APUSH Tindall & Shi ch. 19-22, 24 Matching Columns

Battle of Little Big Horn (1876)

Not in T&S

Civil Service Exam

Not in T&S

Horizontal Integration

Not in T&S

AFL (1886)

Summary: 25 unions came together in 1886 to create AFL (American Federation of Labor), made up of craft unions who feared industrialization making craftsmen irrelevant. more autonomous, president = gompers, successful with skilled workers but not unskilled workers (railroad, steel, etc.) Excerpt: . Leaders of the craft unions feared that joining with unskilled laborers would mean a loss of their craft's identity and a loss of the skilled workers' bargaining power. delegates from twenty-five craft unions organized the American Federation of Labor (AFL). Its structure differed from that of the Knights of Labor in that it was a federation of national organizations, each of which retained a large degree of autonomy and exercised greater leverage against management. Samuel Gompers served as president of the AFL from its start until his death in 1924, with only one year's interruption. Born in London of Dutch Jewish ancestry, Gompers came to the United States as a teenager, joined the Cigarmakers' Union in 1864, and became president of his New York local in 1877. Unlike Terence Powderly and the Knights of Labor, Gompers focused on concrete economic gains— higher wages, shorter hours, better working conditions—and avoided involvement with utopian ideas or politics. Gompers was temperamentally more suited than Powderly to the rough-and-tumble world of unionism. He had a thick hide, liked to talk and drink with workers in the back 768 • BIG BUSINESS AND ORGANIZED LABOR (CH. 20) Samuel Gompers Head of the American Federation of Labor, striking an assertive pose. room, and willingly used the strike to achieve favorable trade agreements, including provisos for union recognition in the form of closed shops (which could hire only union members) or union-preference shops (which could hire others only if no union members were available). ; in 1914, on the eve of World War I, it had 2 million; and in 1920 it reached a peak of 4 million. But even then it embraced less than 15 percent of the nation's nonagricultural workers. All unions, including the unaffiliated railroad brotherhoods, accounted for little more than 18 percent of those workers. Organized labor's strongholds were in transportation and the building trades. Most of the larger manufacturing industries—including steel, textiles, tobacco, and packinghouses—remained almost untouched

Interstate Commerce Commission (1887)

Summary: ICC could investigate railroads/prosecute violators, no price descrimination, no secret agreements, powers of ICC were weak in practice Excerpt: It did, and in 1887 Cleveland signed into law an act creating the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), the first such independent federal regulatory commission. The law empowered the ICC's five members to investigate 832 • GILDED AGE POLITICS AND AGRARIAN REVOLT (CH. 22) railroads and prosecute violators. All freight rates had to be "reasonable and just." Railroads were forbidden to grant secret rebates to preferred shippers; discriminate against persons, places, and commodities; or enter into pools (secret agreements among competing companies to fix rates). The commission's actual powers proved to be weak, however, when first tested in the courts. Though creating the ICC seemed to conflict with Cleveland's fear of big government, it accorded with his fear of big business. The Interstate Commerce Act, to his mind, was a legitimate exercise of sovereign power.

Jeremiah Simpson

Summary: agrarian radical politician, "man must have land or he is a slave" Excerpt: Jeremiah Simpson was an equally charismatic agrarian radical. Born in Canada, he served as a seaman on Great Lakes steamships before buying a farm in northern Kansas. He, his wife, and their young daughter made a go of the farm, but when he saw his child crushed to death in a sawmill accident, he and his wife relocated to the southern part of the state. There Simpson raised cattle for several years before losing his herd in a blizzard. Simpson embraced the Alliance movement, and in 1890 he campaigned for Congress. A shrewd man with huge, callused hands, he simplified the complex economic and political issues of the day. "Man must have access to the land," he maintained, "or he is a slave." He warned Republicans: "You can't put this movement down by sneers or by ridicule, for its foundation was laid as far back as the foundation of the world. It is a struggle between the robbers and the robbed." Simpson dismissed his Republican opponent, a wealthy railroad lawyer, as an indulgent pawn of the corporations whose "soft white hands" and "silk hosiery" betrayed his true priorities. His outraged opponent thereupon shouted that it was better to have silk socks than none at all, providing Simpson with his folksy nick844 • GILDED AGE POLITICS AND AGRARIAN REVOLT (CH. 22) Mary Elizabeth Lease, 1890 A charismatic leader in the farm protest movement. name. Sockless Jerry won a seat in Congress, and so too did many other friends of "the people" in the Midwest.

Mother Jones

Summary: anti-child labor, pro higher wages, shorter hours, safety, speaker for united mine workers Excerpt: Mary Jones drifted into the labor movement and soon emerged as its most passionate advocate. Chicago was then the seedbed of labor radicalism, and the union culture nurtured in Mary Jones a lifelong dedication to the cause of wage workers and their families. The gritty woman who had lost her family now declared herself the "mother" of the fledgling labor movement. She joined the Knights of Labor as 772 • BIG BUSINESS AND ORGANIZED LABOR (CH. 20) an organizer and public speaker. In the late 1880s she became an ardent speaker for the United Mine Workers (UMW), various other unions, and the Socialist party. For the next thirty years she crisscrossed the nation, recruiting union members, supporting strikers (her "boys"), raising funds, walking picket lines, defying court injunctions, berating politicians, and spending time in prison. Wherever Mother Jones went, she promoted higher wages, shorter hours, safer workplaces, and restrictions on child labor. Coal miners, said the UMW president, "have had no more staunch supporter, no more able defender than the one we all love to call Mother." During a miners' strike in West Virginia, Jones was arrested, convicted of "conspiracy that resulted in murder," and sentenced to twenty years in prison. The outcry over her plight helped spur a Senate committee to investigate conditions in the coal mines; the governor set her free. Mother Jones was especially determined to end the exploitation of children in the workplace. In 1903 she organized a highly publicized, weeklong march of child workers from Pennsylvania to the New York home of President Theodore Roosevelt. The children were physically stunted and mutilated, most of them missing fingers or hands from machinery accidents. President Roosevelt refused to see the ragtag children, but as Mother Jones explained, "Our march had done its work. We had drawn the attention of the nation to the crime of child labor." Soon the Pennsylvania state legislature raised the legal working age to fourteen.

Women's Christian Temperance Union

Summary: anti-saloon league, pro prohibition, led to political action Excerpt: The battle against booze dated back to the nineteenth century. The Women's Christian Temperance Union had promoted the cause since 1874, 898 • THE PROGRESSIVE ERA (CH. 24) and a Prohibition party had entered the elections in 1876. But the most successful political action followed the formation in 1893 of the AntiSaloon League, an organization that pioneered the strategy of the singleissue pressure group. Through its singleness of purpose it forced the prohibition issue into the forefront of state and local elections. At its "Jubilee Convention" in 1913, the bipartisan Anti-Saloon League endorsed a prohibition amendment to the Constitution, adopted by Congress in 1917. By the time it was ratified two years later, state and local action had already dried up areas occupied by nearly three fourths of the nation's population.

James A. Garfield (1881)

Summary: assassinated by a stalwart after 4 months as president, leader of the house of reps as a republican Excerpt: A native of Ohio and an early foe of slavery, Garfield distinguished himself during the Civil War and was mustered out as a major general when he went to Congress in 1863. Noted for his oratorical and parliamentary skills, he became one of the outstanding leaders in the House. On July 2, 1881, after only four months in office, President Garfield was walking through the Washington, D.C., railroad station when a deranged man, Charles Guiteau shot him in the back. "I am a Stalwart," Guiteau explained to the arresting officers. "Arthur is now President of the United States," an announcement that would prove crippling to the Stalwarts. "The dreadful tragedy," ex-president Hayes wrote in his diary, "has occupied our 826 • GILDED AGE POLITICS AND AGRARIAN REVOLT (CH. 22) thoughts." He and others were grieving not only for the mortally wounded president. They were mortified at the prospect that Vice President Chester Arthur, the compliant lieutenant of the Stalwart leader Senator Roscoe Conkling, might become commander in chief. "The death of the President at this time would be a national calamity whose consequence we can not now confidently conjecture. Arthur for President! Conkling the power behind the throne!" Garfield lingered near death for two months. On September 19 he died of complications resulting from the shooting. Chester Arthur was now President

Depression of 1893 (1893)

Summary: brankrupcy of 2 railroad companies started wall street panic, led to banks closing and massive layoffs Excerpt: Just before Grover Cleveland started his second term, in 1893, one of the most devastating business crises in history erupted when the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad declared bankruptcy, setting off a panic on Wall Street. Other overextended railroads collapsed, taking many banks with them. Not only was business affected, but entire farm regions were also devastated by the spreading depression. One quarter of the cities' unskilled workers lost their jobs, and by the fall of 1893 over 600 banks had closed. By 1894 the nation's economy had reached bottom. That year some 750,000 workers went on strike, millions found themselves unemployed, and railroad construction workers, laid off in the West, began tramping east and talked of marching on Washington, D.C.

Great Sioux War (1876-1877)

Summary: caused by miners encroaching into indian territory, largest war post civil war, largest indian war, 15 months with many losses by USA initially but then final defeat, see Custer term Excerpt: Meanwhile, trouble was brewing again in the north. In 1874 Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer, a reckless, glory-seeking officer, led an exploratory expedition into the Black Hills, accompanied by gold seekers. Miners were soon filtering into the Sioux hunting grounds despite promises that the army would keep them out. The army had done little to protect Indian land, but when ordered to move against wandering bands of Sioux hunting on the range according to their treaty rights, it moved vigorously. What became the Great Sioux War was the largest military event since the end of the Civil War and one of the largest campaigns against Indians in American history. The war lasted fifteen months and entailed fifteen battles in a vast area of present-day Wyoming, Montana, South Dakota, and Nebraska. In 1876, after several indecisive encounters, Custer found the main encampment of Sioux and their Northern Cheyenne allies on the Little Bighorn River. Separated from the main body of soldiers and surrou

Populism

Summary: caused by poor farming years (drought), farmer based political movement that fractured white voting power, predecessor to progressivism, promoted government control of everything in society Excerpt: Populism was one of the catalysts of progressivism. The Populist platform of 1892 outlined many reforms that would be accomplished in the Progressive Era. After the collapse of the farmers' movement and the revival of the agricultural economy at the turn of the century, the reform spirit shifted to the cities, where middleclass activists had for years attacked the problems of political bossism and urban development. The rise of populism, a farm-based protest movement that crystallized into a third political party in the 1890s, divided the white vote to such an extent that in some 714 • THE SOUTH AND THE WEST TRANSFORMED (CH. 19) places the black vote became the balance of power. Some populists courted black votes and brought African Americans prominently into their leadership councils.

Haymarket Riot (1886)

Summary: caused harm to reputation of Knights of labor, bomb thrown towards police sent to break up anarchist/socialist meeting in Haymarket square Excerpt: Labor-related violence increased during the 1880s. The Haymarket affair, for instance, grew indirectly out of agitation for an eight-hour workday. In 1884 Knights of Labor organizers set May 1, 1886, as the deadline for the institution of the eight-hour workday in all trades. Chicago became the center of the movement, and on May 3, 1886, the International Harvester plant became the site of an unfortunate clash between strikers and policemen in which one striker was killed. Leaders of a minuscule anarchist movement in Chicago scheduled an open meeting the following night at Haymarket Square to protest the killing. After listening to long speeches promoting socialism and anarchism, the crowd was beginning to break up when a group of policemen arrived and called upon the meeting to disperse. At that point somebody threw a bomb at the police, killing one officer and wounding others. The police then fired into the crowd. Subsequently, in a trial marked by prejudice and hysteria, seven anarchist leaders were sentenced to death despite the lack of any evidence linking them to the bomb thrower, whose identity was never established. Of these, two were reprieved, one committed suicide in prison, and four were hanged. All but one of the group were German speaking, and that one held a membership card in the Knights of Labor. The violent incident at Haymarket Square triggered widespread revulsion at the Knights of Labor and labor groups in general. Despite his best efforts, Terence Powderly could never dissociate in the public mind the Knights from the anarchists. He clung to leadership until 1893, but after that the union evaporated. By the turn of the century, it was but a memory. A number of problems accounted for the Knights' decline, besides fear of their supposed radicalism: a leadership devoted more to reform than to the nuts and bolts of organization, the failure of the Knights' cooperative enterprises, and a preoccupation with politics that led

Tenements

Summary: cheap housing for the urban poor, small cramped spaces, created health problems in cities Excerpt: Yet those who moved to the city often traded one set of problems for another. Workers in the big cities often had no choice but to live in crowded apartments, most of which were poorly designed. In 1900 Manhattan's 42,700 tenements housed almost 1.6 million people. Such unregulated urban growth created immense problems of health and morale. The early tenements were poorly heated and had communal toilets outside in a yard or alley. By the end of the century, tenements featured two toilets to a floor. Shoehorned into their quarters, families had no privacy, free space, or sunshine; children had few places to play except in the city streets; infectious diseases and noxious odors were rampant. Not surprisingly, the mortality rate among the urban poor was much higher than that of the general population. In one poor Chicago district at the end of the century, three out of five babies died before their first birthday.

