muscle fascicles formed by multiple muscle fibers Muscle fibers are elongated, unbranched, cylindrical contractile cells Each skeletal muscle cell contains multiple nuclei located at regular intervals Arrangement of contractile elements gives appearance of cross-striations (stripes) Function: Movement (e.g., walking) Maintenance of posture Communication (e.g., facial expression) Body functions, including respiration, circulation, digestion, defecation, urination, and childbirth Temperature regulation (e.g., up to 85% of body heat from skeletal muscle) Also known as: Striated or voluntary muscle Comment: Approximately 600 muscles formed by skeletal muscle in body

skeletal system

Skeletal system Organs and tissues: Bone Cartilage Ligament Tendon Description: Comprised of axial and appendicular skeleton Axial skeleton formed by skull and associated bones (e.g., hyoid bone), vertebral column, and thoracic cage Appendicular skeleton formed by bones of upper limb and pectoral girdle, and lower limb and pelvic girdle Function: Support for, and protection of body Provides site of attachment for muscles Movement of body via joints Hemopoiesis Storage of calcium and phosphorus

skeleton of lower limb

Skeleton of lower limb Location: Hip Thigh Leg Foot Description: Includes hip bone, femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsal bones, metatarsals, and phalanges of toes

skeleton of upper limb

Skeleton of upper limb Location: Shoulder Arm Forearm Hand (including wrist) Description: Includes clavicle, scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, carpal bones, metacarpals, and phalanges of fingers

skull

Skull Location: Head Description: Paired and unpaired bones divided into cranial and facial groups Cranial group: frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, parietal (2), occipital, and temporal bones (2) Facial group: maxilla, mandible, vomer, nasal (2), lacrimal (2), and zygomatic bones (2)

small intestine

Small intestine Location: Abdomen In all abdominal quadrants; in left and right flank, umbilical, left and right inguinal, and pubic regions Description: Coiled, thin-walled, muscular tube (approximately 6-7 meters long) Three parts (proximal to distal): duodenum, jejunum, and ileum Continuous with pylorus of stomach (proximal) and cecum of large intestine (distal) Function: Receives bile and pancreatic secretions Primary site for digestion Primary site for absorption of nutrients Comment: Supported by double fold of peritoneum (mesentery)

spinal cord

Spinal cord Location: Vertebral canal Description: Long, cylindrical portion of central nervous system Ends at level of L2 vertebra in adults Composed of inner core of gray matter and outer coat of white matter (opposite of brain) Divided, from superior to inferior, into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions Comment: Continuous with brain at foramen magnum Gives rise to 31 pairs of spinal nerves

spleen

Spleen Location: Abdomen In contact with diaphragm and lower ribs on left In left upper abdominal quadrant; in left hypochondriac region Description: Largest lymphatic organ Highly vascular tissue surrounded by capsule Function: Initiates immune response to blood antigens Reservoir for red and white blood cells Phagocytoses (removes) old and damaged blood cells and bacteria and other foreign material Comment: Protected posteriorly by rib cage Spleen monitors blood for antigens whereas lymph nodes monitor lymph

stomach

Stomach Location: Abdomen In upper abdominal quadrants; in epigastric and left hypochondriac regions Description: Hollow, muscular organ Characteristic "J" shape Four parts (proximal to distal): cardia, fundus, body, and pyloric part Between esophagus and duodenum Function: Initiates digestion of protein Mixes gastric contents Peristaltic contractions move contents toward pyloric sphincter Comment: Concave superior border forms lesser curvature Convex inferior border forms greater curvature Pyloric part of stomach includes an antrum, canal, and pylorus (the latter includes a sphincter and orifice)

subcutaneous tissue

Subcutaneous tissue Location: Deep to integument (skin) Description: Composed of loose connective tissue and fat Contains sweat glands, superficial blood and lymphatic vessels, and cutaneous nerves Function: Fat storage Thermoregulation (insulation) Protection (padding) Comment: Also called superficial fascia or hypodermis

suprarenal gland

Suprarenal gland Location: Abdomen (upper quadrants) Adjacent to superior pole of kidney Description: Paired, pyramidal-shaped, endocrine gland Two parts: cortex (outer) and medulla (inner) Function: Cortex: secretes hormones (corticosteroids and androgen) Medulla: chromaffin cells secrete catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) Also known as: Adrenal gland Comment: Epinephrine and norepinephrine also known as adrenaline and noradrenaline

sympathetic trunk

Sympathetic trunk Location: Adjacent to vertebral bodies, from base of skull to coccyx Description: Nerve trunk comprised of axons connecting sympathetic (paravertebral) ganglia Sympathetic ganglia contain postganglionic nerve cell bodies Branches include gray and white rami communicans, and splanchnic nerves Also known as: Sympathetic chain Sympathetic chain ganglia Comment: Ganglia give trunk a "beaded" appearance