National Labor Union

Summary: composed of labor/reform groups, focused on political/social reform, promoted: equal rights, greenbacking, 8 hr day, workers cooperatives, succeeded in repealing contract labor act Excerpt: Yet there was no overall federation of these groups until 1866, when the National Labor Union (NLU) convened in Baltimore. The NLU was composed of congresses of delegates from labor and reform groups more interested in political and social reform than in bargaining with employers. The groups espoused such ideas as the eight-hour workday, workers' cooperatives, greenbackism (the printing of paper money to inflate the currency and thereby relieve debtors), and equal rights for women and African Americans. After the head of the union died suddenly, its support fell away quickly, and by 1872 the NLU had disbanded. The National Labor Union was not a total failure, however. It was influential in persuading Congress to enact an eighthour workday for federal employees and to repeal the 1864 Contract Labor Act, passed during the Civil War to encourage the importation of laborers by allowing employers to pay for their passage to America. Employers had taken advantage of the Contract Labor Act to recruit foreign laborers willing to work for lower wages than their American counterparts. THE KNIGHTS OF LABOR Before the National Lab

Cornelius Vanderbilt

Summary: consolidated eastern railroads, son expanded railroad business and built 13k miles railroad in north east, demonstrated consolidation of railroad companies across nation, Excerpt: Cornelius Vanderbilt, called Commodore by virtue of his early exploits in steamboating, stands out among the railroad barons. Already rich before the Civil War, he decided to give up the hazards of wartime shipping in favor of land transport. Under his direction the first of the major eastern railroad consolidations took form. Vanderbilt merged separate trunk lines connecting Albany and Buffalo, New York, into a single powerful rail network led by the New York Central. Jay Gould Prince of the railroad buccaneers. This accomplished, he forged connections to New York City and then tried to corner the stock of his chief competitor, the Erie Railroad. But the directors of that line fended him off by printing new Erie stock faster than Vanderbilt could buy it. In 1873, however, he bought the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railroad, which gave his lines connections to the lucrative Chicago market. After the Commodore's death, in 1877, his son William Henry extended the Vanderbilt railroads to include more than 13,000 miles in the Northeast. The consolidation trend was nationwide: about two thirds of the nation's railroad mileage were under the control of only seven major groups by 1900.

Pendleton Act (1883)

Summary: created civil service commission, disrupted political favoritism in fed gov., led to merit being valued over partisanship Excerpt: Most startling of all was Chester Arthur's emergence as something of a civil service and tariff reformer. Stalwarts had every reason to expect him to oppose a merit system of government appointments, but instead he allied himself with the reformers. The assassin Guiteau had unwittingly stimulated widespread public support of reform. In 1883 a reform bill sponsored by "Gentleman George" Pendleton, a Democratic senator from Ohio, set up a three-member Civil Service Commission independent of the cabinet departments, the first such federal agency established on a permanent basis. About 14 percent of all government jobs would now be filled on the basis of competitive examinations rather than political favoritism. What was more, the president could enlarge the class of affected jobs at his discretion. This development would have important consequences over the years because after each of the next four presidential elections the party out of power emerged as victors. Each new president thus had a motive to enlarge this category of government jobs because it would shield his own appointees from political removal. The Pendleton Act was thus a vital step in a new approach to government administration that valued merit over partisanship

Thomas Edison

Summary: created phonograph, alternating current (allowed factories to be outside of cities), demonstrated importance of R&D in a business, consolidated light bulb makers. Excerpt: . Its stiffest competition came from Western Union, which after turning down a chance to buy Bell's "toy," employed Thomas Edison to develop an improved version. Bell sold its rights and properties for a tidy sum, clearing the way for the creation of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company. By 1899 it was a huge holding company controlling forty-nine licensed subsidiaries and an operating company for long-distance lines. In the development of electrical industries, the name Thomas Alva Edison stands above those of other inventors. Edison invented the phonograph in 1877 and the first successful incandescent lightbulb in 1879. Altogether he created or perfected hundreds of new devices and processes, including the storage battery, Dictaphone, mimeograph, electric motor, electric transmission, and the motion picture. Edison thus demonstrated the significance of "research and development" activities to business expansion. In 1882, with the backing of J. P. Morgan, the Edison Electric Illuminating Company began to supply electrical current to eighty-five customers in New York City, beginning the great electric utility industry. A number of companies making lightbulbs merged into the Edison General Electric Company in 1888. But the use of direct current limited Edison's lighting system to a radius of about two miles. To cover greater distances required an alternating current, which could be transmitted at high voltage and then stepped down by transformers. George Westinghouse, inventor of the air brake for railroads, developed the first alternating-current electric system in 1886 and set up the Westinghouse Electric Company to manufacture the equipment. Edison 752 • BIG BUSINESS AND ORGANIZED LABOR (CH. 20) New Technologies Alexander Graham Bell being observed by businessmen at the New York end of the first long-distance telephone call to Chicago, 1892. resisted the new method as too risky, but the Westinghouse system won the "battle of the currents," and the Edison companies had to switch over. After the invention of the alternating-current motor by a Serbo-Croatian immigrant named Nikola Tesla, Westinghouse improved upon it. This invention enabled factories to locate wherever they wished; they no longer had t

Silverties

Summary: currency issue, pro silver, used by populists to go pro silver and win political influence Excerpt: The course of events would dash that hope, however. In the mid-1890s events conspired to focus all concerns on the currency issue. One of the causes of the 1893 depression was the failure of a major British bank, which had led many British investors to unload their American holdings in return for gold. Soon after Grover Cleveland's inauguration the U.S. gold reserve had fallen below $100 million. To plug the drain on the Treasury by stopping the issuance of silver notes redeemable in gold, the president sought repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act. Cleveland won the repeal in 1893, but at the cost of irreparable division in his own party. One embittered pro-silver Democrat labeled the president a Benedict Arnold. Western silver interests now escalated their demands for silver coinage, presenting a strategic dilemma for Populists: Should the party promote the long list of varied reforms it had originally advocated, or should it try to ride the silver issue into power? The latter seemed the practical choice. As a consequence, the Populist leaders decided, over the protests of more radical members, to hold their 1896 nominating convention last, confident that the 848 • GILDED AGE POLITICS AND AGRARIAN REVOLT (CH. 22) two major parties would at best straddle the silver issue and they would then reap a harvest of bolting silverite Republicans and Democrats.

Range Wars

Summary: disputes of land between ranchers and farmers led to sabatoge/flighting, ethnic/religious tension, large vs. small ranchers tension Excerpt: Conflicting claims over land and water rights ignited violent disputes between ranchers and farmers. Ranchers often tried to drive off neighboring farmers, and farmers in turn tried to sabotage the cattle barons, cutting their fences and spooking their herds. The cattle ranchers also clashed with sheepherders over access to grassland. A strain of ethnic and religious prejudice heightened the tension between ranchers and herders. In the Southwest, shepherds were typically Mexican Americans; in Idaho and Nevada they were from the Basque region of Spain or Mormons. Many Anglo-American cattle ranchers and cowboys viewed those ethnic and religious groups as unAmerican and inferior, adopting an attitude that helped them rationalize the use of violence against the sheepherders. Warfare gradually faded, however, as the sheep for the most part found refuge in the high pastures of the mountains, leaving the grasslands of the plains to the cattle ranchers. Yet there also developed a perennial tension between large and small cattle ranchers. The large ranchers fenced in huge tracts of public land, leaving the smaller ranchers with too little pasture. To survive, the smaller ranchers cut the fences. In central Texas this practice sparked the Fence-Cutters' War of 1883-1884. Several ranchers were killed and dozens wounded before the state ended the conflict by passing legislation outlawing fence cutting

Grover Cleveland (1885-1889)

Summary: eliminated pullman strike (sent in troops), democrat reform candidate, served durring 1893 depression Excerpt: Between 1869 and 1913, from the presidency of Ulysses S. Grant to that of William Howard Taft, Republicans monopolized the White House except for the two nonconsecutive terms of the Democrat Grover Cleveland, but Republican domination was more apparent than real. Between 1872 and 1896 no president won a majority of the popular vote. In each of those presidential elections, sixteen states invariably voted Republican and fourteen voted Democratic, leaving a pivotal six states whose results might change. The important swing-vote role played by two of those states, New York and Ohio, helps explain the election of eight presidents from those states from 1872 to 1912.The Populist party was the startling new feature of the 1892 campaign. The major parties renominated the candidates of 1888: Democrat Grover Cleveland and Republican Benjamin Harrison. The tariff issue monopolized their attention. Both major candidates polled over 5 million votes, but Cleveland carried a plurality of the popular votes and a majority of the Electoral College. Weaver polled over 1 million votes and carried Colorado, Kansas, Nevada, and Idaho, for a total of twenty-two electoral votes. Alabama was the banner Populist state of the South, with 37 percent of its vote going to Weaver.

Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)

Summary: excluded chinese from immigrating, had overwhelming support due to widespread racism against chinese Excerpt: In 1882 Congress passed over President Chester A. Arthur's veto of the Chinese Exclusion Act. It shut the door to Chinese immigrants for ten years. The legislation received overwhelming support. One congressman explained that because the "industrial army of Asiatic laborers" was increasing the tension between workers and management, "the gate must be 792 • THE EMERGENCE OF URBAN AMERICA (CH. 21) Anti-Chinese Protest, California, 1880 Widespread racism and prejudice against the Chinese resulted in the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), which banned Chinese immigration. closed." The Chinese Exclusion Act was periodically renewed before being extended indefinitely in 1902. Not until 1943 were barriers to Chinese immigration finally removed.

Vaudeville

Summary: featured comedians/singers/musicians/minstrel shows, came from better urban transport and allowed people to use the theatre etc., attracted all social classes ExcGrowing family incomes and innovations in urban transportation—cable cars, subways, electric streetcars and streetlights—enabled Popular Culture • 793 more people to take advantage of urban cultural life. Attendance at theaters, operas, and dance halls soared. Those interested in serious music could attend concerts by symphony orchestras appearing in every major city by the end of the nineteenth century. But by far the most popular—and most diverse—form of theatrical entertainment in the late nineteenth century was vaudeville. The term derives from a French word for a play accompanied by music. It emerged in the United States in saloons whose owners sought to attract more customers by offering a free show. Vaudeville "variety" shows featured comedians, singers, musicians, blackface minstrels, farcical plays, animal acts, jugglers, gymnasts, dancers, mimes, and magicians. Vaudeville houses attracted all social classes and types—men, women, and children—all of whom were expected to behave according to middle-class standards of gentility and decorum. Raucous cheering, booing, and tobacco spitting were prohibited. The shows included something to please every taste and, as such, reflected the heterogeneity of city life. To commemorate the opening of a palatial new Boston theater in 1894, an actress read a dedicatory poem in which she announced that "all are equals here." The vaudeville house was the people's theater; it knew "no favorites, no class." She promised the spectators that the producers would "ever seek the new" in providing entertainers who epitomized "the spice of life, Variety," with its motto, "ever to please—and never to offend."erpt:

Federal Land Grants

Summary: fed gov. gave land to railroads to encourage infrastructure development Excerpt: e. Over the next twenty years, federal land grants, mainly to transcontinental railroad companies, totaled 129 million acres

Contract Labor Act (1864)

Summary: fed gov. payed immigrants passage to america for cheap labor to the US, National Labor Union persuaded congress to repeal by 1872 Excerpt: Under the Contract Labor Act of 1864, the federal government itself encouraged immigration by helping to pay an immigrant's passage. The law was repealed in 1868, but not until 1885 did the government forbid companies to import contract labor, a practice that put immigrant workers under the control of their employers The National Labor Union was not a total failure, however. It was influential in persuading Congress to enact an eighthour workday for federal employees and to repeal the 1864 Contract Labor Act, passed during the Civil War to encourage the importation of laborers by allowing employers to pay for their passage to America. Employers had taken advantage of the Contract Labor Act to recruit foreign laborers willing to work for lower wages than their American counterparts.

Anti-Debris Association (1878)

Summary: founded after property damage (rivers/farmland) by farmers to fight against mining companies, went to courts and restricted hydraulicking Excerpt: Irate California farmers in the fertile Central Valley bitterly protested the damage done downstream by the industrial mining operations. In 1878 they formed the Anti-Debris Association, with its own militia, to challenge the powerful mining companies. Efforts to pass state legislation restricting hydraulic mining repeatedly failed because mining companies controlled the votes. The Anti-Debris Association then turned to the courts. On January 7, 1884, the farmers won their case when federal judge Lorenzo Sawyer, a former miner, outlawed the dumping of mining debris where it could reach farmland or navigable rivers. Thus Woodruff v. North Bloomfield Gravel Mining Company became the first major environmental ruling in the nation. As a result of the ruling, hydraulic mining dried up, leaving a legacy of abandoned equipment, ugly ravines, ditches, gullies, and mountains of discarded rock and gravel.

Susan B. Anthony

Summary: founded national womens suffrage association and american woman suffrage association, pro 15th amendment for women Excerpt: Through all those years domestic work remained the largest category of employment for women; teaching and nursing also remained among the leading fields. The main change was that clerical work (bookkeeping, stenography, and the like) and sales jobs became increasingly available to women. These changes in occupational status had little connection to the women's rights movement, which increasingly focused on the issue of suffrage. Immediately after the Civil War, Susan B. Anthony, a seasoned veteran of the movement, demanded that the Fifteenth Amendment guarantee the vote for women as well as black men. She made little impression on the defenders of a man's prerogative, however, who insisted that women belonged in the domestic sphere. In 1869 the unity of the women's movement was broken in a manner reminiscent of the anti-slavery rift three decades before. The question once again was whether the movement should concentrate on one overriding issue. Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton founded the National Woman Suffrage Association to promote a women's suffrage amendment to the Constitution, but they looked upon the vote as but one among many feminist causes to be promoted. Later that year, activists formed the American Woman Suffrage Association, which focused single-mindedly on the suffrage as the first and basic reform

Frederick Jackson Turner

Summary: fronteir thesis--> ""The existence of an area of free land," Turner wrote, "its continuous recession, and the advance of American settlement westward, explain American development."" westward moving source of politcs, laisse faire poliices, mythologized the west as a free land Excerpt: American life reached an important juncture at the end of the nineteenth century. After the 1890 population count, the superintendent of the national census noted that he could no longer locate a continuous frontier line beyond which population thinned out to fewer than two people per square mile. This fact inspired the historian Frederick Jackson Turner to develop his influential frontier thesis, first outlined in "The Significance of the Frontier in American History," a paper delivered to the American Historical Association in 1893. "The existence of an area of free land," Turner wrote, "its continuous recession, and the advance of American settlement westward, explain American development." The frontier, he added, had shaped the national character in fundamental ways. It was to the frontier [that] the American intellect owes its striking characteristics. That coarseness and strength combined with acuteness and acquisitiveness; that practical, inventive turn of mind, quick to find expedients; that masterful grasp of material things, lacking in the artistic but powerful to effect great ends; that restless, nervous energy; that dominant individualism, 740 • THE SOUTH AND THE WEST TRANSFORMED (CH. 19) Women of the Frontier A woman and her family in front of their sod house. The difficult life on the prairie led to more egalitarian marriages than were found in other regions of the country. working for good and for evil, and withal that buoyancy and exuberance which comes with freedom—these are traits of the frontier, or traits called out elsewhere because of the existence of the frontier. In 1893, Turner concluded, "four centuries from the discovery of America, at the end of a hundred years under the Constitution, the frontier has gone and with its going has closed the first period of American history." Turner's "frontier thesis" guided several generations of scholars and students in their understanding of the distinctive characteristics of American history. His view of the frontier as the westward-moving source of the nation's democratic politics, open society, unfettered economy, and rugged individualism, far removed from the corruptions of urban life, gripped the popular imagination as well. But it left out much of the story. The frontier experience Turner described exaggerated the homogenizing effect of the frontier environment and virtually ignored the role of women, African Americans, Indians, Mormons, Latinos and Asians in shaping the diverse human geography of the western United States. Turner also implied that the West would be fundamentally different after 1890 because the frontier experience was essentially over. But in many respects that region has retained the qualities associated with the rush for land, gold, timber, and water rights during the post-Civil War decades. The mining frontier, as one historian has recently written, "set a mood that has never disappeared from the West: the attitude of extractive industry—get in, get rich, get out."

Sand Lot Incident (1887)

Summary: gave rise to working class political movement, anti-chinese movement, led to ban of chinese for 10 years Excerpt: In California the railroad strike indirectly gave rise to a working-class political movement. At a San Francisco sand lot a meeting to express sympathy for the strikers ended with attacks on some passing Chinese. Within a few days sporadic anti-Chinese riots had led to a mob attack on Chinatown. The depression of the 1870s had hit the West Coast especially hard, and the Chinese were handy scapegoats for frustrated white laborers who believed the Asians had taken their jobs. Soon an Irish immigrant, Denis Kearney, had organized the Workingmen's Party of California, whose platform called for an end to further Chinese immigration. A gifted agitator, himself only recently naturalized, Kearney harangued the "sand lotters" about the "foreign peril" and assaulted the rich railroad barons for exploiting the poor—sometimes at gatherings outside their mansions on Nob Hill. In 1878 his new party won a hefty number of seats to a state constitutional convention but managed to incorporate into the state's basic law little more than ineffective attempts to regulate the railroads. The workingmen's movement peaked in 1879, when it elected many members to the state legislature and the mayor of San Francisco. Kearney lacked the gift for building a durable movement, but as his party went to 764 • BIG BUSINESS AND ORGANIZED LABOR (CH. 20) pieces, his anti-Chinese theme became a national issue—in 1882 Congress voted to prohibit Chinese immigration for ten years.

Homestead Act (1862)

Summary: gov. gave 160 acres of land to settlers of the west in exchange for living there for 5 yrs and improving the land, represented american dream Excerpt: Congress also passed legislation guaranteeing that the first transcontinental railroad would run along a north-central route, from Omaha, Nebraska, to Sacramento, California, and it donated public land and public bonds to ensure its financing. In the Homestead Act of 1862, moreover, Congress voted free federal homesteads of 160 acres to settlers, who had only to occupy the land for five years to gain title. No cash was needed. Under the Homestead Act of 1862, a settler could realize the old dream of free land simply by staking out a claim and living on it for five years, or he could buy land at $1.25 an acre after six months. But such land legislation was predicated upon the tradition of farming the fertile lands east of the Mississippi River, and the laws were never adjusted to the fact that much of the prairie was suited only for cattle raising. Cattle ranchers were forced to obtain

Colored Farmers National Alliance

Summary: grange lost energy, farm organizations like colored farmers alliance rose to take its place, objective = economic jsutice, 1 million members Excerpt: The Alliance movement swept across the cotton belt in the South and established strong positions in Kansas and the Dakotas. In 1886 a white minister in The Farm Problem and Agrarian Protest Movements • 841 Texas, which had one of the largest and most influential Alliance movements, responded to the appeals of African-American farmers by organizing the Colored Farmers' National Alliance. The white leadership of the Alliance movement in Texas endorsed this development because the Colored Alliance stressed that its objective was economic justice, not social equality. By 1890 the Alliance movement had members from New York to California, numbering about 1.5 million, and the Colored Farmers' National Alliance claimed over 1 million members. A powerful attraction for many isolated, struggling farmers and their families was the sense of community provided by the Alliance. The Alliance movement welcomed rural women and men over sixteen years of age who displayed a "good moral character," believed in God, and demonstrated "industrious habits." The slogan of the Southern Alliance was "equal rights to all, special privileges to none." Women eagerly embraced the chance to engage in economic and political issues. One North Carolina woman expressed her appreciation for the "grand opportunities" the Alliance provided women, allowing them to emerge from traditional domesticity. "Drudgery, fashion, and gossip," she declared, "are no longer the bounds of woman's sphere." One Alliance publication made the point explicitly: "The Alliance has come to redeem woman from her enslaved condition, and place her in her proper sphere." The number of women in the movement grew rapidly, and many assumed key leadership roles in the "grand army of reform." The Alliance movement sponsored an ambitious social and educational program and about 1,000 affiliated newspapers. Unlike the Grange, however, the Alliance also proposed an elaborate economic program. In 1890 Alliance agencies and exchanges in some eighteen states claimed a business of $10 million, but they soon went the way of the Granger cooperatives, victims of both discrimination by wholesalers, manufacturers, railroads, and bankers— as well as their own inexperienced management and overextended credit.

Farmers' Alliance (1870s)

Summary: grew after the grange movement, represented smaller farmers in contrast to the grange, collective pooling of resources to reduce costs and gave sense of community to farmers, welcomed men and women Excerpt: As the Grange lost energy, other farm organizations, known as Farmers' Alliances, grew in size and significance. Like the Grange, the Farmers' Alliances offered social and recreational opportunities, but they also emphasized political action. Farmers throughout the South and Midwest, where tenancy rates were highest, rushed to join the Alliance movement. They saw in collective action a way to seek relief from the hardships created by chronic indebtedness, declining prices, and devastating droughts. Unlike the Grange, which was a national organization that tended to attract larger and more prosperous farmers, the Alliance was a grassroots local organization representing marginal farmers. families was the sense of community provided by the Alliance. The Alliance movement welcomed rural women and men over sixteen years of age who displayed a "good moral character," believed in God, and demonstrated "industrious habits." The slogan of the Southern Alliance was "equal rights to all, special privileges to none." Women eagerly embraced the chance to engage in economic and political issues. One North Carolina woman expressed her appreciation for the "grand opportunities" the Alliance provided women, allowing them to emerge from traditional domesticity. "Drudgery, fashion, and gossip," she declared, "are no longer the bounds of woman's sphere." One Alliance publication made the point explicitly: "The Alliance has come to redeem woman from her enslaved condition, and place her in her proper sphere." The number of women in the movement grew rapidly, and many assumed key leadership roles in the "grand army of reform." The Alliance movement sponsored an ambitious social and educational program and about 1,000 affiliated newspapers. Unlike the Grange, however, the Alliance also proposed an elaborate economic program. In 1890 Alliance agencies and exchanges in some eighteen states claimed a business of $10 million, but they soon went the way of the Granger cooperatives, victims of both discrimination by wholesalers, manufacturers, railroads, and bankers— as well as their own inexperienced management and overextended credi

Knights of Labor

Summary: grew during depression of 1869, endorsed reforms by workingmen's groups, promoted elimination of convict-labor competition, 8 hr workday and paper currency, preferred boycotts to strikes Excerpt: Before the National Labor Union collapsed, another labor group of national standing had emerged: the Noble Order of the Knights of Labor, a name that evoked the aura of medieval guilds. The founder of the Knights of Labor, Uriah S. Stephens, a Philadelphia tailor, was a habitual "joiner" involved with several secret orders, including the Masons. His early training for the Baptist ministry also affected his outlook. Secrecy, he felt, along with a semireligious ritual, would protect members from retaliation by employers and create a sense of solidarity. The Knights of Labor, started in 1869, grew slowly, but during the years of depression, as other unions collapsed, it spread more rapidly. In 1878 its first general assembly established it as a national organization. Its preamble and platform endorsed the reforms advanced by previous workingmen's groups, including the creation of bureaus of labor statistics and mechanics' lien laws (to ensure payment of salaries), elimination of convict-labor competition, Labor Conditions and Organization • 765 the eight-hour day, and paper currency. One plank in the platform, far ahead of the times, called for equal pay for equal work by men and women. Throughout its existence the Knights of Labor emphasized reform measures and preferred boycotts to strikes as a way to put pressure on employers. The Knights allowed as members all who had ever worked for wages, except lawyers, doctors, bankers, and those who sold liquor. Theoretically it was one big union of all workers, skilled and unskilled, regardless of race, color, creed, or sex. In 1879 Stephens was succeeded as head of the Knights of Labor by Terence V. Powderly, the thirty-year-old mayor of Scranton, Pennsylvania. Born of Irish immigrant parents, Powderly had started working for a railroad at age sixteen. In many ways he was unsuited to his new job as head of the Knights of Labor. He was frail, sensitive to criticism, and indecisive at critical moments. He was temperamentally opposed to strikes, and when they did occur, he did not always support the local groups involved. Yet the Knights owed their greatest growth to strikes that occurred under his leadership. In the 1880s the Knights increased their membership from about 100,000 to more than 700,000. In 1886, however, the organization peaked and went into rapid decline after the failure of a railroad strike.

Lester Frank Ward

Summary: head behind reform darwinism, dynamic sociology, government has responsibility to improve poverty/education--> best tool for progression, humans are not animals therefore darwinism isnt applicable, Excerpt:

Terence Powderly

Summary: head of the Knights of Labor, opposed to strikes, Knights increased membership from 100k to 700k, after 1886 Knights went into decline Excerpt: In 1879 Stephens was succeeded as head of the Knights of Labor by Terence V. Powderly, the thirty-year-old mayor of Scranton, Pennsylvania. Born of Irish immigrant parents, Powderly had started working for a railroad at age sixteen. In many ways he was unsuited to his new job as head of the Knights of Labor. He was frail, sensitive to criticism, and indecisive at critical moments. He was temperamentally opposed to strikes, and when they did occur, he did not always support the local groups involved. Yet the Knights owed their greatest growth to strikes that occurred under his leadership. In the 1880s the Knights increased their membership from about 100,000 to more than 700,000. In 1886, however, the organization peaked and went into rapid decline after the failure of a railroad strike.