testis

Testis Location: Scrotum Description: Paired, oval, male gonad Dense outer capsule (tunica albuginea testis) Interior divided into 200-300 lobules Each lobule contains up to three seminiferous tubules Function: Produces sperm cells Produces androgens (male sex hormones) such as testosterone Comment: Plural: testes The testis begins development near the kidney, and later descends along the posterior abdominal wall to the scrotum Development of sperm cells is temperature dependent (scrotal temperature ~3° lower than body cavity) Temperature of testis regulated by: (1) distance from body cavity, and (2) heat exchange between testicular artery and pampiniform venous plexus Testosterone regulates hair pattern, sperm production, skeletomuscular growth, and libido

thoracic cage

Thoracic cage Location: Thorax Description: Skeletal framework of chest Twelve pairs of ribs and sternum All ribs: articulate with thoracic vertebra True ribs (ribs 1-7): attached directly to sternum by costal cartilages False ribs (ribs 8-10): attach indirectly to sternum via shared costal cartilages Floating ribs (ribs 11-12): not associated with costal cartilages and thus not attached to sternum Alternate definition: some include the floating ribs (11-12) as a subcategory of false ribs

thymus

Thymus Location: Anterior and superior mediastinum Thymus can extend into inferior neck Description: Large, bilobed gland in children Atrophies during adolescence Remnant in adults consists primarily of fibrous and adipose tissue Function: Secretes thymopoietin and thymosins that stimulate and promote differentiation, growth and maturation of T-lymphocytes Site for maturation and differentiation of T-lymphocytes (primarily in young individuals)

thyroid gland

Thyroid gland Location: Neck (anterior inferior) Description: Bilobed endocrine gland Normally composed of left and right lateral lobes connected across midline by isthmus of gland An additional, superiorly-directed, conical pyramidal lobe present 50% of the time Function: Follicular cells: synthesize and secrete thyroid hormones T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine) Parafollicular cells: synthesize and secrete calcitonin Comment: Lobes lie lateral to trachea and larynx Enlarged thyroid gland known as a goiter, typically due to insufficient dietary iodine

tonsils

Tonsils Location: Head (tongue and wall of pharynx) Description: Lingual, palatine, and pharyngeal tonsils Collections of lymphoid nodules in submucosal connective tissue Not surrounded by connective tissue capsule Function: Trap foreign material and facilitate identification by lymphocytes Produce lymphocytes Comment: Pharyngeal tonsils also known as "adenoids" when infected or inflamed

trachea

Trachea Location: Neck Thoracic cavity (mediastinum) Between larynx and tracheal bifurcation Description: Rigid tube held open by a series of "C-shaped" cartilaginous rings (open end of rings directed posteriorly) Cartilaginous rings connected by anular ligaments of trachea Posterior aspect of tracheal rings closed by fibroelastic trachealis muscle Also known as: "Windpipe" Comment: Tracheotomy is surgical procedure to open trachea in neck to bypass an airway obstruction

upper respiratory tract

Upper respiratory tract Location: Head Neck Description: External nose Nasal cavity Paranasal sinuses (paired frontal, ethmoidal, sphenoidal, and maxillary sinuses) Pharynx (naso-, oro-, and laryngopharynx) Function: Air passes through nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs Air is cleaned, warmed, and humidified Phonation Comment: Oro- and laryngopharynx shared by respiratory and digestive systems

ureter

Ureter Location: Abdominal cavity (posterior abdominal wall) Lateral pelvis Description: Muscular tube 25-30 cm in length Begins at hilum of kidney Enters base of urinary bladder as ureteric orifice Function: Transport urine from kidney to urinary bladder Comment: Lies anterior to bifurcation of common iliac artery In female: passes inferior to uterine artery In male: crossed by vas deferens Flow of urine from kidney: collecting duct > renal papilla > minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter > urinary bladder > urethra

urethra

Urethra Location: Pelvis Perineum Description: Fibromuscular tube Proximal end: internal urethral orifice of urinary bladder Distal end: external urethral orifice in perineum Male (18-20 cm in length): preprostatic, prostatic, membranous, and spongy (penile) parts Female (4 cm in length) not subdivided Function: Male: transports semen and urine Female: transports urine Comment: Flow of urine from kidney: collecting duct > renal papilla > minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter > urinary bladder > urethra Urinary tract infection (UTI) more frequent in females due to shorter urethra and proximity to anus

urinary bladder

Urinary bladder Location: Pelvis When distended, extends into lower abdominal quadrants; in pubic region Description: Hollow organ with smooth muscle wall (detrusor muscle) Three openings define trigone of bladder: two ureteric and one urethral Superior aspect covered by peritoneum Function: Storage of urine Micturition (urination) Comment: Size and position varies with volume of urine Volume of urine affects position of surrounding organs, especially uterus Flow of urine from kidney: collecting duct > renal papilla > minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter > urinary bladder > urethra