Sears and Roebuck & Company

Summary: helped to create national market through the catalog, extended reach of national commerce to isolated farmtowns Excerpt: American inventors helped manufacturers after the Civil War produce a vast number of new products, but the most important challenge was extending the reach of national commerce to the millions of people who lived on isolated farms and in small towns. In the 758 • BIG BUSINESS AND ORGANIZED LABOR (CH. 20) J. Pierpont Morgan Morgan is shown here in a famous 1903 portrait by Edward Steichen. aftermath of the Civil War, a traveling salesman from Chicago named Aaron Montgomery Ward decided that he could reach more people by mail than on foot and in the process could eliminate the middlemen whose services increased the retail price of goods. Beginning in the early 1870s, Montgomery Ward and Company began selling goods at a 40 percent discount through mail-order catalogs. By the end of the century, a new retailer had come to dominate the mailorder industry: Sears, Roebuck and Company, founded by two young midwestern entrepreneurs, Richard Sears and Alvah Roebuck, who began offering a cornucopia of goods by mail in the early 1890s. The Sears, Roebuck and Company catalog in 1897 was 786 pages long. It featured groceries, drugs, tools, bells, furniture, iceboxes, stoves and household utensils, musical instruments, farm implements, boots and shoes, clothes, books, and sporting goods. The company's ability to buy goods in high volume from wholesalers enabled it to sell items at prices below those offered in rural general stores. By 1907 Sears, Roebuck and Company had become one of the largest business enterprises in the nation. The Sears catalog helped create a truly national market and in the process transformed the lives of millions of people. With the advent of free rura

William McKinley (1897-1901)

Summary: high McKinley tariff (caused treasury to go into crisis), pro-gold standard, "front-porch campaign", well financedcam paign, wrote higher tariffs like dingley tariff Excerpt: The first important act of the McKinley administration was to call a special session of Congress to raise the tariff again. The Dingley Tariff of 1897 became the highest ever. By 1897 economic prosperity was returning, helped along by inflation of the currency, which bore out the arguments of the greenbackers and silverites. But the inflation came, in one of history's many ironies, not from greenbacks or silver but from a new flood of gold into the market and into the mints. During the 1880s and 1890s discoveries of gold in South Africa, the Canadian Yukon, and Alaska led to spectacular new gold rushes. In 1900 Congress passed a Gold Standard Act, which marked an end to the silver movementMcKinley, meanwhile, conducted a "front-porch campaign," receiving selected delegations of supporters at his home in Canton, Ohio, and giving only prepared responses. McKinley's campaign manager, Mark Hanna, shrewdly portrayed Bryan as a radical whose "communistic spirit" would ruin the capitalist system. Many observers agreed with the portrait. The New York Tribune denounced Bryan as a "wretched rattle-pated boy, posing in vapid vanity and mouthing resounding rottenness." Theodore Roosevelt had equally strong opinions. "The silver craze surpasses belief," he wrote a friend. "Bryan's election would be a great calamity."

Pinkertons

Summary: hired to break strikes/ threaten unions Excerpt: As negotiations dragged on, the company announced it would treat workers as individuals unless an agreement with the union was reached by June 29. A strike—or, more properly, a lockout of unionists—began on that date. In no mood to negotiate, Frick built a twelve-foot fence around the entire plant and hired 300 union-busting Pinkerton detectives to protect what was soon dubbed Fort Frick. On the morning of July 6, 1892, when the Pinkertons floated up the Monongahela River on barges, unionists were waiting behind breastworks on shore. Who fired the first shot remains unknown, but a battle broke out in which six workers and three Pinkertons died. In the end the Pinkertons surrendered and were marched away, subjected to taunts from crowds in the street. Six days later the state militia appeared at the plant to protect the strikebreakers hired by Frick to restore production. The strike dragged on until November, but by then the union was dead at Homestead. Its cause was not helped when an anarchist, a Lithuanian immigrant, tried to assassinate Frick. Much of the local sympathy for the strikers evaporated.

Homestead Strike (1892)

Summary: homestead works union had good relation with company, went on strike and pinkertons brought in, 6 workers/3 pinkertons died in fight Excerpt: Two violent incidents in the 1890s stalled the emerging industrial-union movement and set it back for the next forty years: the Homestead steel strike of 1892 and the Pullman strike of 1894. The Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers, founded in 1876, had by 1891 a membership of more than 24,000 and was probably the largest craft union at the time. But it excluded unskilled steelworkers and had failed to organize the larger steel plants. The Homestead Works at Pittsburgh was an important exception. There the union had enjoyed friendly relations with Andrew Carnegie's company until Henry Clay Frick became its president in 1889. A showdown was delayed until 1892, however, when the union contract came up for renewal. Carnegie, who had expressed sympathy for unions in the past, had gone to Scotland and left matters in Frick's hands. Carnegie, however, knew what was afoot: a cost-cutting reduction in the number of workers through the use of labor-saving devices and a deliberate attempt to smash the union. "Am with you to the end," he wrote to Frick. As negotiations dragged on, the company announced it would treat workers as individuals unless an agreement with the union was reached by June 29. A strike—or, more properly, a lockout of unionists—began on that date. In no mood to negotiate, Frick built a twelve-foot fence around the entire plant and hired 300 union-busting Pinkerton detectives to protect what was soon dubbed Fort Frick. On the morning of July 6, 1892, when the Pinkertons floated up the Monongahela River on barges, unionists were waiting behind breastworks on shore. Who fired the first shot remains unknown, but a battle broke out in which six workers and three Pinkertons died. In the end the Pinkertons surrendered and were marched away, subjected to taunts from crowds in the street. Six days later the state militia appeared at the plant to protect the strikebreakers hired by Frick to restore production. The strike dragged on until November, but by then the union was dead at Homestead. Its cause was not helped when an anarchist, a Lithuanian immigrant, tried to assassinate Frick. Much of the local sympathy for the strikers evaporated.

Railroad Strike of 1877

Summary: interstate strike, engulfed hundreds of cities/towns, 100 people dead, fed troops sent in, spector of possible worker social revolutions Excerpt: A far more widespread labor incident was the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, the first major interstate strike in American history. After the panic of 1873 and the ensuing depression, the major rail lines in the East had cut wages. In 1877 they made another 10 percent cut, which led most of the railroad workers at Martinsburg, West Virginia, to walk off the job and block the tracks. Without organized direction, however, the group of picketers degenerated into a mob that burned and plundered railroad property. Walkouts and sympathy demonstrations spread spontaneously from Maryland to San Francisco. The strike engulfed hundreds of cities and towns, leaving in its wake over 100 people dead and millions of dollars in property destroyed. Militiamen called in from Philadelphia managed to disperse one Labor Conditions and Organization • 763 crowd at the cost of twenty-six lives but then found themselves besieged in the railroad's roundhouse, where they disbanded and shot their way out. Federal troops finally quelled the violence. Looting, rioting, and burning went on for another day until the frenzy wore itself out. A reporter described the scene as "the most horrible ever witnessed, except in the carnage of war. There were fifty miles of hot rails, ten tracks side by side, with as many miles of ties turned into glowing coals and tons on tons of iron car skeletons and wheels almost at white heat." Public opinion, sympathetic at first, tended to blame the workers for the looting and violence. Eventually the strikers, lacking organized bargaining power, had no choice but to drift back to work. Everywhere the strikes failed. For many Americans the railroad strike raised the specter of a workerbased social revolution. As a Pittsburgh newspaper warned, "This may be the beginning of a great civil war in this country between labor and capital." Equally disturbing to those in positions of corporate and political power was the presence of many women among the protesters. A Baltimore journalist noted that the "singular part of the disturbances is the very active part taken by the women, who are the wives and mothers of the [railroad] firemen." From the point of view of organized labor, however, the Great Railroad Strike demonstrated potential union strength and the need for tighter organization.

Molly Maguires

Summary: irish group in pennsylvania coalfields, motivated by dangerous working conditions in mines, threatened, beat and killed ppl Excerpt: They were motivated by the dangerous working conditions in the mines and the owners' brutal efforts to suppress union activity. Convinced of the justness of their cause, the Mollies used intimidation, beatings, and killings to right perceived wrongs against Irish workers. The terrorism reached its peak in 1874-1875, and mine owners hired Pinkerton detectives to stop the movement.

Mary Elizabeth Lease

Summary: kansas farm protest leader/speaker, "raise less corn and more hell", promoted irish nationalism, temperance, women's suffrage, Excerpt: The farm protest movement produced colorful leaders, especially in Kansas, where Mary Elizabeth Lease advised farmers "to raise less corn and more hell." Born in Pennsylvania, Lease migrated to Kansas, taught school, raised a family, and failed at farming in the mid-1880s. She then studied law, "pinning sheets of notes above her wash tub," and through strenuous effort became one of the state's first female lawyers. At the same time, she took up public speaking on behalf of various causes, including Irish nationalism, temperance, and women's suffrage. By the end of the 1880s, Lease had joined the Alliance as well as the Knights of Labor, and she soon applied her gifts as a fiery speaker to the cause of free silver. A tall, proud, and imposing woman, Lease drew attentive audiences. "The people are at bay," she warned in 1894, "let the bloodhounds of money beware."

In re Debs

Summary: l. The Supreme Court upheld the decree in the case of In re Debs (1895) on broad grounds of national sovereignty: "The strong arm of the national government may be put forth to brush away all obstructions to the freedom of interstate commerce or the transportation of the mails." Debs served his jail term, during which he read deeply in socialist literature, and emerged to devote the rest of his life to socialism. Excerpt: Finally, on July 3, 1894, President Grover Cleveland sent federal troops into the Chicago area, where the strike was centered. The Illinois governor insisted that the state could keep order, but Cleveland claimed authority and a duty to ensure delivery of the mail. Meanwhile, the attorney general won an injunction forbidding any interference with the mail or any effort to restrain interstate commerce; the principle was that a strike or boycott violated the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. On July 13 the union called off the strike. A few days later the district court cited Debs for violating the injunction and he served six months in jail. The Supreme Court upheld the decree in the case of In re Debs (1895) on broad grounds of national sovereignty: "The strong arm of the national government may be put forth to brush away all obstructions to the freedom of interstate commerce or the transportation of the mails." Debs served his jail term, during which he read deeply in socialist literature, and emerged to devote the rest of his life to socialism.

William Haywood

Summary: leader of Western federation of miners, despised AFL, promoted allinclusive socialist unions Excerpt: Like other radical groups the IWW was split by sectarian disputes. Because of policy disagreements all the major founders withdrew, first the Western Federation of Miners, then Debs, then De Leon. William D. "Big Bill" Haywood of the Western Federation remained, however, and as its leader held the group together. Haywood was an imposing figure. Well over six feet tall, handsome and muscular, he commanded the attention and respect of his listeners. This hard-rock miner, union organizer, and socialist from Salt Lake City despised the AFL and its conservative labor philosophy. He called Samuel Gompers "a squat specimen of humanity" who was "conceited, petulant, and vindictive." Instead of following Gompers's advice to organize only skilled workers, Haywood promoted the concept of one allinclusive union dedicated to a socialism "with its working clothes on." Haywood and the Wobblies, however, were reaching out to the fringe elements with the least power and influence, chiefly the migratory workers of the West and the ethnic groups of the East. Always ambivalent about diluting their revolutionary principles, Wobblies scorned the usual labor agreements even when they participated in them. Consequently, they engaged in spectacular battles with employers but scored few victories. The largest was a textile strike at Lawrence, Massachusetts, in 1912 that garnered wage raises, overtime pay, and other benefits. But the next year a strike of silk workers at Paterson, New Jersey, ended in disaster, and the IWW entered a rapid decline.

Jay Gould

Summary: leader of the railroad bucanneers, created gold craze, schemed to rig the economy by pushing up prices and selling high, caused gold bubble that burst Excerpt: The complexities of the "money question" exasperated Grant, but that was the least of his worries, for his administration soon fell into a cesspool of scandal. In the summer of 1869, two financial buccaneers, the crafty Jay Gould and the flamboyant con man James Fisk, connived with the president's brother-in-law to corner the nation's gold market. That is, they would create a public craze for gold by purchasing massive quantities of the yellow metal and convincing traders and the general public that the price would keep climbing. As more buyers joined the frenzy, the value of gold would soar. The only danger to the scheme was the federal Treasury's selling large amounts of gold. Gould concocted an argument that the government should refrain from selling gold on the market because the resulting rise in gold prices would raise temporarily depressed farm prices. Grant apparently smelled a rat from the start, but he was seen in public with the speculators. As the rumor spread on Wall Street that the president had bought the argument, gold rose from $132 to $163 an ounce. When Grant finally persuaded his brother-in-law to pull out of the deal, Gould began quietly selling out. Finally, on "Black Friday," September 24, 1869, Grant ordered the Treasury to sell a large quantity of gold, and the bubble burst. Fisk got out by repudiating his agreements and hiring thugs to intimidate his creditors. "Nothing is lost save honor," he said

Carrie Chapman Catt

Summary: led womens suffrage after anthony/stanton, some states granted suffrage under her leadership Excerpt: It would be another half century before the battle would be won, and the long struggle focused the women's cause ever more on the primary objective of the vote. In 1890, after three years of negotiation, the rival groups united as the National American Woman Suffrage Association, with Elizabeth Cady Stanton as president for two years, to be followed by Susan B. Anthony until 1900. The work thereafter was carried on by a new generation of activists, led by Anna Howard Shaw and Carrie Chapman Catt. Over the years the movement achieved some local and partial victories as a few states granted women suffrage in school-board or municipal elections or bond referenda. In 1869 the territory of Wyoming granted full suffrage to women, and after 1890 it retained women's suffrage when it became a state. Three other western states soon followed suit: Colorado in 1893, Utah and Idaho in 1896. But women's suffrage lost in a California referendum in 1896 by a dishearteningly narrow margin.

Spoils System

Summary: m The term—meaning the filling of federal government jobs with persons loyal to the party of the president—originated in Andrew Jackson's first term; the system was replaced in the Progressive Era by civil service. Excerpt:

Ellis Island (1892)

Summary: made in response to increased immigration and closure of castle garden and people defrauding new immigrants when they got to USA Excerpt: As the number of immigrants passing through the port of New York soared during the late nineteenth century, the state-run Castle Garden receiving center overflowed with corruption. Money changers cheated new arrivals, railroad agents overcharged them for tickets, and baggage handlers engaged in blackmail. With reports of these abuses filling the newspapers, Congress ordered an investigation, which resulted in the closure of Castle Garden in 1890. Thereafter the federal government's new Bureau of Immigration took over the business of admitting newcomers to New York City. To launch this effort, Congress funded the construction of a new reception center on a tiny island off the New Jersey coast, a mile south of Manhattan, near the Statue of Liberty. In 1892 Ellis Island opened its doors to the"huddled masses" of the world. In 1907 the reception center's busiest year, more than 1 million new arrivals passed through the receiving center, an average of about 5,000 per day; in one day alone immigration officials processed some 11,750 arrivals. These were the immigrants who arrived crammed into the steerage compartments deep in the ships' hulls. Those refugees who could afford first- and second-class cabins did not have to visit Ellis Island; they were examined on board, and most of them simply walked down the gangway onto the docks in lower Manhattan.

Dawes Act (1887)/ Henry Dawes

Summary: massachusetts senator, promoted dividing indian land into individual properties and gave US citizenship, fractured indian power/culture Excerpt: Well-intentioned reformers sought to "Americanize" Indians by dealing with them as individuals rather than tribes. The fruition of reform efforts came with the Dawes Severalty Act of 1887. Sponsored by Senator Henry L. Dawes of Massachusetts, the act divided the land of any tribe, granting 160 acres to each head of a family and lesser amounts to others. To protect the Indians' property, the government held it in trust for twenty-five years, after which the owner won full title and became a U.S. citizen. Under the Burke Act of 1906, Indians who took up life apart from their tribes became citizens immediately. Members of the tribes who were granted land titles were subject to state and federal laws like all other residents of the United States. In 1901 citizenship was extended to the Five Civilized Tribes of Oklahoma and, in 1924, to all Indians. But the more it changed, the more Indian policy remained the same. Despite the best of intentions, the Dawes Act created opportunities for more white plundering of Indian land and disrupted what remained of the traditional culture. The Dawes Act broke up reservations and often led to the loss of Indian land to whites. Land not distributed to Indian families was sold, and some of the land the Indians did receive they lost to land sharks because of the Indians' inexperience with private ownership or simply their weakness in the face of fraud. Between 1887 and 1934, Indians lost an estimated The New West • 733 86 million of their 130 million acres. Most of what remained was unsuited to agriculture.

Battle of Wounded Knee (1890)

Summary: massacre of surrendering indians to end the indian wars Excerpt: On December 29, 1890, a bloodbath occurred at Wounded Knee, South Dakota. An accidental rifle discharge led nervous soldiers to fire into a group of Indians who had come to surrender. Nearly 200 Indians and 25 soldiers died in the Battle of Wounded Knee. The Indian wars had ended with characteristic brutality and misunderstanding.

American Protective Association

Summary: nativist organization responding to increased immigration, promoted immigration restriction and higher naturalization requirements Excerpt: During the 1880s nativist prejudices spawned groups devoted to stopping the flow of immigrants. The most successful of the nativist groups, the American Protective Association (APA), operated mainly in Protestant strongholds of the upper Mississippi River valley. Its organizer harbored paranoid fantasies of Catholic conspiracies and was especially eager to keep public schools free from Jesuit control. The association grew slowly from its start in 1887 until 1893, when leaders took advantage of a severe depression to draw large numbers of the frustrated to its ranks. The APA promoted restrictions on immigration, more stringent naturalization requirements, workplaces that refused to employ aliens or Catholics, and the teaching of the "American" language in the schools.

Henry Cabot Lodge

Summary: nativist, promoted exclusion of immigrants by literacy tests Excerpt: In 1891 the prominent Representative Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts took up the cause of excluding illiterate foreigners—a measure that would have affected much of the new wave of immigrants even though literacy in English was not required. Bills embodying the The New Immigration • 791 Mulberry Street, Little Italy, New York City, ca. 1900 Immigrants established ethnic enclaves in which they could carry on Old-World traditions. restriction were vetoed by three presidents on the grounds that they penalized people for lack of opportunity: Grover Cleveland in 1897, William H. Taft in 1913, and Woodrow Wilson in 1915 and 1917. The last time, however, Congress overrode the veto

Chief Joseph & Nez Perces

Summary: nez perces refused to surrender land, indian chieftan of the nez perces, led a good military campaign, kept dignity even after defeat Excerpt: In a war along the California-Oregon boundary, the Modocs held out for six months in 1871-1872 before they were overwhelmed. In 1879 the Utes were forced to give up their vast territories in western Colorado after a brief battle. In Idaho the peaceful Nez Perces refused to surrender land along the Salmon River. Chief Joseph steadfastly tried to avoid war, but when fighting erupted, he directed a masterful campaign against overwhelming odds. After a retreat of 1,500 miles, through mountains and plains, he was caught thirty miles short of the Canadian border and exiled to Oklahoma. The heroic Joseph maintained strict discipline among his followers, countenanced no scalpings or outrages against civilians, paid for supplies that he could have confiscated, and kept his dignity to the end. His eloquent speech of surrender was an epitaph to the Indians' efforts to withstand the march of empire

Benjamin Harrison (1889-1893)

Summary: nominee of the republican GOP (Grand old party), grandson of william henry harrison, president who reformed, talked about civil service reform, made roosevelt cheadof civil service commission, approved pensions to civil war veterans, tariff main issue during campaign Excerpt: As president, Benjamin Harrison was a competent and earnest figurehead overshadowed by his flamboyant secretary of state, James G. Blaine. Harrison had aroused the hopes of civil service reformers when he declared that "fitness and not party service should be the essential and discriminating test" for government employment. Nevertheless, he appointed a wealthy Philadelphia merchant as his postmaster general, allegedly as a reward for a generous compaign contribution. The first assistant postmaster general announced less than a year later, "I have changed 31,000 out of 55,000 fourth-class postmasters and I expect to change 10,000 more before I finally quit." Harrison made a few feckless efforts to resist partisan pressures, but the party leaders had their way. His most significant gesture at reform was to name young Theodore Roosevelt to the Civil Service Commission. Harrison owed a heavy debt to Union Civil War veterans, which he discharged by naming an officer of the Grand Army of the Republic to the position of pension commissioner. "God help the surplus," the new commissioner reportedly exclaimed. He proceeded to approve pensions for military veterans with such abandon that the secretary of the interior removed him six months and several million dollars later. In Corruption and Reform • 835 A Billion-Dollar Hole In an attack on Benjamin Harrison's spending policies, Harrison is shown pouring Cleveland's huge surplus down a hole. 1890 Congress passed, and Harrison signed, the Dependent Pension Act, substantially the same measure that Cleveland had vetoed. The pension rolls almost doubled between 1889 and 1893. During the first two years of Harrison's term, the Republicans controlled the presidency and both houses of Congress for only the second time in the twenty years between 1875 and 1895. They were positioned to have pretty much their own way, and they made the year 1890 memorable for some of the most significant legislation enacted in the entire period. In addition to the Dependent Pension Act, Congress and the president approved the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, the McKinley Tariff Act, and the admission of Idaho and Wyoming as new states, which followed the admission of the Dakotas, Montana, and Washington in 1889 Cleveland was the obvious nominee of his party. The Republicans, now calling themselves the GOP (Grand Old Party), turned to the obscure Benjamin Harrison, who had all the attributes of availability. The grandson of President William Henry Harrison, and a lawyer with a flourishing practice in Indiana, Harrison resided in a pivotal state and had a good war record. There was little in his political record to offend any voter. He had lost a race for governor and served one term in the Senate (1881-1887). The Republican platform accepted Cleveland's challenge to make the protective tariff the chief issue and promised generous pensions to veterans.

Rutherford B. Hayes

Summary: offended neither radicals or reformers, civil service reformer, allowed republican gov. to collapse in southern states in exchange for reconstruction amendments (black rights), ended reconstruction Excerpt: e. Over the next twenty years, federal land grants, mainly to transcontinental railroad companies, totaled 129 million acres

Urban Political Machines

Summary: organzied city politics, composed of heirarchy of authority with city bosses at the top, engaged in some corruption and also some help to the poor/unemployed Excerpt: Urban political machines developed, consisting of local committeemen, district captains, and culminating in a political boss. While the bosses granted patronage favors and engaged in graft, buying and selling votes, taking kickbacks and payoffs, they also provided needed services. They distributed food, coal, and money to the poor; found jobs for those who were out of work; sponsored Englishlanguage classes for immigrants; organized sports teams, social clubs, and neighborhood gatherings; and generally helped newcomers adjust to their 784 • THE EMERGENCE OF URBAN AMERICA (CH. 21) new life. As one ward boss in Boston said, "There's got to be in every ward somebody that any bloke can come to—no matter what he's done—and get help. Help, you understand, none of your law and justice, but help." In return the political professionals felt entitled to some reward for having done the grubby work of the local organization

Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)

Summary: outlawed conspiracies to restrain trade, abolished efforts to est. monopolies in commerce Excerpt: . The Sherman Anti-Trust Act, named for Ohio senator John Sherman, chairman of the Senate committee that drafted it, sought to incorporate into federal law a long-standing principle opposing activities in "restraint of trade." It forbade contracts, combinations, or conspiracies in restraint of trade or in the effort to establish monopolies in interstate or foreign commerce. A broad consensus put the vague law through, but its passage turned out to be largely symbolic. During the next decade successive administrations rarely enforced the new law, in part because of the ambiguity about what constituted "restraint of trade." From 1890 to 1901, only eighteen lawsuits were instituted, and four of those were against labor unions

Samuel Tilden

Summary: overthrew tweed ring controlling NYC politics, reform governor, democrat, Excerpt: The Democratic Convention was abnormally harmonious from the start. The nomination went on the second ballot to Samuel J. Tilden, a millionaire corporation lawyer and reform governor of New York who had directed a campaign to overthrow the notorious Tweed ring controlling New York City politics and the canal ring in Albany, which had bilked the state of millions.

Pullman Strike (1894)

Summary: paralyzed economy, cleveland sent in troops to break strike, happened due to rising costs of living in car company town Excerpt: The Pullman strike of 1894 was perhaps the most notable walkout in American history. It paralyzed the economies of twenty-seven states and territories making up the western half of the nation. It involved a dispute at Pullman, Illinois, a model town built on 4,000 acres outside Chicago, where workers of the Pullman Palace Car Company were housed. The town's idyllic appearance was deceptive, however. Employees were required to live there, pay rents and utility costs that were higher than those in nearby towns, and buy goods from company stores. During the depression of 1893, George Pullman laid off 3,000 of 5,800 employees and cut wages The Pullman Strike Troops guarding the railroads, 1894. 25 to 40 percent, but not his rents and other charges. After Pullman fired three members of a workers' grievance committee, a strike began on May 11, 1894. During this tense period, Pullman workers had been joining the American Railway Union, founded the previous year by Eugene V. Debs. The tall, gangly Debs was a man of towering influence and charismatic appeal. A child of working-class immigrants, he quit school in 1869, at age fourteen, and began working for an Indiana railroad. By the early 1890s Debs had become a tireless spokesman for labor radicalism, and he launched a crusade to organize all railway workers—skilled or unskilled—into the American Railway Union. Soon he was in charge of a powerful new labor organization, and he quickly turned his attention to the Pullman controversy. In June 1894, after George Pullman refused Debs's plea for arbitration, the union workers stopped handling Pullman railcars and by the end of July had tied up most of the railroads in the Midwest. Railroad executives then brought strikebreakers to connect mail cars to Pullman cars so that interference with Pullman cars would entail interference with the federal mail. The U.S. attorney general, a former railroad attorney himself, swore in 3,400 special deputies to keep the trains running. When clashes occurred between those deputies and some of the strikers, angry workers ignored Debs's plea for an orderly boycott. They assaulted employees and destroyed property. Labor Conditions and Organization • 771 Finally, on July 3, 1894, President Grover Cleveland sent federal troops into the Chicago area, where the strike was centered. The Illinois governor insisted that the state could keep order, but Cleveland claimed authority and a duty to ensure delivery of the mail. Meanwhile, the attorney general won an injunction forbidding any interference with the mail or any effort to restrain interstate commerce; the principle was that a strike or boycott violated the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. On July 13 the union called off the strike. A few days later the district court cited Debs for violating the injunction and he served six months in jail. The Supreme Court upheld the decree in the case of In re Debs (1895) on broad grounds of national sovereignty: "The strong arm of the national government may be put forth to brush away all obstructions to the freedom of interstate commerce or the transportation of the mails." Debs served his jail term, during which he read deeply in socialist literature, and emerged to devote the rest of his life to socialism.

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

Summary: philosopher behind social darwinism, see social darwinism term for more Excerpt: Though Charles Darwin's theory of evolution applied only to biological phenomena, other thinkers drew broader inferences from it. The temptation to apply evolutionary theory to the social (human) world proved irresistible. Darwin's fellow Englishman Herbert Spencer became the first major prophet of social Darwinism and an important influence on American thought. Spencer argued that human society and institutions, like organisms, passed through the process of natural selection, which resulted, in Spencer's chilling phrase, in the "survival of the fittest." For Spencer, social evolution implied progress, ending "only in the establishment of the greatest perfection and the most complete happiness." If, as Spencer believed, society naturally evolved for the better, then government interference with the process of social evolution was a serious mistake. Social Darwinism implied a government policy of hands off; it decried the regulation of business, the graduated income tax, sanitation and housing regulations, and even protection against medical quacks. Such intervention, Spencer charged, would help the "unfit" survive and thereby impede progress. The only acceptable charity was voluntary, and even that was of dubious value. Spencer warned that "fostering the good-for-nothing at the expense of the good, is an extreme cruelty." For Spencer and his many American supporters, successful businessmen and corporations were the engines of social progress. If small businesses were crowded out by trusts and monopolies, that, too, was part of the evolutionary process. John D. Rockefeller told his Baptist Sunday-school class that the "growth of a large business is merely a survival of the fittest....This is not an evil tendency in business. It is merely the working-out of a law of nature and a law of God."