vas deferens

Vas deferens Location: Scrotum Inguinal canal Pelvis Description: Muscular tube between epididymis and ejaculatory duct Function: Transport sperm and fluid from epididymis during emission Also known as: Ductus deferens Comment: Emission is stage of male sexual response when components of semen are brought together in prostatic urethra Scrotal part bisected during vasectomy (voluntary sterilization)

vertebral column

Vertebral column Location: Posterior midline of axial skeleton Description: Composed of 33 vertebrae and intervertebral disks (C2-S1), distributed in five regions 7 cervical (C) vertebrae 12 thoracic (T) vertebrae 5 lumbar (L) vertebrae 5 sacral (S) vertebrae, fused into single bone (sacrum) 3-5 coccygeal (Co) vertebrae, variably fused Has series of curvatures along length Also known as: "Spinal column", "spine", or "backbone"

superficial

Toward the surface of the body (e.g., in kidney, the cortex is superficial to the medulla) Opposite of deep

penis

Penis Location: Perineum (urogenital triangle) Description: Attached part composed of erectile bodies (paired crura and unpaired bulb) covered by muscle Unattached part (body of penis) composed of erectile bodies (paired corpora cavernosa and unpaired corpus spongiosum) Expanded distal end (tip) of corpus spongiosum forms glans Function: Male organ of copulation Body of penis contains dense network of sensory nerve endings important in sexual response Transmits urine and semen Comment: Dorsal surface directed anteriorly when penis is flaccid (non-erect)

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Location: Outside cranial cavity and vertebral canal Description: Cranial nerves Spinal nerves and their branches Autonomic nerves (sympathetic and parasympathetic) and their plexuses Ganglia, including sympathetic, parasympathetic, and sensory (dorsal root) Function: Transmits information to, and receives information from, central nervous system Functional divisions: sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) Mediates some reflexes Comment: A spinal nerve is the junction in the intervertebral foramen between dorsal and ventral roots and the dorsal and ventral rami; however, some use this term to describe all nerves derived from the spinal cord

pharynx

Pharynx Location: Head Neck Description: Muscular tube continuous with nasal cavity, oral cavity, and larynx Three subdivisions: nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx Comment: Nasopharynx: part of respiratory tract Oropharynx: part of respiratory and digestive tracts Laryngopharynx: part of digestive tract Latin: pharynx = throat

pineal gland

Pineal gland Location: Diencephalon (epithalamus) Description: Pea-sized endocrine gland Attached to roof of third ventricle Function: Secretes melatonin (involved in sleep/wake cycles) Modified activity in endocrine organs (pituitary, pancreas, parathyroid, suprarenal, and gonads) Also known as: Pineal body

pituitary gland

Pituitary gland Location: Midline of middle cranial fossa Rests in hypophysial fossa of sphenoid bone Description: Small, oval bilobed endocrine gland Two functional lobes: anterior (adenohypophysis) and posterior (neurohypophysis) Connected by infundibulum to hypothalamus Function: Anterior pituitary produces the following hormones: thyroid-stimulating (TSH), prolactin (PRL), adrenocorticotropic (ACTH), growth (GH), luteinizing (LH), melanocyte-stimulating (MSH), and follicle-stimulating (FSH) Posterior pituitary stores and releases: antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin (OT) Also known as: Hypophysial gland or hypophysis Comment: Posterior pituitary does not produce any hormones; ADH and OT produced in hypothalamus

prone

Position of the body when lying face down

supine

Position of the body when lying face up

prostate

Prostate Location: Pelvis (posterior to pubic symphysis) Description: Glandular and muscular regions Contains prostatic urethra, ejaculatory ducts, and 15-20 prostatic ducts Dense outer capsule Function: Accessory reproductive gland Contributes 30% of semen volume Secretes thin, milky, slightly acidic fluid that contains citric acid, seminal plasmin, and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) Comment: Benign enlargement of prostate (benign prostatic hyperplasia, or BPH) is common from middle age

superior

Description: Upward or above (e.g., the heart is superior to the diaphragm) Opposite of inferior Comment: Cranial, sometimes used synonymously with superior, relates to the head (L. cranium = head of the body)