Granger Cases (1876-1886)

Summary: plantiff claimed deprived of property, supreme court ruled state could regulate property when it was in public interest Excerpt: The Grange soon became indirectly involved in politics, through independent third parties, especially in the Midwest during the early 1870s. The Grange's chief political goal was to regulate the rates charged by railroads and warehouses. In five states they brought about the passage of "Granger laws," which at first proved relatively ineffective but laid a foundation for stronger legislation. Owners subject to their regulation challenged the laws in cases that soon advanced to the Supreme Court, where the plaintiffs in the "Granger cases" claimed to have been deprived of property without due process of law. In a key case involving warehouse regulation, Munn v. Illinois (1877), the Supreme Court ruled that the state, under its "police powers," had the right to regulate property where that property was clothed in a public interest. If regulatory power were abused, the ruling said, "the people must resort to the polls, not the courts." Later, however, the courts would severely restrict state regulatory powers.

City Boss

Summary: political bosses in cities provided food, coal money to poor and provided jobs to unemployed whilst taking bribes, helped newcomers adjust to city Excerpt: After the Civil War, the sheer size of the cities helped create a new form of politics. Because local government was often fragmented and beset by parochial rivalries, a need grew for a central organization to coordinate citywide services such as public transportation, sanitation, and utilities. Urban political machines developed, consisting of local committeemen, district captains, and culminating in a political boss. While the bosses granted patronage favors and engaged in graft, buying and selling votes, taking kickbacks and payoffs, they also provided needed services. They distributed food, coal, and money to the poor; found jobs for those who were out of work; sponsored Englishlanguage classes for immigrants; organized sports teams, social clubs, and neighborhood gatherings; and generally helped newcomers adjust to their 784 • THE EMERGENCE OF URBAN AMERICA (CH. 21) new life. As one ward boss in Boston said, "There's got to be in every ward somebody that any bloke can come to—no matter what he's done—and get help. Help, you understand, none of your law and justice, but help." In return the political professionals felt entitled to some reward for having done the grubby work of the local organization.

Coxey's Army (1894)

Summary: poor economy in 1894 led to protest group 'Coxey's Army', led by Jacob Coxey, unemployed given work by fed gov., made americans scared, hurt populist reputation Excerpt: By 1894 the nation's economy had reached bottom. That year some 750,000 workers went on strike, millions found themselves unemployed, and railroad construction workers, laid off in the West, began tramping east and talked of marching on Washington, D.C. Few of them made it to the capital. One protest group that did reach Washington was "Coxey's Army," led by Jacob S. Coxey, a wealthy Ohio quarry owner turned Populist who demanded that the federal government provide the unemployed with meaningful work. Coxey, his wife, and their son, Legal Tender Coxey, rode in a carriage ahead of some 400 hardy protesters who finally straggled into Washington. There Coxey was arrested for walking on the grass. Although his ragtag army dispersed peacefully, the march on Washington, as well as the growing political strength of populism, struck fear into the hearts of many Americans. Critics portrayed Populists as "hayseed socialists" whose election would endanger property rights.

william Jennings Bryan

Summary: populist who led the democrats to embrace anti-trust/working hour limits, presidentail canidate, pro-silver currency Excerpt: On the . Even though the Populist movement faded with William Jennings Bryan's defeat, most of the agenda promoted by Bryan Democrats and Populists, dismissed as too radical and controversial in 1896, would be implemented over the next two decades. Bryan's impassioned candidacy helped transform the Democratic party into a vigorous instrument of "progressive" reform during the early twentieth century. Democrats began to promote anti-trust prosecutions, state laws to limit the working hours of women and children, the establishment of a minimum wage, and measures to support farmers and protect labor-union organizers. As the United States looked ahead to a new century, it began to place more emphasis on the role of the national government in society and the economy Democratic side the pro-silver forces captured the convention for their platform. William Jennings Bryan arranged to give the closing speech for the silver plank. A fervent Baptist moralist, Bryan was a two-term congressman from Nebraska who had been swept out of office in the Democratic losses of 1894. In the months before the convention, he had traveled throughout the South and the West, speaking for free silver and against Cleveland's "do-nothing" response to the depression. Bryan's rehearsed phrases swept the convention into a frenzy

Samuel Gompers

Summary: president of AFL, focused on econ gains, higher wages, shorter hours, better working conditions, willingly used strikes Excerpt: Samuel Gompers served as president of the AFL from its start until his death in 1924, with only one year's interruption. Born in London of Dutch Jewish ancestry, Gompers came to the United States as a teenager, joined the Cigarmakers' Union in 1864, and became president of his New York local in 1877. Unlike Terence Powderly and the Knights of Labor, Gompers focused on concrete economic gains— higher wages, shorter hours, better working conditions—and avoided involvement with utopian ideas or politics. Gompers was temperamentally more suited than Powderly to the rough-and-tumble world of unionism. He had a thick hide, liked to talk and drink with workers in the back 768 • BIG BUSINESS AND ORGANIZED LABOR (CH. 20) Samuel Gompers Head of the American Federation of Labor, striking an assertive pose. room, and willingly used the strike to achieve favorable trade agreements, including provisos for union recognition in the form of closed shops (which could hire only union members) or union-preference shops (which could hire others only if no union members were available).

Stalwarts

Summary: promoted radical reconstrution and 'spoils system', distribute fed political jobs to party loyalists Excerpt: y Senators Roscoe Conkling of New York and James G. Blaine of Maine. The difference between these Republican factions was murkier than that between the parties. The Stalwarts had been stalwart in their support of President Grant during the furor over the behavior of his cabinet members. They also promoted Radical Reconstruction of the South and the "spoils system" of distributing federal political jobs to party loyalists. The Half-Breeds acquired their name because they were only half loyal to Grant and half committed to reform of the spoils system. For the most part the two Republican factions were loose alliances designed to advance the careers of Conkling and Blaine. The two men could not abide each other. Blaine once referred to the haughty Conkling as displaying a "majestic, supereminent, overpowering, turkey-gobbler strut." Tall and lordly, with a pointed beard, thick, auburn hair, and upturned jaw and nose, Conkling boasted good looks, fine clothes, and an arrogant manner. Yet underneath his glamorous facade he was a ruthless power broker willing to reward friends and punish enemies. Conkling viewed politics as a brute struggle for control. Politics "is a rotten business," he declared. "Nothing counts except to win."

National Women Suffrage Association (1869)

Summary: promoted suffrage amendment, but was not the only focus of organization, founded by Stanton/Anthony Excerpt: In 1869 the unity of the women's movement was broken in a manner reminiscent of the anti-slavery rift three decades before. The question once again was whether the movement should concentrate on one overriding issue. Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton founded the National Woman Suffrage Association to promote a women's suffrage amendment to the Constitution, but they looked upon the vote as but one among many feminist causes to be promoted. Later that year, activists formed the American Woman Suffrage Association, which focused single-mindedly on the suffrage as the first and basic reform.

Bland-Allison Act (1878)

Summary: provided expansion of silver money by gov. buying up silver coines Excerpt: For all of Hayes's efforts to clean house, his vision of government's role remained limited. On the economic issues of the day, he held to a conservative line that would guide his successors for the rest of the century. His solution to labor troubles, demonstrated in the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, was to send in federal troops and break the strike. Yet Hayes privately expressed misgivings about using troops to suppress labor unrest. He told his cabinet that "if railroad workers were to be subjected to governmental force, perhaps the railroads should be subjected to governmental supervision of their labor policies." In his diary he concluded that the best remedy would be "judicious control of the capitalists." But Hayes never found a way to implement such regulation. Hayes's answer to demands for an expansion of the currency was to veto the 1878 Bland-Allison Act, which provided for a limited expansion of silver money Corruption and Reform • 825 through the government's purchase of $2 million to $4 million worth in silver coins per month. (The act passed anyway when Congress overrode Hayes's veto.) A bruised president confided in his diary that he had lost the support of his own party. There was "a very decided opposition to the Administration in both houses of Congress among the Republican members," and their objections extended to "all of my principal acts." Congressional leader James Garfield echoed Hayes's assessment, noting that the president had pursued "a suicidal policy toward Congress and is almost without a friend." In 1879, with a year still left in his term, Hayes was ready to leave the White House. "I am now in my last year of the Presidency," he wrote a friend, "and look forward to its close as a schoolboy longs for the coming vacation."

Andrew Carnegie

Summary: rags to riches, philanthropist, wrote gospel of wealth (be like rags to riches by working hard), worked in steel and consolidated industry, promoted continuous innovation Excerpt: Andrew Carnegie, like Rockefeller, experienced an atypical rise from poverty to riches. Born in Entrepreneurs • 755 Scotland, he migrated in 1848 with his family to Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. Then thirteen, he started work as a bobbin boy in a textile mill at wages of $1.20 per week. At fourteen he was earning $2.50 per week as a telegraph messenger. In 1853 he became personal secretary and telegrapher to Thomas Scott, then district superintendent of the Pennsylvania Railroad and later its president. When Scott moved up, Carnegie took his place as superintendent. During the Civil War, when Scott became assistant secretary of war in charge of transportation, Carnegie went with him and developed a military telegraph system. Carnegie kept on moving—from telegraphy to railroading to bridge building and then to steelmaking and investments. In 1873 Carnegie resolved to concentrate on steel. Steel was the miracle material of the post-Civil War era, not because it was new but because it was suddenly cheap. Until the mid-nineteenth century, steel could be made only from wrought iron—itself expensive—and only in small quantities. Then, in 1855, Sir Henry Bessemer invented what became known as the Bessemer converter, a process by which steel could be produced directly and quickly from pig iron (crude iron made in a blast furnace). As more steel was produced, its price dropped and use soared. In 1860 the United States had produced only 13,000 tons of steel. By 1880 production had reached 1.4 million tons. Carnegie was never a technical expert on steel. He was a promoter, salesman, and organizer with a gift for hiring men of expert ability. He insisted on up-to-date machinery and equipment and used times of recession to expand cheaply by purchasing struggling companies. He also preached to his employees a philosophy of continual innovation in order to reduce operating costs. Carnegie stood out from other business titans as a thinker who fashioned and publicized a philosophy for big business, a conservative rationale that became deeply implanted in the conventional wisdom of some Americans. He believed that however harsh their methods at times, he and other captains of industry were on the whole public benefactors. In his best-remembered essay, "The Gospel of Wealth" (1889), he argued that in the evolution of society the contrast between the millionaire and the laborer measures the distance 756 • BIG BUSINESS AND ORGANIZED LABOR (CH. 20) Andrew Carnegie Steel magnate and business icon. society has come. "Not evil, but good, has come to the race from the accumulation of wealth by those who have the ability and energy that produces it." The process had been costly in many ways, but the law of competition is "best for the trade, because it insures the survival of the fittest in every department." When he retired from business at age sixty-five, Carnegie devoted himself to dispensing his fortune for the public good, out of a sincere desire to promote social welfare and further world peace. He called himself a "distributor" of wealth (he disliked the term philanthropy). He gave money to universities, libraries, hospitals, parks, halls for meetings and concerts, swimming pools, and church buildings.

J.P. Morgan

Summary: railroads, consolidated companies and also consolidated steel industry (bought out carnegie), United States Steel Company = first billion dollar company Excerpt: Like John Rockefeller, J.P. Morgan viewed competition as wasteful and chaotic and sought to consolidate rival firms into giant trusts. Morgan early realized that railroads were the key to the times, and he acquired and reorganized one line after another. By the 1890s he alone controlled one sixth of the nation's railway system. To Morgan, an imperious, domineering man, the stability brought by his operations helped the economy and the public. His crowning triumph was consolidation of the steel industry. After a rapid series of mergers in the iron and steel industry, he bought out Andrew Carnegie's huge steel and iron holdings in 1901. In rapid succession, Morgan added other steel interests and the Rockefeller iron ore holdings in Minnesota's Mesabi Range and a Great Lakes shipping fleet. The new United States Steel Corporation, a holding company for these varied interests, was a marvel of the new century, the first billion-dollar corporation, the climactic event in the age of business consolidation.

Tariff Commission (1882)

Summary: recommended reduction in protective tariff created during civil war, led to surplus in funding by federal government Excerpt: The high protective tariff, a heritage of the Civil War designed to deter foreign imports by taxing them, had by the early 1880s raised federal revenues to a point where the government was enjoying an embarrassment of riches, a surplus that drew money into the Treasury and out of circulation, thus constricting economic growth. Some argued that lower tariff rates would reduce prices by enabling foreign competition and at the same time leave more money in circulation to fuel economic growth. In 1882 Arthur named a special commission to study the problem. The Tariff Commission recommended a 20 to 25 percent rate reduction, which gained Arthur's support, but any attempt at tariff reform ran up against swarms of lobbyists and organized interest groups representing different industries determined to keep the rate on their particular commodity high. Congress's effort to enact the proposal was marred by logrolling (the trading of votes to benefit different legislators' local interests), resulting in the "mongrel tariff" of 1883, so called because of its diverse rates for different commodities. Overall, the tariff provided for a slight rate reduction, perhaps by 5 percent, but it actually raised the duty on some articles.

Mugwumps

Summary: reform element of republican party, unreliable republicans, centered in large cities/universities, opposed to tariffs pro free trade, enact civil service reform by distributing fed jobs to supporters, dems nominated cleveland to attract mugwumps vote Excerpt: During the campaign more letters surfaced with disclosures embarrassing to Blaine. For the reform element of the Republican party, this was too much, and prominent leaders and supporters of the party bolted the ticket. Party regulars scorned them as goo-goos— the good-government crowd who ignored partisan realities—and the editor of the New York Sun jokingly called them mugwumps, after an Algonquian word for a self-important chieftain. To party regulars, in what soon became a stale joke, mugwumps were unreliable Republicans who had their mugs on one side of the fence and their "wumps" on the other. The mugwumps were centered in the large cities and major universities. Mostly educators or editors, they shared an opposition to tariffs and championed free trade. They disdained efforts to inflate the money supply by coining more silver, were hostile to efforts at regulating railroads, and were suspicious of excessive democracy. Their foremost goal was to enact civil service reform by removing from the party in power the ability to distribute federal jobs to its supporters. The rise of the mugwumps influenced the Democrats to nominate the New Yorker Stephen Grover Cleveland as a reform candidate. Cleveland rose rapidly from obscurity to the White House. One of many children in the family of a small-town Presbyterian minister, he had first attracted national attention when, in 1881, he was elected as the anti-corruption mayor of Buffalo. In 1882 he was elected governor, and he continued to build a reform record by fighting New York City's corrupt Tammany Hall organization. As mayor and as governor, he repeatedly vetoed what he considered specialprivilege bills serving selfish interests.

Gustavus Swift

Summary: refrigerated cow meat which made the meet industry more profitable Excerpt: The secret to higher profits for the cattle industry was to devise a way to slaughter the cattle in the Midwest and ship the dressed carcasses east and west. That process required refrigeration to keep the meat from spoiling. In 1869 G. H. Hammond, a Chicago meat packer, shipped the first refrigerated beef in an air-cooled car from Chicago to Boston. Eight years later Gustavus Swift developed a more efficient system of mechanical refrigeration, an innovation that earned him a fortune and provided the cattle industry with a major stimulus

Vertical Integration

Summary: rockefeller used his company to produce everything it needed (barrels, cans, staves etc.) and became independent from bank bailouts/loans Excerpt: Much of Rockefeller's success was based upon his determination to "pay nobody a profit." Instead of depending upon the products or services of other firms, known as middlemen, Standard Oil undertook the production of its own barrels, cans, staves, and whatever else it needed—in economic terms this is called vertical integration. The company also kept large amounts of cash reserves to make it independent of banks in case of a crisis. 754 • BIG BUSINESS AND ORGANIZED LABOR (CH. 20) The Rise of Oil Wooden derricks crowd the farm of John Benninghoff in Oil Creek, Pennsylvania, in the 1860s. In line with this policy, Rockefeller also set out to control his transportation needs. With Standard Oil owning most of the pipelines leading to railroads, plus the railroad tank cars and the oil-storage facilities, it was able to dissuade the railroads from serving its eastern competitors. Those rivals that insisted on holding out then faced a giant marketing organization capable of driving them to the wall with price wars.

Standard Oil

Summary: rockefellers oil trust, became a robber baron, bought out and consolidated companies Excerpt: Rockefeller recognized the potential profits in refining oil, and in 1870 he incorporated his various interests as the Standard Oil Company of Ohio. Although Rockefeller was the largest refiner, he wanted all of the business. So he decided to weed out the competition, which he perceived as flooding the market with too much refined oil, bringing down prices and reducing profits. Rockefeller approached his Cleveland competitors and offered to buy them out at his own price. Those who resisted were forced out. In less than six weeks, Rockefeller had taken over twenty-two of his twenty-six competitors. By 1879 Standard Oil was controlling 90 to 95 percent of the oil refining in the country.

Saloons

Summary: saoon culture, popular with male immigrants, social policical hubs, anti-saloon leagues rose in protest of saloons (mostly the drinking part) Excerpt: Saloons provided much more than food and drink, however; they were in effect public homes, offering haven and fellowship to people who often worked ten hours a day, six days a week. Saloons were especially popular among male immigrants seeking friends and companionship in a new land. Saloons served as busy social hubs and were often aligned with local political machines. In New York City in the 1880s, most of the primary elections and local political caucuses were conducted in saloons. Saloons were also defiantly male enclaves. Although women and children occasionally entered a saloon—through a side door—in order to carry home a pail of beer (called "rushing the growler") or to drink at a backroom party, the main bar at the front of the saloon was for men only. Some saloons provided "snugs," small separate rooms for female patrons. Saloons aroused intense criticism. Anti-liquor societies such as the Women's Christian Temperance Union and the Anti-Saloon League charged that saloons contributed to alcoholism, divorce, crime, and absenteeism from work. The reformers demanded that saloons be closed down.

Jane Addams/Settlement House Movement

Summary: she focused on addressing practical needs of urban poor, staffed by middle class idealists (educated women), wanted to improve lives of slum dwellers, Excerpt: While preachers of the social gospel dispensed inspiration, other dedicated reformers attacked the problems of the slums from residential and community centers called settlement houses. By 1900 perhaps 100 settlement houses existed in the United States, some of the best known being Jane Addams and Ellen Starr's HullHouse in Chicago (1889), Robert A. Woods's South End House in Boston (1891), and Lillian Wald's Henry Street Settlement (1893) in New York. The settlement houses were staffed mainly by young middle-class idealists, a majority of them college-trained women who had few other outlets for meaningful work outside the home. Settlement workers sought to broaden the horizons and improve the lives of slum dwellers in diverse ways. At Hull-House, for instance, Jane Addams rejected the "do-goodism" spirit of religious reformers and tried to avoid the assumption that she and the other social workers knew what was best for the poor immigrants. Her approach used pragmatism rather than preaching, focusing on the practical needs of the working poor. She and her staff helped enroll neighborhood children in clubs and kindergartens and set up a nursery to care for the infant children of working mothers. The program gradually expanded as Hull-House sponsored health clinics, lectures, music and art studios, an employment bureau, men's clubs, training in skills such as bookbinding, a gymnasium, and a savings bank. Settlement-house leaders realized, however, that the spreading slums made their work as effective as bailing out the ocean with a teaspoon. They therefore organized political support for housing laws, public playgrounds, juvenile courts, mothers' pensions, workers' compensation laws, and legislation prohibiting child labor. Lillian Wald promoted 812 • THE EMERGENCE OF URBAN AMERICA (CH. 21) Jane Addams By the end of the century, religious groups were taking up the settlementhouse movement. the establishment of the federal Children's Bureau in 1912, and Jane Addams, for her work in the peace movement, received the Nobel Peace Prize for 1931. When Addams died, in 1935, she was the most venerated woman in America.

Henry Frick

Summary: steel baron that hired pinkertons to break strikes Excerpt: Elected in his own right, Roosevelt approached his second term with heightened confidence and a stronger commitment to Progressive reform. In 1905 he devoted most of his annual message to the regulation and control of big business. This understandably irked many of his corporate contributors and congressional Republican leaders. Said steel baron Henry Frick, "We bought the son of a bitch and then he did not stay bought." The independent-minded Roosevelt took aim at the railroads first. The Elkins Act of 1903, finally outlawing rebates, had been a minor step. Railroad executives themselves welcomed it as an escape from shippers clamoring for special favor

Social Darwinism

Summary: survival of the fittest, Herbert spencer = leader, government = hands off policy, decried income tax, sanitation, housing regulation, business regulation, popular among businessmen/big business, became very popular in magazine Popular science monthly Excerpt: Darwin's fellow Englishman Herbert Spencer became the first major prophet of social Darwinism and an important influence on American thought. Spencer argued that human society and institutions, like organisms, passed through the process of natural selection, which resulted, in Spencer's chilling phrase, in the "survival of the fittest." For Spencer, social evolution implied progress, ending "only in the establishment of the greatest perfection and the most complete happiness." If, as Spencer believed, society naturally evolved for the better, then government interference with the process of social evolution was a serious mistake. Social Darwinism implied a government policy of hands off; it decried the regulation of business, the graduated income tax, sanitation and housing regulations, and even protection against medical quacks. Such intervention, Spencer charged, would help the "unfit" survive and thereby impede progress. The only acceptable charity was voluntary, and even that was of dubious value. Spencer warned that "fostering the good-for-nothing at the expense of the good, is an extreme cruelty." For Spencer and his many American supporters, successful businessmen and corporations were the engines of social progress. If small businesses were crowded out by trusts and monopolies, that, too, was part of the evolutionary process

Alliance Exchange

Summary: texas famers be independent from processors/banks by creating their own bank essentially to loan out money (warehouses, own banking notes, credit), banks shut down by refusing joint notes from alliance members Excerpt: as well as their own inexperienced management and overextended credit. In 1887 Charles W. Macune, the new Alliance president, proposed that Texas farmers create their own Alliance Exchange in an effort to free themselves from their dependence upon food processors and banks. Members of the exchange would sign joint notes, borrow money from banks, and purchase their goods and supplies from a new corporation created by the Alliance in Dallas. The exchange would also build its own warehouses to store and market members' crops. While their crops were being stored, member farmers would be able to obtain credit from the warehouse cooperative so that they could buy household goods and supplies. This grand cooperative scheme collapsed when Texas banks refused to accept the joint notes from Alliance members. Macune and others then focused their energies on what Macune called a "subtreasury plan."

Munn v. Illinois (1877)

Summary: the state had right to regulate property when in concern to public interest Excerpt: . In a key case involving warehouse regulation, Munn v. Illinois (1877), the Supreme Court ruled that the state, under its "police powers," had the right to regulate property where that property was clothed in a public interest. If regulatory power were abused, the ruling said, "the people must resort to the polls, not the courts." Later, however, the courts would severely restrict state regulatory powers

hydraulic mining/hydraulicking

Summary: used in mining, destroyed the western ecosystem Excerpt: During the second half of the nineteenth century, the nature of mining changed drastically. It became a mass-production industry as individual prospectors gave way to large companies. The first wave of miners who rushed to California in 1849 sifted gold dust and nuggets out of riverbeds by means of "placer" mining, or "panning." But once the placer deposits were exhausted, efficient mining required large-scale operations and huge investments. Companies shifted from surface digging to hydraulic mining, dredging, or deep-shaft "hard-rock" mining. Hydraulicking, dredging, and shaft mining transformed vast areas of vegetation and landscape. Huge hydraulic cannons shot an enormous stream of water under high pressure, stripping the topsoil and gravel from the bedrock and creating steep-sloped barren canyons that could not sustain plant life. The tons of dirt and debris unearthed by the water cannons covered rich farmland downstream and created sandbars that clogged rivers and killed fish. In 1880 alone some 40,000 acres of farmland and orchards were destroyed by the effects of hydraulic mining while another 270,000 acres were severely damaged. All told, some 12 billion tons of earth were blasted out of the Sierra Nevadas and washed into local rivers. At the massive Malakoff Diggings in northeastern California, hydraulic mining removed an estimated 41 million cubic yards of soil and rock and left a lifeless canyon over a mile long and up to 350 feet deep. The mine used three huge nozzles and 30.5 million gallons of water, twice as much water as was used by the entire city of San Francisco. The sprawling complex had over 150 miles of ditches, dams, and associated reservoirs to supply its gigantic operations

Angel Island

Summary: west coast immigration center, rejected most immigrants (chinese) Excerpt: The West Coast counterpart to Ellis Island was the Immigration Station on rugged Angel Island, six miles offshore from San Francisco. Opened in 1910, it served as a processing center for tens of thousands of Asian immigrants, most of them Chinese. Although the Chinese Exclusion Act had sharply reduced the flow of Chinese immigrants, it did not stop the influx completely. Those arrivals who could claim a Chinese-American parent were allowed to enter, as were certain officials, teachers, merchants, and students. The powerful prejudice the Chinese immigrants encountered helps explain why over 30 percent of the arrivals at Angel Island were denied entry.

YWCA

Summary: womens YMCA, showed suffrage/increasing interests for women, arose out of desire to be healthy Excerpt: Despite the focus on the vote, women did not confine their public work to that issue. In 1866 the Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA), a parallel to the YMCA, appeared in Boston and spread elsewhere. The New England Women's Club, started in 1868 by Julia Ward Howe and others, was an early example of the women's clubs that proliferated to the extent that a General Federation of Women's Clubs tied them together in 1890. Many women's clubs confined themselves to "literary" and social activities, but others became deeply involved in charities and reform. The New York Consumers' League, formed in 1890, and the National Consumers' League, formed nine years later, sought to make the buying public, chiefly women, aware of labor conditions. One of its devices was the "White List" of firms that met its minimum standards. The National Women's Trade Union League, founded in 1903, performed a similar function of bringing educated and middle-class women together with workingwomen for the benefit of women unionists

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

Summary: womens suffrage leader, led NAWS Excerpt: tive, however, who insisted that women belonged in the domestic sphere. In 1869 the unity of the women's movement was broken in a manner reminiscent of the anti-slavery rift three decades before. The question once again was whether the movement should concentrate on one overriding issue. Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton founded the National Woman Suffrage Association to promote a women's suffrage amendment to the Constitution, but they looked upon the vote as but one among many feminist causes to be promoted. Later that year, activists formed the American Woman Suffrage Association, which focused single-mindedly on the suffrage as the first and basic reform. It would be another half century before the battle would be won, and the long struggle focused the women's cause ever more on the primary objective of the vote. In 1890, after three years of negotiation, the rival groups united as the National American Woman Suffrage Association, with Elizabeth Cady Stanton as president for two years, to be followed by Susan B. Anthony until 1900.