lymphatic system

Lymphatic system Location: Throughout body (except brain and spinal cord) Organs and tissues: Lymph Lymphatic cells Lymphatic vessels Lymphatic nodules Lymph nodes Thymus Spleen Description: Lymphatic system cells: macrophages, T- and B-lymphocytes, and natural killer (NK) cells Red bone marrow is site of origin of lymphocyte precursors; their site of maturation differs Lymph vasculature (smallest to largest diameter): lymphatic capillaries, lymph vessels, lymphatic trunks and ducts Lymphatic nodules: clusters of lymphatic cells (usually not surrounded by connective tissue capsule), mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT), and tonsils (palatine tonsils have a capsule) Lymphatic organs: lymph nodes, thymus, and spleen (lymphatic cells surrounded by connective tissue capsule) Function: Produces lymphocytes Transports and filters lymph (lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes) Filters blood (spleen) Initiates immune responses Comment: Lymph is fluid within lymphatic vessels; it originates as fluid that leaves capillaries and enters interstitial spaces between cells Lymph is returned to venous system at junction of internal jugular and subclavian veins

lymphatic vessels

Lymphatic vessels Location: Throughout body (except brain and spinal cord) Typically follow veins Description: Lymph vasculature (smallest to largest diameter): lymphatic capillaries, lymph vessels, lymphatic trunks and ducts Thoracic duct is the longest (38-45 cm) lymphatic vessel, extending from L2 vertebral level to base of neck Function: Transports lymph Comment: Lymph is fluid forced from blood into interstitial spaces between cells Lymph returned to venous system at junction of internal jugular and subclavian veins

male reproductive system

Male reproductive system Location: Pelvis Perineum Organs and tissues: Sperm Testis Epididymis Vas (ductus) deferens Spermatic cord Ejaculatory duct Accessory glands External genitalia Description: Gonads (testes) Accessory glands (e.g., prostate, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral glands) External genitalia (penis and scrotum) Function: Testis produces sperm (gametes or male sex cells) and components of semen Produces testosterone (androgen or male sex hormone) Transfers semen to external urethral orifice of male Comment: Plural: epididymides Perineum in male is area between thighs that includes anus, distal urethra, penis, scrotum, and perineal muscles Perineum in female is area between thighs that includes anus, external urethral and vaginal orifices, clitoris, labia minora and majora, and perineal muscles

mediastinum

Mediastinum Location: Thoracic cavity Description: Middle region of thorax Lies between sternum and thoracic vertebral bodies Separates right and left pulmonary cavities Divided into superior and inferior parts Inferior mediastinum subdivided into middle, posterior, and anterior parts

mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT)

Mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT) Location: Lamina propria of mucosa of gastrointestinal, respiratory, genital, and urinary tracts Description: Large collections of lymphatic nodules, collectvely called mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT) MALT prominent in ileum of small intestine, where they are known as Peyer patches Function: Detect antigens and initiate immune response

eye

Orbit of skull Description: Globe-like structure Composed of three tunics (layers): fibrous, vascular, and neural Fibrous tunic composed of cornea and sclera Vascular tunic composed of choroid, ciliary body, and iris Neural tunic composed of retina and pigment epithelium Function: Optical components collect and focus light Neural components process and transmit light-driven signals to brain Also known as: Eyeball or globe

ovary

Ovary Location: Pelvis (lateral wall) Near distal end of uterine tube Extends into lower abdominal quadrants Description: Paired, female gonad Almond shape and size Contains oocytes (egg) Function: Maturation (oogenesis) and release (ovulation) of oocytes Produces the female sex hormones progesterone, estrogen, and inhibin Comment: Suspended by mesovarium of broad ligament (a peritoneal fold) Suspensory ligament of ovary (a peritoneal fold) contains ovarian vessels and nerves Size decreases after menopause

pancreas

Pancreas Location: Abdomen Posterior to stomach In upper abdominal quadrants; in epigastric region and left hypochondriac region (tail) Description: Accessory digestive organ Elongated nodular gland Divided into head, neck, body, and tail Head adjacent to duodenum Function: Endocrine (regulation of glucose metabolism): pancreatic islet cells release hormones (insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin) into blood Exocrine (digestion): acinar cells produce digestive enzymes (pancreatic juice) and pancreatic duct cells produce bicarbonate ions; these are released into duodenum via pancreatic ducts Comment: Reduction in insulin production or release by pancreatic islet cells can result in diabetes mellitus

paranasal sinuses

Paranasal sinuses Location: Head (around nasal cavity) Description: Hollow cavities within some skull bones Paired frontal, ethmoidal, sphenoidal, and maxillary sinuses Communicate with nasal cavity via ducts Function: Warm and humidify air Decrease weight of anterior skull Contribute to voice resonance Comment: Sinuses named for bones in which they are found

parathyroid glands

Parathyroid glands Location: Neck Posterior surface of thyroid gland Description: Small nodules, partially embedded in posterior surface of thyroid gland Usually four in number Contains two cell types: chief cells and oxyphil cells Function: Chief cells: synthesize and secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) PTH stimulates release of calcium into blood stream Oxyphil cells: secretion unknown Comment: Parathyroid glands lie external to capsule of thyroid gland