Conspicuous Consumption

T&S definition: Phrase referring to extravagant spending to raise social standing, coined by Thorstein Veblen in The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899). other notes: Poineered by Carnegie, essentially spend your wealth to show your wealthy, differs from old money wealth (1700s)

Henry Grady

ch. 19, Summary: Henry Grady led the New South Movement, promoted industrialization of south, diversified agriculutre to lead to economic growth, education, material sucess, racial harmony new Excerpt: The major prophet of this New South was Henry W. Grady, editor of the Atlanta Constitution. During the 1880s Grady set forth the vision that inspired a generation of southerners. "The Old South," he said, "rested everything on slavery and agriculture, unconscious that these could neither give nor maintain healthy growth." The New South, on the other hand, "presents a perfect democracy" of small farms and diversifying industries. The postwar South, Grady believed, held the promise of a real democracy, one no longer run by the planter aristocracy and no longer dependent upon slave labor. Henry Grady's compelling vision of a New South attracted many supporters, who preached with evangelical fervor the gospel of industrial development.

Bourbon Redeemers

ch. 19, Summary: allied northern conservatives and northern capitalists, fiscal frugality and tax exemptions for businesses as policy, created convict leasing system, established ag and public health boards and ag R&D infrastructure/education Excerpt: The Bourbons of the New South perfected a political alliance with northern conservatives and an economic alliance with northern capitalists. They generally pursued a government fiscal policy of retrenchment and frugality, except for the tax exemptions and other favors they offered business. the darkest blots on the Bourbon record: convict leasing. The wartime destruction of prisons and the poverty of state treasuries combined with the demand for cheap labor to make the leasing of convict workers a way for southern states to avoid penitentiary expenses and generate revenue. Convict leasing, in the absence of state supervision, allowed inefficiency, neglect, and disregard for human life to proliferate. Despite their penny-pinching ways, the frugal Bourbon regimes, so ardently devoted to free enterprise, did respond to the demand for commissions to regulate the rates charged by railroads for commercial transport. They also established boards of agriculture and public health, stations for agricultural experimentation, agricultural and mechanical colleges, teachertraining schools and women's colleges, and even state colleges for African Americans. The ultimate achievement of the New South prophets and their allies, the Bourbons, was that they reconciled tradition with innovation. Their relative moderation in racial policy, at least before the 1890s, allowed them to embrace just enough of the new to disarm adversaries and keep control. By promoting the growth of industry, the Bourbons led the South into a new economic era, but without sacrificing a mythic reverence for the Old South. Bourbon rule left a permanent mark on the South.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

ch. 19, Summary: allowed separate but equal doctrine due to poor wording in the 14th amendment that allowed states to create that system Excerpt: The Court held, with only one dissent, that the force of federal law could not extend to individual action because the Fourteenth Amendment, which provided that "no State" could deny citizens equal protection of the law, stood as a prohibition only against state action. This interpretation left as an open question the validity of state laws requiring separate racial facilities under the rubric of "separate but equal," a slogan popular with the New South prophets. In 1881 Tennessee had required railroads in the state to maintain separate first-class railcars for blacks and whites. In 1888 Mississippi went a step further by requiring passengers to occupy the car set aside for their race. When Louisiana followed suit in 1890, dissidents challenged the law in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson, which the Supreme Court decided in 1896. Very soon the principle of racial segregation extended to every area of southern life, including streetcars, hotels, restaurants, hospitals, recreation, sports, and employment. In 1900 the editor of the Richmond Times expressed the prevailing view:

Benjamin "Pap" Singleton

ch. 19, Summary: established the black community of Dunlop (1000s of blacks joined), led to migration of blacks to the west which ended in 1880s, went to kansas Excerpt: The foremost promoter of black migration to the West was Benjamin "Pap" Singleton. Born a slave in Tennessee in 1809, he escaped and settled in Detroit. After the Civil War he returned to Tennessee, convinced that God was calling him to rescue his brethren. When Singleton learned that land in Kansas could be had for $1.25 an acre, he led his first party of 200 colonists to Kansas in 1878, bought 7,500 acres that had been an Indian reservation, and established the Dunlop community Over the next several years, thousands of African Americans followed Singleton into Kansas, leading many southern leaders to worry about the loss of laborers in the region. In 1879 whites closed access to the Mississippi River and threatened to sink all boats carrying black colonists to the West. An army officer reported to President Rutherford B. Hayes that "every river landing is blockaded by white enemies of the colored exodus; some of whom are mounted and armed, as if we are at war."

Booker T. Washington

ch. 19, Summary: founded tuskegee institute, argued blacks should establish economic base for advancement before equality, Up from Slavery speech, atlanta compromise Excerpt: went on to build at Tuskegee, Alabama, a leading college for African Americans. By the 1890s Washington had become the foremost black educator in the nation. He argued that blacks should first establish an economic base for their advancement before striving for social equality.

George Custer (1874)

ch. 19, Summary: led an attack against the Sioux, led to The Great Sioux War (largest military event since the end of the Civil War), 15 month war with initial loss by americans but then americans won and forced Sioux onto reservations on which many died due to harsh conditions Excerpt: Meanwhile, trouble was brewing again in the north. In 1874 Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer, a reckless, glory-seeking officer, led an exploratory expedition into the Black Hills, accompanied by gold seekers. Miners were soon filtering into the Sioux hunting grounds despite promises that the army would keep them out. What became the Great Sioux War was the largest military event since the end of the Civil War and one of the largest campaigns against Indians in American history. The war lasted fifteen months and entailed fifteen battles in a vast area of present-day Wyoming, Montana, South Dakota, and Nebraska. In 1876, after several indecisive encounters, Custer found the main encampment of Sioux and their Northern Cheyenne allies on the Little Bighorn River. Separated from the main body of soldiers and surrounded by 2,500 warriors, Custer's detachment of 210 men was annihilated. Forced onto reservations situated on the least valuable land in the region, the Indians soon found themselves struggling to subsist under harsh conditions. Many of them died of starvation or disease.

Tenant system

ch. 19, Summary: reestablished slavery in the states post- civil war with tenants being screwed over by landlords Excerpt: Tenant farmers, hardly better off, might have their own mule, plow, and line of credit with the country store. They were entitled to claim a larger share of the crops. The sharecropper-tenant system was horribly inefficient and corrupting. It was in essence a post- Civil War version of land slavery. Tenants and landowners developed an intense suspicion of each other. Landlords often swindled the farm workers by not giving them their fair share of the crops.

The Duke Family

ch. 19, Summary: the dukes expanded the tobacco industry, they undersold their competitors and monopolized it until the government abolished it Excerpt: By 1872 the Dukes had a factory producing 125,000 pounds of tobacco annually, and Washington Duke prepared to settle down and enjoy success. His son Buck (James Buchanan Duke) wanted even greater success, however. He recognized that the tobacco industry was "half smoke and half ballyhoo," so he poured large sums into advertising schemes. Duke also undersold competitors in their own markets and cornered the supply of ingredients. Eventually his competitors agreed to join forces, and in 1890 Duke brought most of them into the American Tobacco Company, which controlled nine tenths of the nation's cigarette production and, by 1904, about three fourths of all tobacco production. In 1911 the Supreme Court ruled that the company was in violation of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act and ordered it broken up, but by then Duke had found new worlds to conquer, in hydroelectric power and aluminum.

Eugene Debs

ch. 20 Summary: leader of the social democratic party, organized the party from the remnants of the american railway union Excerpt: The movement gained little notice before the rise of Daniel De Leon in the 1890s. As editor of a Marxist newspaper, The People, he became the dominant figure in the Socialist Labor party. He proposed to organize industrial unions with a socialist purpose and to build a political party that would abolish the government once it gained power, after which the unions of the Socialist Trade and Labor Alliance, formed under his supervision, would become the units of control. De Leon preached revolution at the ballot box, not by violence Eugene Debs was more successful than De Leon at building a socialist movement in America, however. In 1897 Debs announced that he was a 774 • BIG BUSINESS AND ORGANIZED LABOR (CH. 20) Eugene V. Debs Founder of the American Railway Union and later candidate for president as head of the Socialist Party of America. socialist and organized the Social Democratic party from the remnants of the American Railway Union; he got over 96,000 votes as its candidate for president in 1900. The next year his followers joined a number of secessionists from De Leon's party to set up the Socialist Party of America. In 1904 Debs polled over 400,000 votes as the party's candidate for president and in 1912 more than doubled that, to more than 900,000 votes, or 6 percent of the popular vote. In 1910 Milwaukee elected a socialist mayor and congressman. By 1912 the Socialist party seemed well on the way to

IWW

ch. 20, Summary: designed to be 1 big union, mining and lumber camps in the west Excerpts: But the IWW waged class war better than it articulated class ideology. Like the Knights of Labor, it was designed to be "one big union," including all workers, skilled or unskilled. . Its roots were in the mining and lumber camps of the West, where unstable conditions of employment created a large number of nomadic workers, to whom neither the AFL's pragmatic approach nor the socialists' political appeal held much attraction The revolutionary goal of the Wobblies, as they came to be called, was an idea labeled syndicalism by Labor Conditions and Organization • 775 776 • BIG BUSINESS AND ORGANIZED LABOR (CH. 20) its French supporters: the ultimate destruction of the government and its replacement by one big union. But just how that union would govern remained vague. Like other radical groups the IWW was split by sectarian disputes. Because of policy disagreements all the major founders withdrew, first the Western Federation of Miners, then Debs, then De Leon.

Daniel De Leon

ch. 20, Summary: editor of marxists newspaper The People, argued organize unions to abolish gov. and create socialist gov., preached revolution by voting Excerpt: The movement gained little notice before the rise of Daniel De Leon in the 1890s. As editor of a Marxist newspaper, The People, he became the dominant figure in the Socialist Labor party. He proposed to organize industrial unions with a socialist purpose and to build a political party that would abolish the government once it gained power, after which the unions of the Socialist Trade and Labor Alliance, formed under his supervision, would become the units of control. De Leon preached revolution at the ballot box, not by violence

socialists

ch. 20, Summary: gained popularity, yet divided by Eugene Debs Excerpt: The movement gained little notice before the rise of Daniel De Leon in the 1890s. As editor of a Marxist newspaper, The People, he became the dominant figure in the Socialist Labor party. He proposed to organize industrial unions with a socialist purpose and to build a political party that would abolish the government once it gained power, after which the unions of the Socialist Trade and Labor Alliance, formed under his supervision, would become the units of control. De Leon preached revolution at the ballot box, not by violence Eugene Debs was more successful than De Leon at building a socialist movement in America, however. In 1897 Debs announced that he was a 774 • BIG BUSINESS AND ORGANIZED LABOR (CH. 20) Eugene V. Debs Founder of the American Railway Union and later candidate for president as head of the Socialist Party of America. socialist and organized the Social Democratic party from the remnants of the American Railway Union; he got over 96,000 votes as its candidate for president in 1900. The next year his followers joined a number of secessionists from De Leon's party to set up the Socialist Party of America. In 1904 Debs polled over 400,000 votes as the party's candidate for president and in 1912 more than doubled that, to more than 900,000 votes, or 6 percent of the popular vote. In 1910 Milwaukee elected a socialist mayor and congressman. By 1912 the Socialist party seemed well on the way to becoming a permanent fixture in American politics...It would be wracked by disagreements over America's participation in World War I and was split thereafter by desertions to the new Communist party

wobblies

ch. 20, Summary: tried to revive unionism, led by IWW (Industrial workers of the world), wanted to destroy government, create a union government Excerpt: During the years of Socialist party growth, a parallel effort to revive industrial unionism emerged, led by the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). The chief base for this group was the Western Federation of Miners, organized at Butte, Montana, in 1893. Over the next decade the Western Federation was the storm center of violent confrontations with unyielding mine operators who mobilized private armies against it in Colorado, Idaho, and elsewhere. In 1905 the founding convention of the IWW drew a variety of delegates who opposed the AFL's philosophy of organizing unions made up only of skilled workers. Eugene Debs participated, although many of his comrades preferred to work within the AFL. Daniel De Leon seized this chance to strike back at craft unionism. He argued that the IWW "must be founded on the class struggle" and "the irrepressible conflict between the capitalist class and the working class. The revolutionary goal of the Wobblies, as they came to be called, was an idea labeled syndicalism by Labor Conditions and its French supporters: the ultimate destruction of the government and its replacement by one big union. But just how that union would govern remained vague. Like other radical groups the IWW was split by sectarian disputes. Because of policy disagreements all the major founders withdrew, first the Western Federation of Miners, then Debs, then De Leon. W

American Dream

not in T&S